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ESSENTIALS    IN    HISTORY 

NEW 

MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN 
HISTORY 

BY 

SAMUEL    BANNISTER    HARDING,   PH.D. 


Based  upon  the  author's  <f  Essentials  in  Mediaeval  and  Modern 
History  ' '  prepared  in  consultation  with 

ALBERT    BUSHNELL    HART,    LL.D. 

PROFESSOK    OF   GOVERNMENT,    HARVARD    UNIVERSITY 


AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 


02- 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 


ESSENTIALS  IN  HISTORY 

A    SERIES   PREPARED    UNDER   THE    SUPERVISION    OF 
ALBERT   BUSHNELL   HART,   LL.D. 

PROFESSOR  OF  GOVERNMENT,   HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 

ESSENTIALS   IN   ANCIENT  HISTORY 
Bv   ARTHUR   MAYER   WOLFSON,  PH  D. 

ESSENTIALS  IN  MEDIAEVAL   AND  MODERN 
HISTORY 

BY  SAMUEL  BANNISTER   HARDING,   PH  D. 

ESSENTIALS  IN  ENGLISH  HISTORY 

Bv  ALBERT  PERRY  WALKER,  A.M. 

ESSENTIALS  IN  AMERICAN   HISTORY 
BY  ALBERT  BUSHNELL  HART,   LL.D. 


NEW   MEDIEVAL   AND   MODERN   HISTORY 
Bv   SAMUEL  BANNISTER  HARDING,    PH  D. 


COPYRIGHT,  1913,  BY 

SAMUEL   BANNISTER   HARDING. 

COPYRIGHT,  1913,  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


NEW    MED.    &    MOD.    HIST. 

w.  p.    3 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  something  more  than  a  revision  of  the  author's 
Essentials  in  Medieval  and  Modern  History.  As  the  task  of 
revision  progressed,  its  scope  was  so  enlarged  that,  by  reorgan- 
ization, extension,  and  rewriting,  the  result  became  practically  a 
new  work.  It  has  been  deemed  best,  therefore,  to  give  to  the 
book  a  distinctive  name,  and  at  the  same  time  to  continue  the 
publication  of  the  old  volume.  In  general  the  aim  in  this  book 
has  been  to  decrease  the  amount  of  space  devoted  to  political 
and  military  details,  and  to  increase  the  emphasis  on  social, 
industrial,  and  cultural  topics.  Full  treatment  also  is  given  to 
the  important  events  which  have  occurred  since  the  Essentials 
in  Medieval  and  Modern  History  was  first  published.  Instead 
of  treating  these  in  a  supplementary  chapter,  they  have  been 
woven,  so  far  as  practical,  into  their  logical  places  in  the  narra- 
tive. In  conformity  with  what  is  now  the  established  tendency, 
greater  emphasis  has  been  put  on  the  events  of  our  own  time 
than  on  those  of  former  ages.  It  is  now  generally  recognized 
that  a  leading  aim  of  the  study  of  history  is  to  enable  one  to 
understand  the  world  of  to-day. 

Profuse  and  adequate  illustrations  and  maps  are  inserted  in 
proper  relation  to  the  text.  It  is  believed  that  the  breaking 
up  of  the  chapters  into  lettered  subdivisions  will  facilitate  the 
assignment  of  lessons,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  new  teaching 
apparatus  will  prove  especially  useful.  A  table  of  rulers  is 
inserted  at  the  beginning  of  the  volume  for  convenience  of  refer- 
ence ;  lists  of  important  dates  follow  the  several  chapters ;  and 
in  connection  with  each  search  topic  a  few  carefully  selected  ref- 
erences are  printed  to  guide  the  pupil  in  his  collateral  reading. 

No  pains  have  been  spared  to  adapt  the  book  to  the  needs 
of  the  schools  and  to  the  powers  of  the  pupils.  The  success 

iii 

6881 53 


IV  PREFACE 

which  has  been  attained  in  this  endeavor  is  due  in  very  large 
part  to  the  patient  cooperation  of  a  number  of  expert  teachers. 
To  Miss  Margaret  Snodgrass,  of  Lake  View  High  School  (Chi- 
cago), the  author  is  indebted  for  very  efficient  collaboration  in 
the  whole  task  of  revising  and  rewriting  the  book,  and  in  read- 
ing the  proof.  Miss  Josephine  M.  Cox,  of  Shortridge  High 
School  (Indianapolis),  Miss  Mattie  B.  Lacy,  of  Manual  Training 
High  School  (Indianapolis),  and  Miss  Mabel  Ryan,  of  Garfield 
High  School  (Terre  Haute),  each  read  the  manuscript  at  two 
different  stages,  and  went  over  it  with  the  author  in  repeated 
joint  conferences.  In  addition,  Mr.  F.  P.  Goodwin,  of  the 
Woodward  High  School  (Cincinnati),  Mr.  E.  M.  Benedict,  of 
the  Walnut  Hills  High  School  (Cincinnati),  and  Mr.  F.  F.  Herr, 
of  the  Youngstown  (Ohio)  High  School,  carefully  read  the  man- 
uscript and  offered  many  valuable  suggestions,  the  outgrowth 
of  their  wide  experience  as  teachers.  Finally  the  author  is 
indebted  to  Messrs.  Scott,  Foresman  &  Company,  of  Chicago, 
for  permission  to  incorporate  in  this  text  certain  passages  from 
his  grade  readers,  entitled  The  Story  of  the  Middle  Ages,  The 
Story  of  England,  and  The  Story  of  Europe,  published  by  them. 
To  all  of  these  persons,  and  to  others  who  are  not  here  named, 
the  author  makes  grateful  acknowledgment. 

The  following  suggestions  are  offered  concerning  the  teaching 
of  the  subject:  — 

1.  Make  sure,  the  author  would  urge,  that  the  pupil  under- 
stands what  he  reads  and  recites,  and  lead  him  to  penetrate  back 
of  the  narrative  to  the  things  themselves,  —  to  realize,  visualize 
history      The  simplest  words  and  expressions  sometimes  prove 
difficult ;  and  it  is  always  desirable  to  lead  the  pupil  away  from 
the  language  of  the  book  to  his  own  expression. 

2.  Require  the  keeping  of  notebooks  for  class  notes  and  dicta- 
tions, for  collateral  reading,  and  for  analyses  by  the  pupil  of 
chapters  in  the  text. 

3.  Use  should  be  made  of  text-  and  wall-maps  in  the  prepara- 
tion and  recitation  of  lessons  ;  and  from  time  to  time  the  teacher 
should  require  the  filling  in  of  outline  maps,  for  different  epochs, 
showing  physical  features,  towns,  battles,  boundaries,  etc.     Un- 


PREFACE  V 

localized  knowledge  in  history  is  nebulous  knowledge ;  and  in 
map  work  the  principle  of  "  learning  by  doing  "  is  indispensable. 
Excellent  outline  maps  are  published  by  the  McKinley  Publishing 
Co.,  Philadelphia. 

4.  The  memorizing  of  a  mass  of  unrelated  dates  is  not  ad- 
vised, though  a  sufficient  number  of  dates  must  be  mastered  to 
serve  as  landmarks.     Rather  exercise  the  pupils  in  grasping  the 
sequence  and  other  time  relations  of  events,  —  drilling  them, 
for  example,  in  estimating  the  distance  in  time  between  events 
in  the  same  and  in  different  series. 

5.  Pictures  of  historical  places,  things,  and-  persons  greatly 
aid  instruction.     Collections  of  these  may  easily  be  made  from 
old  magazines  and  similar  sources,  and  should  be  mounted  on 
uniform  sheets  of  cardboard  and  classified.     Older  pupils  can 
usually  assist  in  the  making  and  keeping  of  such  a  collection. 

All  this  is  presented  merely  as  suggestion,  not  dogmatically. 
If  the  teacher  is  really  a  teacher,  knows  his  subject  and  loves  to 
teach  it,  like  Sentimental  Tommy  he  will  surely  "find  a  way." 
The  only  fair  test,  for  teacher  and  book  alike,  is  the  test  by 
results. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 1 

Geographical  Basis  of  European  History — Sources  and  Pe- 
riods of  History — Review  of  Ancient  History — The  Beginning 
of  the  Middle  Ages  — The  World  at  the  Close  of  the  Eighth 
Century. 

THE    HEIGHT    OF   THE    MIDDLE   AGES 

CHAPTER  I.    THE  EMPIRE  OF   CHARLEMAGNE  AND  ITS  DISSOLU- 
TION         .27 

Charlemagne's  Wars  and  Government  (768-814)  —  Education  and 

Arts  under  Charlemagne —  Dissolution  of  Charlemagne's  Empire. 
CHAPTER  II.     RAIDS  AND  SETTLEMENTS  OF  THE  NORTHMEN         .      44 

On  the  Continent  —  King  Alfred  and  the  Northmen  in  England. 
CHAPTER  III.     THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM 53 

Origins  —  Feudalism  as  a  Working  System. 
CHAPTER  IV.     THE  NORMAN  CONQUESTS         .         .        .        .        .68 

The  Normans  at  Home  and  in  Italy — The  Norman  Conquest 

of  England. 
CHAPTER  V.     THE  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH 79 

Some     General    Features — The     Church    Organization  —  The 

"  Regular  "  Clergy. 
CHAPTER  VI.     EMPIRE  AND  PAPACY  :  THE  INVESTITURE  CONFLICT      99 

The  Revival  of  the  Empire  —  The  Investiture  Conflict. 
CHAPTER  VII.     EMPIRE  AND  PAPACY:  FALL  OF  THE  HOHENSTAU- 

FENS 113 

Guelf    and    Ghibelline  —  Frederick    Barbarossa,    the     Papacy, 

and  the  Italian  Communes — Frederick  II,  and  the  Fall  of  the 

Hohenstaufens. 
CHAPTER  VIII.    THE  CRUSADES 132 

The  Christian  and  Mohammedan  East — The  First  Crusade  — 

The  Conquests  Organized  —  The  Later  Crusades  —  Results  of 

the  Crusades. 


CONTENTS  vii 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  IX.     LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 160 

Life  of  the  Nobles — Life  of  the  Peasants — Medieval  Cities 

and  Commerce. 
CHAPTER  X.     THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES       .        .        .     188 

Universities    and    Learning — 'Heresy    and    its    Suppression  — 

Literature  and  Art  —  General  Character  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
CHAPTER  XL     ENGLAND  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES      .        .        .        .    211 

The  Norman  and  Plantagenet  Kings  —  The  Rise  of  Parliament. 
CHAPTER  XII.     THE  GROWTH  OF  FRANCE  (987-1337)    .        .        .227 

Louis  VI  and   Philip   Augustus  —  Louis  IX  (Saint  Louis)  and 

Philip  IV  — Accession  of  the  Valois  Kings  (1328). 


RENAISSANCE   AND    REFORMATION 

CHAPTER  XIII.    THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR  (1337-1453)    .        .    241 
Origin  of  the  War— First  Period  of  the  War  (1337-1360)  — 
Second  Period  (1369-1380)  —  Third  Period  (1415-1453). 

CHAPTER  XIV.     EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  THE  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES    260 
Rise    of    the    Modern    State  —  France    and    Burgundy  —  Ger- 
many after  the  Interregnum  —  England  after  the  Black  Death 
—  The  Rise  of  Spain  —  Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

CHAPTER  XV.    THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH 

CENTURIES 288 

The  Babylonian  Captivity  and  Great  Schism  —  The  Great  Church 
Councils — Papal  Decline  and  Local  Reforms. 

CHAPTER  XVI.     THE  ITALIAN  CITIES  AND  THE  RENAISSANCE      .    299 
Italy  in  the  Time  of  the  Renaissance  —  The  Revival  of  Learn- 
ing—  Revival  of  the  Fine  Arts — Spread  of  the  Renaissance. 

CHAPTER  XVII.    THE  GERMAN  REFORMATION        ....    321 
The  Reformation  Prepared  —  The  Reformation  Begun —  Spread 
of  the  Reformation  —  The  Reformation  Checked. 

CHAPTER  XVIII.    THE  REFORMATION  IN  SWITZERLAND  AND  GREAT 

BRITAIN,  AND  THE  COUNTER-REFORMATION       .        .        .    340 
The  Reformation  in  Switzerland — The   Reformation   in  Great 
Britain — The    Counter- Reformation  —  Summary   View   of   the 
Reformation. 

CHAPTER  XIX.     THE  PERIOD  OF  RELIGIOUS  WARS  (1562-1648)    .     360 
The  Huguenot  Wars  in  France — The  Revolt  of  the  Nether- 
lands—The   Thirty    Years'    War   (1618-1648)  —  Germany  and 
Spain  after  the  Religious  Wars. 


viii  CONTENTS 

THE  OLD    REGIME   AND   THE   FRENCH    REVO- 
LUTION 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XX.    THE  AGE  OF  Louis  XIV 383 

The  Government  of  France — Wars  of  Louis  XIV — Social 
Conditions  and  Culture. 

CHAPTER  XXI.     CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND  .        .    403 
Conflicts  between  King  and  Parliament  (1603-1642)  —  The  Great 
Civil  War  (1642-1649) — The  Commonwealth  and  Protectorate 
(1649-1660)  —  The  Restored  Stuarts  and  the  Revolution  of  1688 
— •  Strengthening  Constitutional  Government. 

CHAPTER  XXII.     THE  RISE  OF  RUSSIA  AND  PRUSSIA    .        .        .    431 
Rise  of  Russia  and  Decline  of  Sweden —  The  Rise  of  Prussia. 

CHAPTER  XXIII.    WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN  RIVALRY  (1715- 

1789) 443 

Prussia  under  Frederick  the  Great — •  The  Founding  of  the  British 
Empire  — The  Partitions  of  Poland. 

CHAPTER  XXIV.     THE  EVE  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION    .        .     467 
The  Old  Regime  in  Europe — The  Spirit  of  Reform — •  Reforms 
of  the   "  Enlightened   Despots "  —  France   on   the   Eve   of  the 
Revolution. 

CHAPTER  XXV.     THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  (1789-1795)       .        .     485 
The  Estates-General  of  1789  — The  National  Assembly  (1789- 
1791)  — A  Republic   Established   (1791-1793)  —  The   Reign  of 
Terror — The  Directory  Established. 

CHAPTER  XXVI.     THE   RISE  OF  NAPOLEON    BONAPARTE    (1795- 

1804)       . 514 

Early  Life  and  the  Italian  Campaign — 'The  Expedition  to 
Egypt  (1798-1799)— Bonaparte  as  First  Consul  (1799-1804)  — 
The  Empire  Established  (1804). 

CHAPTER  XXVIL     THE  NAPOLEONIC  EMPIRE  (1804-1815)     .        .     527 
Ulm,    Austerlitz,   and   Jena    (1803-1807)  —  Reconstruction    of 
Europe  by  Napoleon — 'The  Peninsular  War  and   the    Russian 
Campaign  —  Downfall  of  Napoleon  —  The  Congress  of  Vienna. 


THE    AGE   OF   PROGRESS 

CHAPTER  XXVIII.     THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION        .        .        .550 
Changes  in  Agriculture  and  Transportation — The  New  Inven- 
tions —  Factory  System,  Canals,  and  Railways  —  Effects  of  the 
Industrial  Revolution. 


CONTENTS  ix 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XXIX.     POLITICAL   REACTION   AND  THE   REVOLUTIONS 

OF  1830 567 

Europe  under  Metternich's  System  —  The  Restored  Bourbons 
in  France  —  The  Revolutions  of  1830. 

CHAPTER  XXX.     FRANCE:   THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848,  THE  SEC- 
OND FRENCH  EMPIRE,  AND  THE  THIRD  REPUBLIC    .        .    578 
The    French    Revolution    of   1848  —  Louis    Napoleon   and    the 
Second  French  Empire  — The  Third  French  Republic  (to  1900). 

CHAPTER  XXXI.     THE  AUSTRIAN  REVOLUTION  OF  1848,  AND  THE 

UNIFICATION  OF  .ITALY 601 

The  Revolution  of  1848  in  the  Austrian  Empire  —  The  Dis- 
union of  Italy,  and  the  Revolution  of  1848  —  The  Attainment  of 
Italian  Unity  (1849-1870). 

CHAPTER  XXXII.     THE  UNIFICATION  OF  GERMANY       .        .        .    620 
The  Revolution  of  1848  in  Germany — Bismarck  and  the  War 
with    Austria   (1861-1866)  — The    Franco-Prussian  War   (1870- 
1871)  — The  New  German  Empire. 

CHAPTER  XXXIII.     GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CEN- 
TURY        638 

Political  and  Social  Reforms  —  Gladstone  and  Irish  Questions 
—  The  British  Constitution  —  The  British  Colonial  Empire. 

CHAPTER  XXXIV.     THE  EASTERN  QUESTION  AND  THE  PARTITION 

OF  AFRICA 675 

Armed  Peace  among  European  Powers  —  The  Eastern  Ques- 
tion—  The  Partition  of  Africa. 

CHAPTER  XXXV.      AWAKENING    OF    THE   FAR    EAST,    AND    THE 

RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR .        .    694 

The  Awakening  of  China  and  Japan — Russia  after  the  Cri- 
mean War  — The  Russo-Japanese  War  (1904-1905). 

CHAPTER  XXXVI.     A  WORLD  IN  REVOLUTION       ....     707 
The   Overthrow   of  Absolute    Governments  —  Changes    in   the 
States    of    Continental    Europe  —  Recent    Changes    in    Great 
Britain  —  The  Hague  Peace   Conferences  and  the  New  Inter- 
nationalism. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII.     SCIENCE  AND  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION    .        .    737 
The    Advance    of    Science — Popular  Government    and    Social 
Justice  —  The  Spread  of  Socialism. 

APPENDIX :    LIST  OF   BOOKS    SUITABLE   FOR  A   HIGH    SCHOOL 

LIBRARY 1 

INDEX  .  5 


MAPS,    ILLUSTRATIONS,    AND    TABLES 


MAPS 


Physical  Map  of  Europe  (col- 
ored]   2,  3 

Roman  Empire,  376  A.D.,  and 
Germanic  Migrations  (col- 
ored]   14 

Conquests  of  the  Mohamme- 
dans, 632-750  A.D.  ...  17 

Growth  of  the  Frankish  King- 
dom, 481-814  A.D.  ...  20 

The  Known  World  in  800       .       22 

Europe  in  the  Time  of  Char- 
lemagne (768-814)  (colored]  28,  29 

Partition  of  Verdun  (843)  .     .       40 

England  after  the  Treaty  of 
Wedmore  (878)  ....  49 

Possessions  of  the  Count  of 
Champagne  (12th  Century)  59 

Norman  Conquests  in  Italy    .       69 

Mohammedans,  Christians, 
and  Pagans  about  600-814, 
and  about  1100  (colored]  .  .  78 

Medieval  Monasteries^  Bish- 
oprics, and  Archbishoprics 
(colored] 86 

Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages       .       91 

Holy  RomanEmpire  in  the  10th 
and  llth  Centuries  (colored]  98 

Territories  of  the  Countess 
Matilda 106 

Lombard  and  Tuscan  Leagues     118 

Europe  about  the  Time  of  the 
First  Crusade  (1097)  (col- 
ored]   130,  131 

Crusaders'  States  in  Syria       .     146 

Saladin's  Empire,  and  Results 
of  the  Fourth  Crusade  .  .  152 

Medieval  Commerce  and  Tex- 
tile Industries  (colored]  180,  181 

Chief  Universities  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  191 

English  Possessions  in  France, 
1180-1429  (colored]  ...  240 

States  of  the  Empire  in  1477 
(colored]  .....  258,  259 

Growth  of  the  Swiss  Confed- 
eration   271 

Spanish  States,  1266-1492      .     282 

Spread  of  Printing     ....     316 

Extent  of  the  Protestant  Move- 
ment in  Germany,  1555  .  .  335 


Europe  in  1556  (colored]  338,  339 
The  Netherlands  about  1650  .  368 
Territorial  Gains  in  the  Peace 

of  Westphalia  (colored]    .     .     377 
France :  Acquisitions  of  Louis 

XIV 388 

Territorial  Gains  of  the  War 

of  the  Spanish  Succession  .     394 
England    in    the    Civil    War 

(1642) 413 

Russia:    Conquests    of   Peter 

the  Great 432 

Growth       of       Brandenburg- 
Prussia      438 

War  Districts,  1740-1763  (col- 
ored]       446 

Growth    of    British   Power   in 

India 457 

Partitions  of  Poland  ....     464 
Europe  in  1789  (colored]       482,  483 
War  Districts,  1788-1815  (col- 
ored]       508 

Battle  of  the  Nile       ....     519 
Battle  of  Trafalgar     ....     528 
Europe  at  the  Height  of  Na- 
poleon's Power  (1812)     .     .     535 
Napoleon's  Russian  Campaign     536 
Movements  Leading  to  Water- 
loo     540 

Europe  in  1815  (colored]  544,  545 
Railways  of  Europe  in  1900  .  562 

Suez  Canal 586 

The  Crimea 589 

Races     of      Austria- Hungary 

(colored] 602 

Growth  of  the   Italian   King- 
dom       612 

German  Zollverein,  1834-1854  621 
The  Modern  German  Empire 

(colored]     ....     .N    ..     631 
The   British   Empire   (colored] 

662,  663 

South  Africa 666 

Europe  after  1878  (colored]  .  674 
The  Balkan  States  (1878- 

1886) 679 

Territory     Conquered      from 

Turkey 684 

Africa  in  1913  (colored]  ...  686 
Asia  in  1905  (colored]  .  692,  693 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


XI 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Isabella  of  England  P^ntering 
Paris  to  visit  her  Brother 
Charles  IV  of  France  Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Great  St.  Bernard  Pass       .     .  5 

Prankish  Chief 19 

Carolingian  Warrior  ....  21 

Coronation  of  Charlemagne    .  31 

The  Emperor  Charlemagne    .  32 

Signature  of  Charlemagne       .  33 

Cathedral  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  .  37 
Royal   Palace  of   Carolingian 

Times 38 

Roasting  on  a  Spit     ....  39 

Remains  of  a  Viking  Ship       .  45 
Norse  Art :  Carved  Door  from 

an  Old  Church  in  Iceland  .  47 

Anglo-Saxon  Plow  Team   .     .  50 
Vassal  doing  Homage  to  his 

Lord 54 

Trial  by  Battle 62 

Warfare  in  the  12th  Century  .  63 
Ships  of  William  the  Conquer- 
or       72 

Death  of  Harold 72 

Statue  of  William  the  Con- 
queror    75 

Receiving  the  Tonsure       .     .  81 
Three    Sacraments :    Ordina- 
tion,     Marriage,      Extreme 

Unction 83 

Bishop  on  Throne     ....  87 

Benedictine  Monk     ....  93 

Monastery  of  St.  Gall     ...  94 

Ring  Seal  of  Otto  I  ....  100 

Seal  of  Henry  III  of  Germany  103 

Hildebrand  (Gregory  VII)      .  105 
Goslar,   Birthplace  of    Henry 

IV 108 

Pope  Gregory  VII,  Henry 
IV,  and  Countess  Matilda 

at  Canossa 109 

Ruins  of  Hohenstaufen       .     .  113 

Frederick  I       117 

Mail-clad  German  Horseman  .  119 

Seal  of  Frederick  II       ...  123 
Charles  of  Anjou  invested  by 
Clement  IV  with  the  Crown 

of  the  Two  Sicilies     .     .     .  127 

Fountain  at  Damascus   .     .     .  133 

Interior  of  Mosque,  Cordova  .  134 


Old  Arabian  Money  ....  135 

Pilgrim 137 

Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  138 

Crusader 141 

Hurling  Machine 145 

Knight  Templar 147 

Fortress  of  the  Knights  Hos- 
pitalers in  Syria      ....  148 
Present  View  of  Acre    .     .     .  150 

Movable  Tower 151 

St.  Mark's  Church,  Venice     .  153 

Shield  of  Richard  I   ....  156 

Castle  of  Arques 161 

Chateau  Gaillard 162 

Falconry 166 

French  Noble,  14th  Century  .  167 
Plan  of  a  Village  with  Open 

Fields 171 

Plowing,  Breaking  Clods,  Har- 
rowing, Reaping     ....  172 
A     Medieval     Italian     Town 

(Siena) 176 

Belfrey  of  Bruges       ....  178 

Venetian  Ships 183 

A  Medieval  Fair 184 

School  of  the  llth  Century     .  192 
Seal  of  Oxford  University       .  193 
Section  of  Old  St.  Peter's  .     .  202 
Section  and  Detail  of  Cathe- 
dral at  Amiens  ......  203 

Cathedral  at  Amiens      .       204,  206 

Grotesques  on  Notre  Dame    .  205 

Seal  of  Henry  II  of  England  213 
Battle  between  Knights  in  the 

13th  Century 217 

Portion  of  Magna  Carta      .     .  218 

Banner  of  Simon  de  Montfort  219 

Seal  of  Edward  I 220 

Seal  of  Philip  Augustus      .     .  229 

Paris  under  Philip  Augustus  .  230 

Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  .     .  231 

Statue  of  Saint  Louis     ...  232 

Genoese  Crossbowman       .     .  242 

English  Longbowman    .     .     .  243 

Battle  of  Crecy 245 

The  Black  Prince       ....  247 

Battle  of  Poitiers  .....  248 
Relief  of  Orleans  by  Joan  of 

Arc 254 

Entry    of    Charles    VII    into 

Paris     .  255 


Xll 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Louis  XI 263 

Mary  of  Burgundy     ....  264 

Maximilian  of  Austria    .     .     .  265 

Castle  Hapsburg 267 

Town  Hall  of  Frankfort     .     .  269 

Imperial  Arms 270 

John    Ball    and    the    English 

Rebels 274 

London    Bridge    in    the    16th 

Century 275 

John  Wyclif 276 

Mosque  of  St.  Sophia     ...  285 

Papal  Palace,  Avignon  .     .     .  289 
Pisa :    Baptistery,    Cathedral, 

and  Leaning  Tower  .     .     .  290 

Savonarola 296 

Florence  about  1490       ...  300 

Dante 304 

Petrarch 305 

Giotto's  Tower 310 

St.  Peter's  at  Rome   ....  311 

Michelangelo's  The  Thinker  .  312 

Raphael's  Sistine  Madonna    .  314 

Erasmus 317 

Luther 322 

Wittenberg  in  1645    ....  325 
Charles  V,  Emperor       ...  327 
Luther's  Room  in  the  Wart- 
burg      329 

John  Calvin 342 

Armor  of  Henry  VIII    ...  345 
Great  Seal  of  Queen  Elizabeth  348 
Mary  Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots  350 
Cross  at  Monasterbrice,  Ire- 
land     .     .     .     ...     .     .  351 

Ignatius  Loyola 355 

Beginning    of    the    Edict    of 

Nantes 363 

Henry  IV  of  France       ...  364 

Richelieu 365 

William  the  Silent     ....  369 
Beginning   of   the    Bohemian 

Revolt 373 

Musketeer     of     the     Thirty 

Years'  War  ......  374 

Gustavus  Adolphus    ....  374 

Louis  XIV 382 

Lettre  de  Cachet 386 

Soldier  of  Louis  XIV    .     .     .  389 
Costume  of  Nobleman  in  the 

Time  of  Louis  XIV    ...  397 
Palace   and   Gardens  of  Ver- 
sailles  .     .  398 


PAGE 

Charles  I  of  England      .     .     .  .406 
Execution  of  the  Earl  of  Straf- 

ford 410 

Oliver  Cromwell 414 

Woman's   Dress   in    Court  of 

Charles  II 419 

The  Flight  of  James  II       .     .  423 

Peter  the  Great 433 

Giant    Soldier    of    Frederick 

William 440 

Frederick  the  Great       .     .     .  444 

Maria  Theresa 445 

Woman's   Dress   in   Court  of 

Louis  XV 449 

Voltaire 471 

Rousseau 472 

Turgot 480 

Oath  of  the  Tennis  Court  .     .  487 

Mirabeau      ......  488 

The  Bastille  (restored)  .     .     .  489 
The  Jacobin  Club      .     .      496,  497 

Danton 498 

Robespierre 499 

The  Guillotine 501 

Bonaparte  in  1795      ....  515 

Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  523 

Throne  of  Napoleon       .     .     .  524 

Vendome  Column,  Paris     .     .  529 

Napoleon  as  Emperor    .     .     .  530 

Talleyrand 539 

Spinning  Wheel 554 

Spinning  Jenny 555 

Early  Pumping  Steam  Engine  558 

Early  Locomotive      ....  561 

Metternich 567 

Louis  Philippe 575 

Caricature  of  Louis  Philippe  .  579 

Napoleon  III    .     .     . '   .     .     .  585 

Caricature  of  Napoleon  III    .  591 

The  Louvre  and  Tuileries       .  594 
Facade    of    the    Chamber    of 

Deputies,  Paris 596 

Kossuth 604 

Parliament  Buildings  of  Hun- 
gary at  Budapest    .     .'    .     .  606 

Mazzini 608 

Garibaldi 609 

Cavour 610 

Pius  IX 611 

Victor  Emmanuel  II       ...  616 

Bismarck 624 

William  I  of  Germany    .     .     .  627 

Reichstag  Building,  Berlin      .  632 


TABLES   OF   RULERS  xiii 


William  II  of  Germany       .     .  634  Young    Turks    marching    on 

Queen  Victoria  in  1837       .     .  640           Constantinople 712 

Gladstone 649  Mohammed  V  returning  from 

Queen  Victoria  in  1897       .     .  653  taking  the  Oath  of  Office    .     713 

Houses  of  Parliament,  West-  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen 716 

minster,  England    ....  657       Yuan  Shih  Kai 717 

Interior  of  House  of  Commons  659  Demonstration    by    Catholics 

Turkish  Soldier,  1877     ...  678           in  Paris 722 

Bulgarian  Infantry  in  Trenches  Part     of     the     Revolutionary 

before  Adrianople  (1913)     .  683  Forces  in  Lisbon  ....     724 

Uganda  Railroad,  Africa    .     .  689  Lloyd    George    speaking    on 

Japanese  Soldier 696  Welsh  Disestablishment      .     730 

Empress  Dowager  of  China   .  698       Darwin 738 

Cossack 702  Zeppelin  Airship  .....     742 

Revolutionary  Demonstration  Aeroplane 743 

in  St.  Petersburg    ....  708 


TABLES   OF   RULERS 

PAGE 

GENERAL  TABLE  OF  RULERS xiv,  xv,  xvi 

DESCENDANTS  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 42 

GERMANY: 

Saxon  and  Franeonian  (or  Salian)  Kings 100 

Houses  of  Welf  and  Hohenstaufen 115 

Genealogy  of  Charles  V .     283 

FRANCE : 

Direct  Capetian  Line 227,  237 

House  of  Valois     .'....,....     237,  363 

Line  of  Francis  I 360 

Relationship  of  Capetian,  Valois,  and  Bourbon  Lines  .         .         .     363 

ENGLAND: 

Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York .  279 

House  of  Tudor     .' 349 

House  of  Stuart,  and  Early  Hanoverians 426 

Later  Hanoverians  (Descendants  of  George  III)          .         .         .  639 

SPAIN  : 

Genealogy  of  Emperor  Charles  V 283 

Spanish  Hapsburgs,  and  First  Spanish  Bourbon  .         .         .     392 


So         W 

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449-802  Heptarchic  Period  (a 
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802-839  Egbert  (first  king  of  all 
land) 

871-900  Alfred  (the  Greats 

900-925  Edward  the  Elder 
925-940  Athelstan 
940-946  Edmund 
946-955  Edred 
955-959  Edwy 
959-975  Edgar 
975-979  Edward  the  Martyr 
979-1016  Ethelred  the  Redeless 

016  Edmund 
016-35  Canute  "j 
035-40  Harold  }•  Danish  ki 
040-42  Hardicanute  ) 
042-66  Edward  the  Confessor 
066  Harold 

NORMAN  LINE 
066-87  William  I  (the  Conquero 
087-1100  William  II  (Rufus) 

100—35  Henry  I 

135-54  Stephen  [Matilda  claima 
PLANTAGENET  LINE 
154-89  Henry  II 
189-99  Richard  I  (the  Lion-Hea 
199-1216  John 

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xvi 


MEDIEVAL  AND  MODERN  HISTORY 

INTRODUCTION 

A.   GEOGRAPHICAL  BASIS  OF  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

HISTORY  deals  very  largely  with  the  civilization  and  achieve- 
ments of  the  peoples  of  Europe.     The  origins  of  European  civi- 
lization are  to  be  sought  in  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  i.  Europe 
Euphrates   rivers  in  western  Asia,  and  in  the  valley  of  modern*6* 
the  Nile  in  northern  Africa.     This   ancient   civilization,  civilization 
however,    continued   to   develop   only   when   transplanted   to 
Europe.     India,  China,  and  Japan   possess  highly  developed 
civilizations  of  their  own,  but  these  have  had  little  influence 
on  the  West.     Modern  civilization  —  with  its  science,  its  man- 
ufactures, and  its   political  democracy  —  is  preeminently  the 
creation  of  Europe.     It  is  from  that  continent,  through  the 
agency  of  traders,  missionaries,  and  settlers,  that  modern  cul- 
ture has  spread  to  the  other  quarters  of  the  globe. 

One  reason  for  the  historical  importance  of  Europe  is  to  be 
found  in  its  geographical  advantages.  The  continent  extends 
from  about  36°  to  71°  north  latitude,  or  from  about  the  lati-  2.  General 
tude  of  Cape  Hatteras  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  [ 
States  to  that  of  northernmost  Alaska.  The  climate  raphy 
of  Europe,  however,  is  much  milder  than  that  of  the  eastern 
parts  of  North  America  and  of  Asia.  Its  coast  line  is  much 
broken  by  great  gulfs  and  peninsulas.  These  divide  the  land 
into  numerous  distinct  regions,  in  which  could  arise  independent 
communities,  protected  by  the  sea  and  yet  not  isolated.  The 
surface  of  the  continent  is  varied  by  short  mountain  ranges  and 
plains,  neither  of  which  have  the  vastness  of  those  of  Asia  and 
America.  Its  rainfall  is  generally  plentiful.  The  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  with  its  easily  navigable  waters,  unites  it  with 

i 


200       300       400        500 
I          I      Highlands 
1          1      Lowlands 


l.L.POATES,  ENSB'GCO. 


4  INTRODUCTION 

northern  Africa  and  western  Asia.  In  short,  the  position, 
structure,  and  climate  of  Europe  all  fitted  it  to  receive,  develop, 
and  spread  the  ancient  civilization  which  arose  in  Egypt  and 
western  Asia. 

The  continent  of  Europe  is  divided  into  three  distinct  parts, 
(i)  The  southern  portion  comprises  the  great  peninsulas  of 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Spain.  It  is  cut  off  from  the  central  mass  by 
an  almost  unbroken  mountain  chain,  formed  by  the  Pyrenees, 
the  Alps,  and  their  eastern  continuations.  (2)  North  of  this 
lies  a  central  land  mass,  stretching  east  and  west  across  the  con- 
tinent, which  broadens  out  in  the  east  to  form  the  great  plain 
of  Russia.  (3)  Beyond  this  lie  the  British  Isles  and  the  Scan- 
dinavian peninsula.  These  lands  are  separated  from  the  central 
portion  by  the  English  Channel,  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Baltic 
Sea,  which  is  a  sort  of  "secondary  Mediterranean." 

The  second  and  third  divisions  of  the  continent,  especially 
toward  the  east,  are  relatively  low.     They  consist  principally 
°f  "naked  plains  and  large  lakes,  exposed  to  the  freezing 
Physical,         influences   of   Asia   and   the   Arctic   Ocean."     The   first 
and  Military    division,  on  the  other  hand,  is  protected  by  mountains 
Geography,  51    from  the  freezing  winds  of  the  north  and  is  warmed  and 
freshened   by  rain-bearing    breezes   from    the   Mediterranean. 
It  bristles  with  peaks,  is  scalloped  with  gulfs,  and  is  furrowed  by 
numerous  rivers.     It  was  well  fitted  to  become  the  seat  of  the 
earliest  development  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  organized 
government  on  the  European  continent. 

The  central  mountain  system  of  Europe  is  the  Alps.     It  is 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  western  Alps  and  the  eastern. 
3.  Mountain   W  ^ne  western  Alps  (the  Alps  proper)  lie  in  the  form  of 
systems  of     an  arc  of  a  circle,  stretching  a  distance  of  348  miles  from 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa  to  Mount  St.  Goth'ard.    They  comprise 
three  series  of  parallel  ridges,  of  which  the  central  ridge,  with 
an  altitude  of  9000  to  15,000  feet,  is  the  highest.     The  western 
(or  northern)  ridge  is  the  lowest.     Mont  Blanc  (moN  blaNr), 
the  highest  peak  of  the  Alps  (15,781  feet),  is  the  loftiest  moun- 
tain in  Europe ;  it  is  higher  than  any  mountain  in  the  United 


GEOGRAPHICAL   BASIS   OF   EUROPEAN  HISTORY  5 

States,  excluding  Alaska.  Because  the  western  and  northern 
slopes  are  more  gradual,  the  Alps  are  more  easily  passable  by  an 
army  coming  from  the  west  or  north  into  Italy  than  from  Italy 
into  France  or  Germany.  The  chief  passes  in  the  western 
Alps  are  the  Simplon  Pass,  over  which  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
constructed  an  admirable  road  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century ;  the  Great  St.  Bernard',  which  in  spite  of  its 


GREAT  ST.  BERNARD  PASS 

The  building  is  the  Hospice,  where  for  many  centuries  devoted  monks  have  cared 
for  storm-bound  travelers,  sometimes  rescued  by  the  famous  St.  Bernard  dogs 

difficulties  was  used  successively  by  Charlemagne  (shar'le-man), 
the  Emperor  Frederick  I,  and  Napoleon;  and  the  Mont 
Cenis  (moN  se-ne') ,  which  was  long  the  favorite  pass  for  trav- 
elers going  from  France  into  Italy.  (2)  The  eastern  Alps 
stretch  from  Mount  St.  Gothard  to  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  are 
continued  along  its  eastern  coast.  Their  altitudes  are  lower 
than  those  of  the  western  Alps,  and  decline  as  they  approach  the 
Adriatic.  The  chief  route  over  these  mountains  is  the  Brenner 
Pass.  Because  it  is  the  lowest  pass  over  the  principal  chain, 
it  has  been  used  continuously  since  the  Roman  period,  and  in 
the  Middle  Ages  was  the  great  route  from  Italy  to  Germany. 


6  INTRODUCTION 

It  is  important  to  fix  in  mind  the  location  of  the  chief  mountain 
passes,  together  with  the  river  valleys  leading  to  and  from 
them.1  For  centuries  they  constituted  almost  the  only  practi- 
cable routes  for  armies,  envoys,  pilgrims,  and  traders,  between 
northern  Europe  and  the  fertile  plains  and  rich  cities  of  Italy. 

In  almost  every  direction  offshoots  radiate  from  the  central 
mountain  mass  of  the  Alps.  To  the  south  extend  the  Apen- 
nines, forming  the  Italian  peninsula.  To  the  west  are  the  Ce- 
vennes  (sa-ven')  of  southern  France.  To  the  north  appear  the 
Jura,  the  Vosges  (vozh) ,  the  Black  Forest,  and  other  mountains 
of  upper  Germany.  To  the  northeast  lie  the  mountains  which 
inclose  Bohemia,  and  the  sweeping  arc,  700  miles  long,  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountains.  To  the  southeast  are  the  wild  and  pre- 
cipitous heights  of  the  Balkans,  and  the  mountains  forming 
the  Grecian  peninsula.  Only  a  few  groups  of  mountains  in 
Europe  are  unconnected  with  this  central  mass.  The  chief 
of  these  are  the  Pyrenees,  which  form  a  solid  rampart  between 
France  and  the  Spanish  peninsula,  passable  for  armies  at  the 
eastern  and  western  ends  only.  The  Scandinavian  mountains, 
the  Scottish  Highlands,  the  Urals,  and  the  lofty  Caucasus  ridge, 
are  of  little  historical  importance. 

Three  important  rivers  rise  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mount 
St.  Gothard,  flow  in  different  directions,  and  empty  into  widely 
4.  River         separated  seas,     (i)  The  Rhine,  after  traversing  a  course  of 
systems  of      850  miles,  empties  into  the  North  Sea.     Its  chief  tributa- 
ries are  the  Moselle  (mo-zel')  and  the  Main.     The  Meuse 
(or  Maas),  which  flows  into  its  delta,  is  also  practically  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Rhine.     (2)  The  Rhone,  with  the  Saone   (son)  as 
tributary,  flows  into  the  western  Mediterranean.     (3)  The  Po, 
which  drains  the   northern   plain  of   Italy,  empties   into  the 
Adriatic  Sea.     The  Danube  River,  with  a  length  of  1600  miles, 
ranks   in   historical  importance    with  the    Rhine,  near  whose 
source  it  rises.     The  Rhine  and  Danube  together  form  an  al- 

1  In  recent  years  railway  tunnels  have  been  driven  through  the  Alps.  The  Mont 
Cenis  tunnel,  7^  miles  long,  was  completed  in  1871 ;  the  St.  Gothard,  9%  miles, 
in  1881 ;  the  Arlberg,  6%  miles,  in  1884;  and  the  Simplon,  12}^  miles,  in  1905. 


THE   SOURCES  AND   PERIODS  OF  HISTORY  7 

most  continuous  water  route  stretching  across  Europe  from 
the  North  Sea  to  the  Black  Sea.  Additional  streams  of  im- 
portance are  the  Garonne  (ga-ron'),  the  Loire  (Iwar),  and  the 
Seine  (san),  in  France ;  and  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the  Vis' tula, 
in  Germany.  The  Volga,  with  its  length  of  2100  miles,  is 
geographically  the  most  important  river  of  Europe;  but  his- 
torically it  counts  for  little,  because  of  its  location  in  the  vast 
plains  of  eastern  Russia. 

The  tendency  of  mountains  is  to  separate  neighboring  peoples ; 
of  rivers,  to  unite  them.  Physical  geography,  then,  would 
divide  Europe  into  the  following  sections :  Spain,  France  5. 
(or  Gaul)  to  the  Cevennes  Mountains,  the  British  Isles, 
the  Rhone-land,  the  Rhine-land,  Italy,  the  Balkan-land,  Europe 
the  Danube-land,  North  Germany,  Bohemia,  Russia,  and 
Scandinavia.  Each  of  these  twelve  regions  has  had  its  separate 
history.  Modern  political  divisions  to-day  follow  this  grouping 
with  sufficient  closeness  to  show  the  abiding  influence  of  physical 
geography  upon  history. 

B.  THE  SOURCES  AND  PERIODS  OF  HISTORY 

The  information  concerning  the  past  which  is  contained  in 
books  on  history  is  all  derived  from  various  historical  "sources" 
which  have  come  down  to  us.     The  extent  and  character  6  The 
of  these  sources  determine  in  large  part  whether  our  in-  "  sources  " 
formation  shall  be  full  and  trustworthy,  or  scanty  and  un-  of  histofy 
trustworthy.     In  general  we  may  say  that  all  historical  knowl- 
edge is  based  on  the  three  following  classes  of  sources :  — 

(1)  Material  remains,  such  as  buildings,  roads,  monuments, 
ruins,  coins,  old  weapons  and  tools,  household  furniture   and 
utensils,  armor,  clothing,  etc. 

(2)  Official  documents,  and  other  writings,  including  descrip- 
tions of  events  by  eye-  and  ear -witnesses.     In  this  class  should 
also  be  placed  photographs  of  persons  and  events,  and  pictorial 
representations  of  them  by  persons  who  were  in  a  position  per- 
sonally to  know  the  facts. 


8  INTRODUCTION 

(3)  Oral  and  written  traditions,  which  come  to  us  from  persons 
who  were  not  in  a  position  to  know  the  facts  at  first  hand,  but 
who  give  us  information  which  they  received  from  others. 

No  matter  how  important  an  event  may  have  been,  if  no 
trace  of  it  has  been  left  in  one  or  another  of  these  ways,  we 
can  have  no  knowledge  of  it.  For  the  Middle  Ages  our  sources, 
aside  from  material  remains,  consist  chiefly  of  the  follow- 
ing: "Annals"  and  "chronicles,"  in  which  men  (usually 
monks)  wrote  down  brief  accounts  of  the  events  of  their 
times ;  decrees  of  rulers  and  other  collections  of  laws ;  charters 
conveying  grants  of  lands  and  privileges;  a  few  letters  of 
kings,  Popes,  and  other  eminent  men;  lives  of  saints  and 
other  persons,  written  at  that  time;  and  account  books 
and  records  of  governments,  monasteries,  and  individual  land- 
lords. For  Modern  History  there  is  an  ever  increasing  flood 
of  parliamentary  and  congressional  debates,  statutes,  memoirs 
and  letters  of  statesmen  and  other  persons,  diaries,  daily  news- 
papers, etc. 

In  the  use  of  these  sources  great  care  must  be  taken.  We 
must  determine  (i)  that  each  is  what  it  seems  to  be,  and  (2) 
that  its  author  was  both  in  a  position  to  know  the  facts,  and 
that  he  had  no  interest  in  deceiving  us.  A  slow  and  careful 
process  of  sifting  and  comparison  is  necessary  to  separate  the 
truth  from  falsehood  and  error.  It  is  not  surprising  that  — 
as  new  materials  are  discovered  and  made  available  and  more 
careful  study  is  given  to  the  old  —  many  views  which  were 
formerly  held  are  shown  to  be  unfounded,  and  new  ones  take 
their  place. 

In  considering  the  division  of  history  into  periods,  we  should 

remember  that  the  development  of  human  society  has  been 

7.  Division     a  continuous  process.     History  may  be  thought  of  as  a 

of  history       ceaselessly  flowing  stream,  ever  widening  and  deepening 

its  course.     For  convenience  of  study,  we  divide  history 

into  more  or  less  artificial  periods.     Two  facts,  however,  should 

be  borne  in  mind  in  this  connection.     First,  changes  in  history, 

like  changes  of  the  seasons,  are  gradual,  each  period  merging 


THE   SOURCES  AND  PERIODS  OF  HISTORY  9 

into  the  next  as  imperceptibly  as  winter  into  spring.  Second, 
progress  does  not  take  place  with  equal  rapidity  in  all  fields. 
Now  artistic  activity,  now  scientific  thought,  now  industrial 
development,  now  political  organization,  forges  ahead,  while 
other  activities  lag  behind.  Now  one  nation  leads,  now  another. 
It  is  difficult,  therefore,  to  find  dates  as  division  points  which 
mark  important  changes  in  all  these  various  fields,  just  as  it  is 
difficult  to  divide  a  man's  life  exactly  into  periods  of  childhood, 
youth,  manhood,  and  old  age.  Nevertheless  the  divisions  mark 
real  and  important  differences,  and  for  practical  purposes  they 
are  necessary. 

The  term  "Middle  Ages"  is  used  to  cover  the  whole  period 
from  the  beginning  of  the  invasions  of  the  Roman  Empire  by  the 
Germans,  about  376  A.D.,  to  the  beginning  of  the  Protestant  8.  Scope  of 
Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century.  In  reality  three  this  book 
distinct  epochs  are  comprised  in  this  period,  (i)  From  about 
376  to  about  800  was  an  epoch  of  transition,  to  which  the  term 
"the  Dark  Age"  may  perhaps  be  applied.  This  was  the  time 
when  the  invading  Germans  and  the  subjects  of  the  Roman 
Empire  were  being  fused  into  one  people ;  and  when  the  remains 
of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization,  the  institutions  of  the  Ger- 
manic barbarians,  and  Christianity  were  combining  to  form  the 
culture  of  medieval  Europe.  (2)  The  Middle  Age  proper  began 
with  the  revival  of  the  Western  Empire  by  Charlemagne  (800) 
and  lasted  till  about  1300.  It  was  the  age  of  feudalism,  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  church  in  human  affairs,  of  great  struggles 
between  Popes  and  Emperors.  (3)  The  third  division  was  also 
an  epoch  of  transition,  lasting  from  about  1300  to  about  1500. 
It  was  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  (ren-e-saNs') ,  or  "rebirth," 
—when  men  began  to  think  more  freely,  and  when  state, 
church,  art,  literature,  industry,  and  society  took  on  new  forms. 
The  first  of  these  divisions  (376-800)  is  usually  included  in 
high  school  textbooks  dealing  with  ancient  history,  and  is  only 
briefly  dealt  with  here.  The  second  and  third  divisions  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  together  with  the  whole  period  of  Modern 
History,  form  the  theme  of  this  book. 


10  INTRODUCTION 


C.   REVIEW  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY 

Fifty  years  ago  practically  every  one  believed  that  the  earth, 
with  all  the  life  upon  it,  was  created  not  more  than  five  or  six 

9.  Short         thousand  years  ago.     About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
recorded0      century  began  a  series  of  scientific  discoveries  which  have 
history  forced  upon  us  a  revision.  of   this   opinion.     It   is   now 

generally  held  by  scientists  that  the  world  has  come  to  its 

present  form  by  a  gradual  process  of  evolution,  extending  through 

millions  and  millions  of  years,  and  that  men  have  lived  upon 

the  earth  for  about  100,000  years.     An  illustration  given  by 

Robinson        a  recent  historian  will  help  us  to  form  some  conception 

and  Beard,      of  the  extent  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  forma- 

^Western*     tion   of   the   eartn>   as   compared  with  the  shortness  of 

Europe,  II,      the  recorded  history  of  man.     "Let  us  imagine,"  says 

this  writer,  "a  record  having  been  kept  during  the  past 

fifty  million  years,  in  which  but  a  single  page  should  be  devoted 

to   the   chief   changes   occurring   during   each   successive   five 

thousand  years.     This  mighty  journal  would  now  amount  to 

ten  volumes  of  a  thousand  pages  each,  and  scarcely  more  than 

the  last  page  —  Volume  X,  page  1000  —  would  be  assigned  to 

the   whole   recorded   history   of   the   world  from   the  earliest 

Assyrian  and  Egyptian  inscriptions  to  the  present  day." 

Modern  scientists  have  shown  that  the  earliest  men  were  in 
the  lowest  stage  of  savagery;    they  lived  largely  in  the  tree 

10.  Savage     toPs  °f  tropical  forests,  ate  uncooked  fruits  and  vegetables, 
and  barba-     and  had  no  knowledge  of  even  the  rudest  tools  or  weapons. 

It  was  mainly  through  three  great  discoveries  or  inventions 
that  man  made  his  slow  and  painful  advance  from  savagery  to 
barbarism.  Fire  made  it  possible  for  him  to  move  from  the 
tropics  to  the  more  healthful  and  invigorating  climates  of  the 
temperate  zones,  and  also  enabled  him  to  use  for  food  many 
substances  which  without  cooking  were  unwholesome.  The 
bow  and  arrow  enabled  him  better  to  defend  himself  against 
enemies,  and  to  kill  the  fleetest  and  strongest  animals  of  the 
forest,  to  provide  himself  with  food  and  with  skins  for  clothing. 


REVIEW   OF   ANCIENT   HISTORY  II 

The  art  of  pottery-making  gave  him  vessels  in  which  food  could 
be  boiled,  thus  making  possible  further  enlargements  of  his 
food  supply.  It  also  gave  him  receptacles  in  which  articles  of 
all  kinds  could  be  safely  stored. 

In  the  barbarian  stage  came  the  taming  of  the  dog,  sheep,  ox, 
camel,  and  horse,  giving  man  a  more  certain  food  supply,  and 
enabling  him  better  to  cultivate  the  soil.  It  then  became  possible 
to  settle  down  in  fixed  localities,  to  practice  agriculture  more 
extensively,  to  develop  a  system  of  irrigation,  and  to  build 
houses  and  temples  of  brick  and  of  stone.  These  advances  were 
followed  by  the  discovery  of  a  method  of  smelting  iron  ore 
and  extracting  that  metal,  thereby  making  possible  great  im- 
provements in  man's  tools  and  weapons. 

The  step  which  led  men  from  barbarism  to  civilization,  and 
which  has  made  the  progress  of  the  later  centuries  so  much  more 
rapid  than  that  of  the  earlier,  was  the  invention  of  the  art  It 
of  writing.     By  this  means  the  knowledge  gained  in  the  vention  of 
past  could  be  handed  on  to  future  generations,  and  be  v 
spread  among  men  of  widely  distant  lands.     This  invention  was 
made  at  least  7000  years  ago  by  the  Egyptians  and  the  Baby- 
lonians.    It  is  only  with  this  event,  strictly  speaking,  that  his- 
tory begins ;   for  history  is  the  knowledge  that  we  have,  or  can 
have,  of  man's  life  in  the  past,  especially  as  it  was  lived  in  society 
with  other  men. 

In  the  valleys  of  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  other  great  advances 
were  made  which  contributed  to  that  complex  whole  which  we 
call  civilization.     The  arts  of  weaving,  pottery-making,   I2  Rise  of 
and   metal-working   reached   so   advanced  a   stage   that  oriental 
little  further  improvement  was  made  until  modern  times.   civmzation 
Huge  buildings  of  brick  and  stone  were  erected  which  still  awe 
the  traveler  with  their  massiveness ;  methods  of  agriculture  were 
improved ;   roads  and  canals  were  built ;  beginnings  were  made 
in  the  sciences  of  mathematics  and  astronomy ;  organized  govern- 
ments were  established  over  great  areas ;    and  impressive  re- 
ligious systems  were  developed.     By  conquest  and  commerce, 
this  civilization  was  spread  far  and  wide  through  the  lands 


12  INTRODUCTION 

bordering  on  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Hebrew  civilization,  with  its  lofty  monotheistic  religion,  was 
an  eddy  by  the  side  of  this  main  stream. 

Greece,  because  of   its  location,  was  naturally  the  first  of 

European  lands  to  receive  the  stimulus  and  benefits  of  oriental 

13.  Ancient    culture.     But    though    the    Greeks    learned    their    first 

Greece  and    lessons  from  the  peoples  of  the  East,  they  went  far  beyond 

their  teachers.     Especially  was  this  true  in  those  things 

which  contribute  to  higher  intellectual  and  spiritual  life;    for 

the  Greeks  established  freer  governments,  developed  science  and 

philosophy,  and  produced  works  of  art  and  of  literature  that 

have  never  been  surpassed. 

The  Romans  in  their  turn  profited  by  the  achievements  of 
the  Greeks,  and  added  contributions  of  their  own  through  their 
genius  for  conquest,  government,  and  law.  In  the  course  of 
three  centuries  successive  conquests  brought  under  Roman 
sway  all  the  lands  about  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  as  far 
north  as  the  German  forests.  This  vast  extent  of  territory 
proved  too  great  to  be  ruled  by  one  imperial  city.  It  was  the 
work  of  Julius  Caesar  and  of  his  grandnephew  Augustus  to 
transform  the  government  by  establishing  the  Roman  Empire 
— one  of  the  greatest  governments  that  the  world  has  ever 
seen. 

For  two  hundred  years  —  from  the  accession  of  the  Emperor 
Augustus  to  the  death  of  Marcus  Aure'lius  (31  B.C.  to  180  A.D.) 
—  the  Roman  Empire  prospered.  It  gave  unity  of  government, 
of  law,  of  language,  and  of  culture  to  the  whole  Mediterranean 
world.  It  carried  the  beginnings  of  civilization  even  to  the  bar- 
barians beyond  its  frontiers.  Christianity  arose  within  this 
empire ;  and  the  fact  that  all  these  lands  were  under  one  rule 
made  it  easier  for  a  universal  (Catholic)  Christian  Church  to 
be  organized,  and  to  spread  abroad  its  message  of  a  more 
spiritual  religion  and  of  nobler  living. 

The  period  from  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  to  the  acces- 
sion of  Diocle'tian  (180-284  A.D.),  was  oneof  civil  war  and  decay. 
The  decline  was  temporarily  checked  by  a  reorganization  of 


THE    BEGINNING  OF  THE   MIDDLE   AGES  13 

the   government   whereby   the  empire   was  divided   into    an 
eastern*  and  a  western  half   (regularly  after   395).     At  14.  Decay 

the  same  time  the  government  was  made  entirely  des-  of  the  Ro~ 

.  man  Em- 

potic,  and  the  capital  was   removed  to  Constantinople.  pire  (180- 

Under  Constantine  the  Great  (died  337)  came  the  end  of  375  A.D.) 
the   persecutions  of    the   Christians,   and   the   recognition   of 
Christianity  as  the  official  religion  of  the  state. 

But  these  changes  could  not  check  the  Roman  decay,  for  it 
was  due  to  deep-seated  and  long-existing  causes.  Among  these 
causes  we  may  note  the  following :  (i)  A  great  decrease  in  popu- 
lation, caused  by  famines,  wars,  and  pestilence.  (2)  Unwise 
methods  of  taxation,  which  destroyed  the  middle  classes,  and 
fixed  men  in  their  stations  and  occupations,  as  in  hereditary 
castes.  (3)  Free  peasants  gradually  became  serfs,  bound  to 
the  soil,  while  slaves  rose  in  the  social  scale  and  blended  with 
the  depressed  freemen.  (4)  There  was  a  physical  and  moral 
decline  of  the  Romans,  due  to  the  effects  of  long-continued  war, 
to  luxurious  living,  and  to  enervating  habits  in  peace.  (5) 
Christianity  drew  the  best  men  into  the  service  of  the  church, 
and  turned  their  attention  from  the  problems  of  this  world  to 
winning  salvation  in  the  next.  (6)  A  lack  of  national  feeling 
resulted  from  the  despotism  of  the  government,  and  the  general 
employment  of  German  barbarians  in  the  army. 

As  a  result  of  the  growing  weakness  due  to  these  causes  a  time 
came  when  Rome  was  no  longer  able  to  withstand  the  nations 
who  pressed  upon  her  borders  from  without.  Then  the  mighty 
fabric  of  her  empire  was  soon  laid  in  ruins. 


D.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

The  chief  cause  of  Rome's  fall  was  its  internal  weakness,  but 
the  occasion  came  with  the  entrance  into  the  empire,  at  the 
end  of    the   fourth   century,   of  whole  nations  of   Ger-   15. 
manic    barbarians.     The   VIS'IGOTHS,  when  attacked   in 
the  rear  by  Huns  from  central  Asia,  were  allowed  to   (376-476) 
cross  the  Danube  frontier  into  Roman  territory.     At  Adrian- 


THE   BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  15 

ople,  in  the  year  378,  they  then  overthrew  and  slew  the  Em- 
peror Valens.  Under  their  young  king,  Al'aric,  they  ravaged 
Greece,  overran  Italy,  and  sacked  Rome  (410).  Under  Alaric's 
successors  they  established  a  Germanic  kingdom  in  Spain  and 
southern  Gaul,  which  lasted  for  three  centuries  (to  711).  The 
example  set  by  the  Visigoths  was  speedily  followed  by  other 
nations.  The  VANDALS  overran  Gaul  and  Spain ;  then,  upon  the 
coming  of  the  Visigoths  to  the  latter  land,  they  passed  over 
into  Africa  (429),  where  they  ruled  for  a  hundred  and  five  years. 
The  FRANKS,  who  were  settled  about  the  lower  Rhine,  gradu- 
ally occupied  northern  Gaul.  The  BURGUNDIANS,  passing  from 
the  middle  Rhine  to  the  Rhone  valley,  established  there  a  king- 
dom which  lasted  until  534.  The  ANGLES  and  SAXONS,  invading 
Britain  in  their  piratical  vessels  (about  449),  established  king- 
doms which  later  consolidated  into  the  kingdom  of  England 
(Angle-land).  In  451  the  savage  Huns  extended  their  raids 
into  the  heart  of  Gaul,  but  were  turned  back  by  the  united 
efforts  of  Romans  and  Visigoths.  The  death  two  years  later 
of  their  leader  At'tila,  "the  Scourge  of  God,"  released  Europe 
for  a  time  from  the  dread  of  Asiatic  rule. 

At  Rome  the  last  of  a  line  of  weak  and  foolish  Emperors  of 
the  West  came  to  an  end  in  476.  Odoa'cer,  the  leader  of  the 
German  mercenaries  in  the  Roman  army,  then  assumed  16.  End  of 
the  title  of  "king."  He  sent  ambassadors  to  lay  at  the 
feet  of  the  Eastern  Emperor,  at  Constantinople,  the  im-  (476) 
perial  crown  and  purple  robe,  professing  that  one  Emperor  was 
enough  for  both  East  and  West.  For  some  years  Odoacer 
enjoyed  his  "kingdom"  over  Italy  in  peace.  In  493,  how- 
ever, he  was  defeated  and  murdered  by  Theod'oric  the  Great, 
king  of  the  OS'TROGOTHS,  who  had  come  into  Italy  with 
the  Eastern  Emperor's  consent  to  overthrow  the  usurper. 
Theodoric  had  been  brought  up,  as  a  youth,  at  Constantinople ; 
he  now  proved  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  barbarian  kings. 
He  made  many  wise  plans  for  the  permanent  union  of  his  Ostro- 
goths with  the  Romans  into  a  great  kingdom.  But  the  Romans 
held  the  orthodox  Christian  belief,  while  the  Ostrogoths,  in 


l6  INTRODUCTION 

common  with  most  of  the  German  barbarians,  had  been  con- 
verted to  A'rianism,  an  heretical  form  of  Christianity.  Heresy, 
or  the  holding  of  religious  opinions  condemned  by  the  church, 
was  regarded  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  sin.  Heretics, 
therefore,  were  bitterly  hated  by  the  orthodox.  As  a  result 
of  this  religious  antagonism  between  Romans  and  Ostrogoths, 
Theodoric  was  unable  permanently  to  unite  the  two  peoples. 

The  Emperor  Justinian  came  to  the  throne  at  Constantinople 
in  527  (the  year  following  the  death  of  Theodoric)  and  ruled 
17.  Eastern  until  565.  He  greatly  strengthened  the  Eastern  Empire 
dwPjues-Un~  and  also  Profoundly  influenced  the  West,  (i)  His  generals 
tinian  (527-  drove  out  the  Ostrogoths  from  Italy  and  the  Vandals 
s6s)  from  Africa,  and  recovered  those  lands  temporarily  for 

the  Roman  Empire.  (2)  He  was  a  great  builder,  and  filled  every 
corner  of  his  empire  with  forts,  churches,  monasteries,  hospitals, 
and  aqueducts.  The  most  splendid  of  his  buildings  was  the 
great  cathedral  of  St.  Sophia,  which  is  still  one  of  the  sights  of 
Constantinople.  (3)  He  caused  the  provisions  of  the  Roman 
law  on  every  subject  to  be  sought  out  and  arranged  in  a  series 
of  systematic  works,  called  the  Code,  the  Digest,  and  the  In- 
stitutes. The  Code  is  a  collection  of  the  decrees  of  the  Emperors ; 
the  Digest  contains  the  opinions  of  the  expert  lawyers  or  judges 
who  had  interpreted  these  decrees ;  and  the  Institutes  is  a  text- 
book, giving  the  principles  of  the  law  in  a  simplified  form  for 
the  use  of  students.  The  importance  of  these  collections  is 
very  great.  The  most  powerful  influence  of  Rome  on  the  modern 
world  has  been  through  its  law ;  and  it  was  the  work  of  Justinian, 
in  collecting  and  systematizing  the  law,  that  put  it  in  shape  to 
be  preserved  and  handed  down  to  later  times.  To-day  Roman 
law  is  the  basis  of  the  legal  systems  of  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  and  of  one  of  the  American  States  (Louisiana).  Some 
one  has  said  that  Roman  law  is  "crystallized  reason,"  because 
it  is  so  clear  and  practical  in  its  applications.  The  fact  that  its 
provisions  can  still  be  applied  in  spite  of  the  enormous  changes 
in  society  which  have  taken  place  since  Roman  times,  is  testi- 
mony to  the  justice  of  this  characterization.  One  principle 


THE   BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIDDLE    AGES  17 

of  the  Roman  law  is  contained  in  the  famous  maxim,  "All  men 
are  created  equal,"  which  played  so  important  a  part  in  both 
the  American  and  the  French  revolutions.  Another  principle 
was  that  "what  pleases  the  prince  has  the  force  of  law."  If 
the  former  passage  could  be  used  as  an  argument  in  favor  of 
liberty,  the  latter  could  be  used  by  kings  and  other  rulers  of  the 
later  Middle  Ages  in  support  of  their  attempts  to  overthrow 
the  power  of  the  nobles  and  build  up  absolute  monarchies. 

The  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  saw  the  rise  of  a  new 
religion  and  a  new  political  power.     This  was  due  to  the  teach- 
ings of  Mohammed  (571-632),  an  Arab  who  claimed  to   lg  Rise  of 
be    divinely    inspired.     He    united    the    Arabs,    rescued  Mohamme- 
them  from  the  worship  of  sticks  and  stones,  and  taught  d 
them  that  there  was  but  one  true  God  (Allah),  of  whom  he 
(Mohammed)  was  the  Prophet.     The  teaching  of  Mohammed 


CONQUESTS  OF  THE  MOHAMMEDANS 

was  embodied  in  a  book  called  the  Koran'.  It  contains  also 
Jewish,  Christian,  and  Persian  elements.  For  example,  the 
Hebrew  patriarchs  and  prophets,  including  Christ,  were  ac- 
cepted by  Mohammed  as  messengers  from  God ;  but  Mohammed 
declared  himself  the  last  and  the  greatest  of  these.  Along  with 
many  good  and  noble  ideas  in  his  religion  were  mixed  baser 
elements,  arising  out  of  the  ignorance,  cruelty,  and  superstition 
of  that  time.  Mohammedanism  became  one  of  the  great 
world  religions,  and  to-day  numbers  among  its  adherents  about 
one  seventh  of  the  earth's  population.  By  the  year  632  all 
Arabia  had  accepted  Mohammed's  teaching.  Fanatical  zeal 


l8  INTRODUCTION 

and  lust  of  rule  then  urged  on  a  movement  of  foreign  con- 
quest such  as  the  world  had  never  seen.  In  eighty  years 
Mohammedanism  conquered  more  territory  than  Rome  con- 
quered in  four  centuries.  Syria,  Persia,  Egypt,  northern 
Africa,  and  Spain  all  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  caliphs,  or 
successors  of  Mohammed.  A  vast  empire  was  thus  created, 
the  head  of  which  was  both  the  religious  and  the  political  ruler 
of  his  people. 

Further  transformations,  meanwhile,  were  taking  place  in 
Italy  and  adjacent  lands.     Within  fifteen  years  after  the  ex- 

19.  The         pulsion  of  the  Ostrogoths,  a  new  Germanic  people,  the 
occ^pySly    LOMBARDS,  appeared  in  Italy  to  take  their  place.     They 
(568)  conquered  the  valley  of  the  Po  (Lombardy),  to  which  their 

name  is  still  given.  Soon  they  possessed  most,  but  not  all,  of 
the  peninsula.  Officers  of  the  Eastern  Emperors  continued  to 
rule  a  district  called  the  Exarchate  (ex'ar-kat)  of  Ravenna,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Po,  together  with  the  district  about 
Rome,  and  the  extreme  southern  parts  of  the  peninsula.  The 
Lombards  were  among  the  most  barbarous  of  the  Germanic 
nations,  and  they  were  long  viewed  by  the  Romans  with  the 
fiercest  hatred  and  loathing,  even  after  they  put  aside  their 
Arianism  and  accepted  Catholic  Christianity. 

One  important  result  of  their  coming  was  that  it  helped  the 
Pope  —  that  is,  the  bishop  of  Rome  —  to  secure  temporal  power 

20.  Rise  of     m  Italy.     For  several  centuries  the  spiritual  headship  of 
papal  power    the  bishop  of  Rome  over  the  church   had  been  recog- 
nized, especially  in   the  West ;  but  so  far,  equally  with 

other  bishops,  he  had  been  under  the  rule  of  the  Emperor.  The 
Eastern  Emperors,  however,  were  distant  from  Italy,  and  their 
officers  (the  exarchs)  were  too  weak  to  resist  the  Lombards. 
The  exarchs  shut  themselves  up  in  Ravenna  and  failed  to  give 
to  Rome  the  protection  and  aid  which  it  required.  In  these 
circumstances  a  Pope  of  commanding  character  and  ability, 
named  Gregory  the  Great  (590-604),  came  into  power.  He 
made  himself  practically  the  ruler  of  Rome,  by  defending  it 
against  repeated  attacks  of  the  Lombards  and  feeding  its  starv- 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


ing  people.  A  century  after  the  death  of  Gregory,  his  suc- 
cessors broke  all  connection  with  the  Eastern  Empire.  The 
occasion  for  this  was  a  dispute  about  the  reverencing  of  images 
in  the  church  (Iconoclastic  controversy).  The  danger  of  this 
separation  lay  in  the  opportunity  that  it  gave  the  Lombards 
to  extend  their  rule  in  Italy.  Again  and  again  these  barbarians 
laid  siege  both  to  the  city  of  Rome  and 
to  Ravenna.  It  seemed  as  if  the  papacy 
had  escaped  the  rule  of  the  Eastern 
Emperor  only  to  fall  under  that  of  the 
Lombard  king.  To  avoid  this  fate,  the 
Pope  resolved  to  ask  aid  from  another 
Germanic  people,  the  most  notable  of 
all  —  the  FRANKS,  who  had  invaded 
Gaul. 

Of  all  the  barbarians  who  pressed  into 
the  continental  provinces  of  Rome,  only 
the  Franks  established  an  enduring  2J  R.ge  of 
kingdom.  For  several  centuries,  the  Franks 
therefore,  the  history  of  the  Frank-  (481-768) 
ish  power  makes  the  largest  part  of  the 
history  of  Europe.  Clovis  (481-511)  laid 
the  basis  of  this  power  by  consolidating 
the  Franks  under  one  rule,  and  con- 
quering neighboring  peoples.  The  fact 
that  Clovis  became  an  orthodox  Christian 
was  also  of  importance.  Within  fifty  years  after  his  death, 
most  of  Gaul,  together  with  the  Rhine  valley,  was  under 
Frankish  sway.  Many  of  Clevis's  descendants  proved  to  be 
weak  rulers;  and  the  broils  and  feuds  of  the  nobles,  the 
quarrels  and  lawlessness  of  the  freemen,  produced  great  dis- 
order. In  spite  of  these  evils,  and  in  spite  of  frequent  divi- 
sions of  the  territory  among  the  sons  of  deceased  kings,  the 
power  of  the  Franks  as  a  people  did  not  decline.  Under  the 
later  descendants  of  Clovis,  —  the  "do-nothing"  Merovingian 
kings,  —  officers  styled  "Mayors  of  the  Palace"  came  to  exer- 


FRANKISH  CHIEF 


2O 


INTRODUCTION 


cise  the  real  power  of  the  kingdom.  Soon  this  office  became 
practically  hereditary  in  the  powerful  family  of  the  Pep'ins 
(Carolin'gians),  who  possessed  wide  estates  and  numerous  fol- 
lowers. The  power  of  this  family  was  greatly  increased  by  a 
notable  victory  which  its  head,  Charles  Martel'  ("the  Ham- 
mer"), won  in  732.  A  great  army  of  Mohammedans  from 


GROWTH  OF  THE  PRANKISH  KINGDOM 


Spain  had  invaded  Gaul,  and  it  was  only  after  a  desperate  all- 
day  conflict  near  the  city  of  Tours  (toor),  that  they  were  de- 
feated and  forced  to  retreat.1 


1  "For  seven  days  the  two  World§,  the  two  Faiths,  stood  face  to  face.  The 
horsemen  of  Asia,  with  their  tawny  skins  and  white  turbans,  wheeling  amid  clouds 
of  dust  around  the  Frankish  hosts,  scanned  with  surprise  the  fair-skinned  shaggy 
giants  who  had  come  down  to  do  battle  for  Europe  against  her  hitherto  irresist- 
ible enemy.  On  a  Sunday  morning  the  decisive  conflict  began.  It  was  terrible, 
though  scarcely  contested  upon  equal  terms.  The  wild  riders  of  the  desert  dashed 


THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 


21 


In  spite  of  the  renown  gained  through  this  victory,  Charles 
Martel  did  not  dare  to  make  himself  king  of  the  Franks  in  name, 
£.s  well  as  in  fact.     This  step  Charles's  son,  Pepin  the  Short,   22.  Alliance 
determined  to  take,  and  in  751  he  sent  to  the  Pope  to  ask  ^fit^rJ£eS 
his  sanction.     The  Pope,  who  had  appealed  in  vain  to  papacy 
Charles  Martel  for  aid  against  the  Lombards,  was  willing  to 
gratify  Pepin,  in  the  hope  of  receiving  the  much-needed  support. 
He  replied  to  the  Frankish  envoys  that 
"the  man  who  actually  held  the  power  in 
the  kingdom  should  be  called  king,  rather 
than  he  who  falsely  bore   that  name." 
With  this  warrant  from  the  Pope,  and 
with  the  approval  of  the  Frankish  chiefs, 
the  last  of   the   Merovingian  kings  was 
deposed,  and   thrust   into  a  monastery. 
Pepin  was  then  raised  upon  a  shield  and 
hailed  as  king  in  his  stead. 

At  the  Pope's  request,  Pepin  marched 
twice  into  Italy  against  the  Lombards, 
who  by  this  time  had  taken  Ravenna. 
On  his  second  expedition,  Pepin  forced 
the  Lombard  king  to  give  hostages  and 
pay  tribute.  The  city  and  district  of 
Ravenna,  which  the  Lombards  had  taken 
from  the  exarch,  were  surrendered,  and 
given  by  Pepin  to  the  Pope.  The  addi- 
tion of  this  territory  to  the  power  which 
the  papacy  had  secured  at  Rome  made  the  Pope  an  important 
temporal  prince.  Pepin's  grant  was  also  of  importance  in 

hour  after  hour  in  ceaseless  charges  against  the  solidly  compacted  infantry  of 
the  North;  they  came  on  like  the  leaping  waves  of  the  ocean,  to  be  scattered 
backward  like  its  spray.  The  folds  of  the  eastern  turban  afforded  slight  protection 
against  the  huge  mass  of  iron  which  the  stalwart  arms  of  the  Frankish  veterans  plied 
with  terrible  effect  against  their  heads ;  and  while  the  scimiters  of  Damascus  glanced 
harmlessly  from  the  stout  helmets  of  steel  and  the  thick  leather  corslets  of  the  Franks, 
the  long  blades  of  the  North  cleft  through  bones  and  muscle,  almost  severing  in 
two  the  wiry  frames  of  the  Arab  and  the  Moor."  —  Sheppard,  The  Fall  of  Rome,  479 
(condensed). 


CAROLINGIAN  WARRIOR 

From  Musee  d'Artillerie, 

Paris 


22  INTRODUCTION 

cementing  a  close  connection  between  the  papacy  and  the 
Prankish  monarchy,  which  proved  of  great  importance  to 
each. 

E.  THE  WORLD  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  EIGHTH  CENTURY 

It  remains,  in  concluding  this  introduction  to  medieval  his- 
tory, (i)  to  glance  at  the  religious  and  political  map  of  Europe 
23.  Changes  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century,  and  (2)  to  take 
in  the  re-       stock  of  the  racial  and  institutional  elements  which  were 

ligious  and  . 

political         entering  into  the  formation  of  medieval  Europe. 

maP  The  world  known  to  the  people  of  Europe  in  the  year 

800  was  only  that  small  part  of  the  earth's  surface  shown  on 
the  accompanying  map.  America  and  Australia  were  as  yet 

undiscovered.  Of 
Africa,  the  Mediter- 
ranean region  alone 
was  known.  What 
knowledge  there  was 
of  the  more  distant 
parts  of  Asia  came 
only  through  vague 
Greek  and  Roman 
reports  and  the  west- 
ward raids  of  Huns 
and  other  Asiatic  bar- 

THE  KNOWN  WORLD  IN  800  barians.      Within  this 

small  world  the  greatest  extent  of  territory  was  held  by  the 
Mohammedans,  whose  lands  stretched  from,  the  Strait  of  Gi- 
braltar in  the  west  to  India  and  the  steppes  of  Central  Asia  in 
the  east.  The  area  occupied  by  Christians  included  only  west- 
ern and  southern  Europe  (with  the  exception  of  Spain),  and 
Asia  Minor.  The  northeastern  part  of  Europe  was  still  in  the 
darkness  of  heathenism. 

By  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  invasions  were  practi- 
cally over.  Germanic  peoples  now  occupied  most  of  the  terri- 
tory in  western  Europe  once  included  within  the  boundaries 


THE  WORLD   IN  800  23 

of  the  Roman  Empire.  By  comparing  the  map  showing  the 
boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  at  the  beginning  of  the  mi- 
grations (p.  14)  with  that  of  Charlemagne's  empire  (pp.  28-29), 
we  can  see  how  great  a  shifting  of  populations  and  boundaries 
had  taken  place  in  these  four  centuries  of  invasion  and  conquest.1 
The  Byzan'tine  or  Eastern  Roman  Empire  still  ruled  Asia  Minor, 
Thrace,  portions  of  ancient  Greece  and  southern  Italy,  and  the 
islands  of  Crete,  Sicily,  and  Sardinia.  The  Bulgarians  (an 
Asiatic  people)  had  cut  off  the  lower  valley  of  the  Danube,  and 
barbarian  Slavs  formed  an  alien  wedge  running  through  the 
interior  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  and  into  the  Peloponnesus. 
On  the  middle  course  of  the  Danube  dwelt  the  Avars  (a'varz), 
a  Tartar  tribe  from  Asia.  North  of  these  were  Slavic  peoples, 
and  still  farther  north  were  the  Finns.  All  of  these  peoples 
were  still  heathen ;  and  the  slow  progress  of  Christianity  among 
them  was  one  of  the  features  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Scandinavia 
was  taking  on  its  threefold  form  of  Norway,  Denmark,  and 
Sweden ;  but  the  worship  there  of  the  old  Teutonic  gods,  Woden 
and  Thor,  was  as  yet  unshaken.  In  the  British  Isles,  the  Angles 
and  Saxons  (as  we  shall  see)  had  been  Christianized,  and  were 
about  to  unite  into  a  single  kingdom.  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
Wales,  though  Christian,  were  independent  Celtic  lands.  In 
northern  Spain  there  existed  petty  Christian  states  which  in 
the  next  seven  centuries  were  to  grow  into  a  powerful  monarchy 
and  cast  out  the  Mohammedans.  The  central  political  fact 
in  the  West  was  the  existence  of  the  Frankish  kingdom,  as  re- 
established and  strengthened  by  Charles  Martel  and  Pepin 
the  Short. 
These  sweeping  changes  in  the  map  were  not  accomplished 

without  the  destruction   of  much  of  that  classical  civi-  „,   ,,  . 

24.  Ketro- 

lization  of  Greece  and  Rome  which  had  been  building  for  spect  and 
a  thousand  years.     To  use  the  comparison  of  a  modern  his-  ProsPect 
torian,  the  situation  was  similar  to  that  which  would  be  created 

1  Excepting  the  additions  to  the  Frankish  territory  made  by  Charlemagne  (see 
page  20),  the  locations  of  peoples  and  states  in  800  were  practically  those  given  in 
the  map  for  Charlemagne's  reign. 


24  INTRODUCTION 

if  bands  of  Indian  warriors  should  take  possession  of  a  civilized 
land.     They  would  see  about  them  on  every  hand  a  thousand 
things  which  they  could  not  understand  or  use.     So  it  was 
Adams,  Civ-    with  the  Germans  in  the  civilized  lands  of  the  Roman 
f«r/£VtT  EmPire-     Tbey  were  unaccustomed  to  city  life,  and  a 
die  Ages,  8-9    great  part  of  Roman  institutions  and  Roman  civilization 
was  either  useless  to  them  or  unappreciated.     The  surprising 
thing  is  not  that  the  Germans  destroyed  so  much  of  what  they 
found  in  the  Roman  Empire,  but  that  under  the  circumstances 
they  destroyed  so  little.     Art,  science,  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
language  and  of  much  of  the  Latin  literature,  skill  in  handi- 
crafts, and  the  machinery  of  orderly  government,  were  over- 
whelmed.    The  whole  western  world  fell  back  to  a  lower  stage 
of  civilization  than  under  Roman  rule. 

But  the  loss  was  only  temporary,  and  was  made  good  by 
ultimate  recovery.  We  may  indeed  say  that  "  almost,  if  not 
quite,  every  achievement  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  thought, 
in  science,  in  law,  in  the  practical  arts,  is  now  a  part  of  our 
civilization."  It  was  the  work  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  raise  • 
the  Germanic  barbarians  to  the  level  of  civilization  attained  by 
the  ancient  world,  and  at  the  same  time  to  subject  them  to 
the  influence  of  the  Christian  religion.  In  the  making  of  medi- 
eval civilization,  therefore,  three  factors  should  be  noted: 

(1)  The  classical  civilization,  which  has  already  been  described. 

(2)  The  Christian  religion,  with  its  principles  of  monotheism, 
personal  immortality,  the  brotherhood  of  man,  and  its  lofty 
ethical  ideals.     (3)  The  Germans  themselves  —  a  fresh,  vigor- 
ous race,  with  a  remarkable  ability  for  adapting  themselves 
to  new  conditions  and  for  assimilating  a  higher  culture.      The 
Germans  imparted  to  the  enfeebled  stocks  of  the  Roman  world 
their  own  youthful  energy  and  vigor.     They  also  brought  with 
them  certain  ideas  and  political  institutions  which  have  con- 
tributed in  large  degree  to  the  development  of  modern  free 
governments.     The  most  important  of  these  were  the  idea  of 
personal  independence,  a  strong  sense  of  the  value  of  the  in- 
dividual as  compared  with  the  state,  the  practice  of  holding 


THE   WORLD    IN   800  25 

public  assemblies,  and  government  by  a  monarch  chosen  by 
and  responsible  to  the  people. 

It  was  in  the  so-called  Dark  Age,  the  history  of  which  we 
have  been  surveying,  that  these  three  elements  —  the  classical, 
the  Christian,  and  the  German — were  first  blended  to  form 
medieval  civilization.  This  in  turn  was  to  grow  and  expand 
into  the  modern  Christian  civilization,  now  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  whole  earth. 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

376.  Visigoths  enter  the  Roman  Empire. 

410.  Rome  sacked  by  Alaric." 

449.  Angles  and  Saxons  invade  Britain. 

451.  Huns  defeated  in  Gaul. 

476.  Odoacer  overthrows  the  Western  Empire. 

481-511.  Clovis  king  of  the  Franks. 

493.  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth  conquers  Italy. 

527-565.  Justinian  ruler  of  the  Eastern  Empire. 

568.  Lombards  settle  in  Italy. 

632.  Death  of  Mohammed. 

732.  Battle  of  Tours. 

751.  Pepin  the  Short  becomes  king  of  the  Franks. 

768.  Charlemagne  becomes  king  of  the  Franks. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Why  do  mountains  tend  to  separate  and  rivers 
to  unite  adjacent  peoples?  (2)  What  geographical  advantages  has  Europe 
over  Asia  ?  Over  Africa  ?  (3)  Why  was  Europe  not  so  well  fitted  to  orig- 
inate as  to  develop  and  spread  civilization  ?  (4)  In  what  ways  would  its 
history  have  been  different  if  Europe  were  entirely  surrounded  by  water  ? 
(5)  Why  is  our  knowledge  of  history  less  certain  than  our  knowledge  of  the 
natural  sciences  ?  (6)  What  precautions  §hould  be  exercised  in  using  news- 
papers as  materials  for  history?  (7)  Why  is  the  term  "Middle  Ages" 
plural  ?  (8)  Summarize  the  causes  of  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.  (9) 
Has  Mohammedanism  done  more  harm  or  good  in  the  world  ?  (10)  What 
things  aided  the  Pope  to  become  head  of  the  church?  (n)  Why  did  the 
Prankish  kingdom  prove  more  permanent  than  the  other  barbarian  king- 
doms on  the  Continent?  (12)  What  advantages  did  the  Pope  gain  from 
alliance  with  the  Franks?  What  advantages  did  the  Franks  gain?  (13) 
Compare  the  area  of  Christianity  in  800  with  its  area  to-day.  (14)  Make  a 


26  INTRODUCTION 

table  to  show  the  wanderings  of  the  Germans.  Arrange  it  in  columns  under 
the  following  headings:  Name  of  people;  Location  in  376  A.D.  ;  Date  of 
entrance  into  the  Empire;  Leaders;  Final  settlement ;  Fate  of  settlement. 

Search  Topics. —  (i)  INFLUENCE  or  GEOGRAPHY  ON  HISTORY.  George, 
Relations  of  Geography  and  History,  ch.  ii.  —  (2)  GREEK  CONTRIBUTIONS 
TO  CIVILIZATION.  Seignobos,  Ancient  Civilization,  160-172;  Adams,  Civili- 
zation during  the  Middle  Ages,  15-19.  —  (3)  ROMAN  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  CIVI- 
LIZATION. Morey,  Outlines  of  Roman  History,  311-326;  Morey,  Outlines  of 
Ancient  History,  470-478 ;  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  20-38. 
—  (4)  CHARACTER  AND  INSTITUTIONS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  GERMANS.  Emerton, 
Introduction,  14-17;  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  ch.  ii;  Adams, 
Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  89-104;  Harding,  Story  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  12-22;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  19-31.  —  (5)  THE  ROMAN  LAW.  Morey, 
Outlines  of  Roman  History,  320-323;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Age,  73-74;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  "Justinian  I."  —  (6)  GER- 
MANIC IDEAS  OF  LAW.  Emerton,  Introduction,  ch.  viii ;  Ogg,  Source  Book, 
59-67;  Duruy,  Middle  Ages,  61-66;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Age,  53-55.  —  (7)  MOHAMMEDAN  RELIGION  AND  WORSHIP.  Seignobos, 
Medieval  and  Modern  Civilization,  39-46;  Duruy,  Middle  Ages,  81-84; 
Ogg,  Source  Book,  97-104;  Emerton,  Introduction,  122-125;  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  "Mohammedan  Religion."  —  (8)  CHARLES  MARTEL  AND  THE 
BATTLE  OF  TOURS.  Emerton,  Introduction,  112-122,  126-129;  Creasy, 
Fifteen  Decisive  Battles,  ch.  vii;  Masterman,  Dawn  of  Medieval  Europe, 
ch.  xi.  —  (9)  BONIFACE  AND  THE  CONVERSION  OF  THE  GERMANS.  Merivale, 
Conversion  of  the  West,  ch.  vii ;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I, 
105-111;  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  175-179;  Munro  and 
Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  120-128.  —  (10)  CHRISTIANITY  AS  AN  ELE- 
MENT IN  THE  MAKING  OF  EUROPE.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle 
Ages,  50-60.  —  (n)  POPE  GREGORY  THE  GREAT.  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(nth  ed.),  XII,  566-568;  Emerton,  Introduction,  108-113;  Bemont  and 
Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  121-124;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  His- 
tory, I,  73-82. 

General  Reading.  —  The  best  brief  accounts  of  the  introductory  period  are 
in  Emerton,  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages ;  Church,  Beginning  of  the  Middle 
Ages;  and  Masterman,  Dawn  of  Medieval  Europe  (476-918}.  Oman's  The 
Dark  Ages  (476-918}  is  more  advanced.  Sheppard's  The  Fall  of  Rome  is  a 
comprehensive  account ;  its  lecture  form  makes  it  readable.  Villari's  Bar- 
barian Invasions  of  Italy  is  recent  and  valuable.  The  most  complete  work 
in  English  is  Hodgkin's  Italy  and  her  Invaders,  in  eight  volumes.  Gibbon's 
classical  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  has  recently  been  reedited 
by  Professor  Bury. 


CHAPTER   I 
THE    EMPIRE    OF    CHARLEMAGNE    AND    ITS    DISSOLUTION 

A.   CHARLEMAGNE'S  WARS  AND  GOVERNMENT  (768-814) 

WITH  the  accession  of  Charles  the  Great  (or  Charlemagne), 
after  the  death  of  his  father  Pepin  the  Short  in  768,  we  come  to 
one  of  the  great  outstanding  figures  of  world  history.  25.  Charie- 
In  the  history  of  the  early  Middle  Ages,  Charlemagne  is  °£££8 
as  important  as  Caesar  is  in  ancient  history,  or  Napoleon  history 
in  modern  history,  or  George  Washington  in  the  history  of  our 
own  country.     His  reign  is  noteworthy  both  for  its  military 
conquests  and  for  its  peaceful  achievements.     The  latter  are  the 
more  important,  but  we  will  turn  first  to  his  conquests. 

A  list  of  the  peoples  against  whom  he  waged  war  during  the 
forty-six  years  that  he  ruled  shows  the  wide  area  covered  by  his 
military  operations.  It  includes  the  Aquitanians  and  Bretons 
of  southern  and  western  Gaul ;  the  Mohammedans  in  Spain  and 
the  Mediterranean  islands ;  the  Lombards  in  Italy ;  the  German 
Thuringians,  Bavarians,  and  Saxons,  and  their  neighbors  the 
Danes;  and  the  Avars,  Slavs,  and  Greeks  of  eastern  Europe. 
In  all,  Charlemagne  sent  forth  more  than  fifty  military  expedi- 
tions, at  least  half  of  which  he  commanded  in  person. 

Against  several  of  these  peoples  repeated  expeditions  were 
necessary.     Of  all  his  enemies  the  most  stubborn  were  the  hea- 
then and  barbarian  Saxons,  who  dwelt  in  the  trackless  26  Con_ 
forests  and  swamps  bordering  on  the  North  Sea  between  quest  of  the 
the  rivers  Ems  and  Elbe.     The  task  of  conquering  this  Saxon 
people  required  for  its  completion  eighteen  separate  expeditions, 
distributed  over  thirty  years.     The  most  troublesome  tribes 
were  transported  to  other  parts  of  the  kingdom.     Throughout 
Saxony   fortresses   were   established   and   bishoprics   founded 

27 


EUROPE 

IN  THE  TIME  OF 

CHARLEMAGNE 
708-814 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


Loiifc'itml 


30  THE   EMPIRE  OF    CHARLEMAGNE 

(around  which  grew  up  the  first  towns),  and  Christianity  was 
forced  upon  the  land  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  Opposi- 
tion was  at  last  crushed,  and  within  a  few  generations  the 
Saxons  became  the  most  powerful  nation  in  the  Prankish  realm. 
Even  more  important  than  the  Saxon  wars  were  the 
wars  with  the  Lombards.  In  spite  of  the  two  expeditions  of 
27  Wars  Pepin  the  Short  (§  22),  the  power  of  the  Lombards  con- 
with  Lom-  tinued  to  be  a  menace  to  the  papacy.  The  Lombard 
king,  moreover,  harbored  pretenders  to  a  share  in  Charle- 
magne's kingdom.  Consequently  when  the  Pope  appealed  to 
Charlemagne  for  aid  against  the  Lombards,  Charlemagne 
marched  to  his  assistance.  In  the  year  774  he  overthrew  the 
Lombard  king  and  took  for  himself  the  title  King  of  the  Lom- 
bards. The  year  before  he  had  renewed  his  father's  gift  to  the 
Pope  of  the  rule  over  Ravenna  and  other  parts  of  Italy.  The 
conquest  of  Lombardy  and  this  donation  were  two  of  the  most 
'mportant  acts  of  Charlemagne's  reign.  They  brought  the 
king  of  the  Franks  into  closer  relations  with  the  papacy, 
strengthened  the  temporal  power  of  the  Popes,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  revival  of  the  Western  Empire  under  the  rule 
of  Charlemagne. 

The  lands  over  which  Charlemagne  ruled  in  800  included 
what  are  now  France,   Switzerland,  Belgium,  Holland,  more 
28.  Revival    than  half  of  Germany  and  Italy,   and  parts  of  Austria 
pirein^e      and  Spain  (maps,  pp.  20,  28).     Over  the  "eternal  city" 
West  of  Rome  itself  he  exercised  supreme  authority  by  virtue 

of  the  title  "Patrician  of  the  Romans."  The  extent  of  Charle- 
magne's power  made  him  already  in  fact,  though  not  in  name, 
the  Emperor  of  the  West.  The  ruler  at  Constantinople  at  this 
time  was  a  woman,  the  Empress  Irene,  who  had  just  deposed 
her  son,  put  out  his  eyes,  and  seized  the  power  for  herself. 
The  West  refused  to  recognize  her  rule,  and  looked  on  the  throne 
of  the  empire  as  vacant.  What  was  more  natural  than  that  it 
should  be  given  to  the  king  of  the  Franks,  the  real  ruler  of  the 
West  ?  Charlemagne  was  quite  prepared  for  this  step,  but  by 
whom  should  the  imperial  crown  be  conferred? 


CHARLEMAGNE'S   WARS   AND   GOVERNMENT  31 

Whatever  solution  Charlemagne  had  in  mind,  the  circum- 
stances  of   the   coronation   were  not  of  his  arranging.     The 
close  of  the  year. 800  found  him  in  the  city  of  Rome.     At  29.  Coro- 
the  solemn  celebration  of  Christmas  in  the  old  church  charie-0* 
of  St.  Peter's,  as  Charlemagne  knelt  in  prayer  at  the  altar,  magne  (800) 
Pope  Leo  III  placed  a  crown  upon  his  head,  while  the  people 


CORONATION  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 
Fresco  (iQth  century)  in  Hotel  de  Ville,  Aix-la-Chapelle 

cried,  "To  Carolus  Augustus,  crowned  by  God,  mighty  and 
pacific  Emperor,  be  life  and  victory." 

The  coronation  of  Charlemagne,  in  the  language  of  Mr.  Bryce 
(an  English  historian),  "is  not  only  the  central  event  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  it  is  also  one  of  those  very  few  events  of 
which,  taking  them  singly,  it  may  be  said  that  if  they  Empire  (re- 
had  not  happened,  the  history  of  the  world  would  have  vised  <**•)»  so 


THE  EMPEROR  CHARLEMAGNE 

Durer's  painting  (1510),  showing  the  insignia  of  later  Emperors, 
portraits  all  show  Charlemagne  without  a  beard. 
32 


Contemporary 


CHARLEMAGNE'S  WARS  AND   GOVERNMENT  33 

been  different."  The  leading  ideas  of  the  old  Roman  Empire 
were  those  of  unity,  order,  and  centralization;  but  powerful 
tendencies  had  been  at  work  since  its  fall  in  the  West  to 
produce  separation,  disorder,  and  anarchy.  Charlemagne,  by 
the  brilliancy  of  his  genius  and  the  splendor  of  his  victories, 
was  able  to  revive  the  only  institution  which  could  give  even 
a  semblance  of  political  union  to  western  Europe,  and  check 
these  destructive  tendencies.  He  alone  of  medieval  rulers  held 
the  commanding  position  to  accomplish  this ;  and  his  work  was 
done  barely  in  time.  A  few  score  years  more  of  decay  would 
have  made  the  task  practically  impossible.  "When  the  hero 
was  gone,"  says  Bryce,  "the  returning  wave  of  anarchy  and 
barbarism  swept  up  violent  as  ever,  yet  it  could  not  wholly 
obliterate  the  past."  Charlemagne's  opportune  revival  of  the 


SIGNATURE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE  (790) 

Charlemagne  made  only  the  two  strokes  in  the  central  part  of  the  monogram 
KAROLVS  (  =  Charles) ;  the  scribe  wrote  the  rest.  The  words  to  the  left  and 
to  the  right  are  Latin  for  "  Signature  of  Charles,  the  most  glorious  King." 

empire  had  implanted  too  deeply  the  ideal  of  European  unity 
to  permit  of  its  ever  after  being  wholly  lost. 

In  dealing  with  the  complex  and  difficult  problems  of  his 
great  empire,  Charlemagne  showed  as  remarkable  genius  for 
governing  as  he  displayed  in  waging  war.     To  each  of  30.  Law  in 
its  peoples  —  Franks,  Burgundians,  Romans,  Lombards,   his 
Goths,  Bavarians,  Saxons  —  he  left  its  own  law,  making  only 
such  changes  by  his  decrees,  or  "capitularies,"  as  the  good  of 
the  state  and  of  society  demanded.     This  was  in  keeping  with 
the  early  German  idea  of  law.    To  these  barbarians  the  "law" 


34  THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

of  each  individual  was  an  inheritance  from  the  past  of  his  race, 
and  was  as  much  a  part  of  him  as  the  breath  that  he  drew. 
Wherever  he  went,  the  German  expected  to  be  tried  by  the  law 
of  his  own  race,  and  not  by  that  of  the  people  among  whom  he 
lived. 

In  considering  the  institutions  of  Charlemagne's  empire,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  government  of  the  Roman 
Charle-  Empife  nad  perished  in  the  period  of  the  invasions,  and 
magne's  that  cruder  and  simpler  forms  of  government,  mostly 
of  Germanic  origin,  had  taken  its  place.  Taxes  paid  to  the 
state  were  one  of  the  things  that  had  disappeared  with  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  So  Charlemagne's  needs  were  supplied, 
like  those  of  most  medieval  rulers,  chiefly  from  the  proceeds  of 
his  own  estates  (villae),  for  which  elaborate  regulations  were 
made.  The  Emperor  usually  traveled  from  vill  to  vill  with  his 
suite,  to  consume  the  produce  arising  on  each  estate.  On  the 
other  hand,  public  officers,  military  service,  and  the  like,  were 
unpaid,  and  the  financial  needs  of  the  state  were  therefore  less 
than  now.  Charlemagne's  government  was  far  from  being  as 
free  and  orderly  as  the  governments  under  which  European 
nations  live  to-day.  Yet  when  we  consider  the  difficulties  of 
the  time,  and  compare  his  government  with  that  of  his  successors, 
we  wonder,  not  that  he  did  not  accomplish  more,  but  that  amid 
such  conditions  he  was  able  to  accomplish  so  much. 

Under  the  Merovingians   the   Prankish  kingdom  had  been 

divided  into  local  districts,  each  ruled  by  an  officer  called  a 

32.  Counts     "count,"  who  was  appointed  by  the  king.     These  counts 

and  were  retained  by  Charlemagne  as  the  chief  officers  of  his 

local  government.     In  their  hands  was  placed  the  military 

leadership  of  the  districts,  together  with  the  administration  of 

justice.     The  counts  —  as  was  natural  in  a  rude  and  barbarous 

time,  when  supervision  was  slight  and  means  of  communication 

difficult  —  often  abused  their  powers  and  were  guilty  of  great 

oppression.     To  supervise  their  work  Charlemagne  sent  out 

each  year  royal  commissioners  (missi  dominici)  whose  special 

function  it  was  to  link  the  local  to  the  central  government.     The 


CHARLEMAGNE'S   WARS  AND   GOVERNMENT  35 

missi  inspected  the  national  militia,  heard  complaints  against 
the  counts,  enforced  justice,  and  guarded  the  interests  of  the 
king.  Usually  they  were  sent  out  two  by  two  —  a  noble  and  a 
churchman. 

Twice  a  year,  in  early  summer  and  in  the  fall  or  winter, 
Charlemagne  summoned  the  principal  men  of  his  empire  to 
consult  with  him  concerning  its  affairs.     To  the  summer  33.  The 
meeting,  called  the  "  Field  of  May,"  came  all  freemen  May  Field 
capable  of  bearing  arms.     The  meeting  was  often  followed  by 
a  military  expedition,  in  which  each  warrior  supplied  his  own 
arms  and  equipment,  and  served  at  his  own  expense.     The 
following  description  of  a  general  assembly  of  Charlemagne's 
reign,  as  it  is   conceived   by  a    modern   French  writer,   will 
assist   in   understanding  the    relations  between   Charle-  Fustelde 
magne  and  his   chiefs,   and  between  them  and  the  or-  Coulanges, 
dinary    freemen.      "An  immense  multitude   is  gathered 
together  in  a  plain,  under  tents;    it  is  divided  into  distinct 
groups.     The  chiefs  of  the  groups  assemble  about  the  king,  and 
deliberate  with  him.     Then  each  of  these  makes  known  to  his 
own  people  what  has  been  decided,  consults  them  perhaps,  at 
any  rate  obtains  their  assent  with  as  little  difficulty  as  the  king 
has  obtained  his  own ;  for  these  men  are  dependent  on  him  just 
as  he  is  dependent  on  the  king.     The  general  assembly  is  a  com- 
posite of  a  thousand  little  assemblies,  which,  through  their  chiefs 
alone,  are  united  about  the  prince."     The  king's  will,  adds  this 
writer,  decided  everything ;  the  nobles  only  advised. 

In  one  respect  Charlemagne  enjoyed  much  greater  power 
than  was  possessed  by  medieval  rulers  after  him.     In  his  as- 
semblies he  not  only  dealt  with  affairs  which  concerned  34.  church 
the  state,  but  also  with  those  which  concerned  the  church,  and  state 
instead  of  leaving  these  to  be  decided,  as  was  later  the  rule,  by 
the  assemblies  and  courts  of  the  church  itself.      Church  and  state 
were  thus  to  a  considerable  extent  united.     Whenever  Charle- 
magne believed  that  priests  or  bishops  were  not  performing 
their  duties  properly,  he  did  not  hesitate  to  correct  them,  and 
to  pass  laws  deciding  the  most  important  church  questions. 


36  THE   EMPIRE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

B.   EDUCATION  AND  ARTS  UNDER  CHARLEMAGNE 

Charlemagne's  work  for  education  and  the  arts  constitutes 

one  of  the  most  important  features  of  his  reign.     When  he  came 

Charle-    to  t^ie  throne  tne  literatures  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome 

ma'gne  and     had  almost  disappeared  from  the  knowledge  of  men  in 

education       western  Europe,  and  even  the  writings   of   the  church 

scarcely  survived.     The  only  "books"  were  parchment  volumes 

written  by  hand.     Charlemagne  himself  learned  to  speak  and 

read  Latin  in  addition  to  his  native  German,  and  to  understand 

Greek,  though  not  to  speak  it.     He  never  mastered  the  art  of 

writing  as  then  used,  though  he  kept  waxed  tablets  always  by 

him  to  practice  it. 

Charlemagne's  chief  means  to  improve  education  and  learn- 
ing was  the  Palace  School  —  a  kind  of  learned  society  composed 
of  the  chief  scholars  and  courtiers  about  the  Emperor.  This 
school  played  an  important  part  in  a  real  revival  of  learning 
and  literature.  Its  head  was  an  English  monk  named  Alcuin. 
He  was  invited  to  the  Emperor's  court  from  his  monastery  at 
York,  which  was  then  the  most  learned  center  in  western  Europe. 
Other  learned  men  came  from  Italy,  Spain,  and  other  lands; 
some  were  grammarians,  some  poets,  some  theologians.  Charle- 
magne discussed  with  them  astronomy,  shipbuilding,  history, 
the  text  of  the  Scriptures,  theology,  moral  philosophy,  and  many 
other  subjects.  For  the  younger  members  of  the  royal  family 
and  court,  there  was  more  formal  instruction.  The  Palace  School 
may  thus  be  regarded  as  a  sort  of  high  school,  as  well  as  a  literary 
and  debating  club. 

Charlemagne's  care  for  education  did  not  stop  with  his  own 

court.     In  his  capitularies  we  read  such  commands  as  these: 

Robinson,       "  Let  schools  be  established  in  which  boys  may  learn  to 

Readings  in     rea(j      Correct  carefully  the  Psalms,  the  signs  in  writ- 

European 

History,  I,       mg,  the  songs,  the  calendar,  the  grammar,  in  each  mon- 

J46  astery  or   bishopric,   and   the  Catholic  books;    because 

often  men  desire  to  pray  to  God  properly,  but  they  pray  badly 

because  of  the  incorrect  books.     And  do  not  permit  mere  boys 


EDUCATION   AND    ARTS 


37 


to  corrupt  them  in  reading  or  writing.  If  there  is  need  of 
writing  the  Gospel,  Psalter,  and  Missal,  let  men  of  mature  age 
do  the  writing  with  diligence." 

Charlemagne  also  planned  canals,  built  bridges,  and  restored 
churches  which  were  crumbling  into  ruin.     But  his  work  in 
this  direction  did  little  to  check  the  artistic  decay  of  the     6   charle- 
times.     From  the  old  residence  of  the  Emperors  at  Ra-  magne  as  a 
venna,  a  hundred  marble  columns  were  taken  for  Charle-  buUder 
magne's    palace     and    chapel    at    Aachen     (Aix-la-Chapelle ; 
a/Ken,    aks-la-sha-pel')-     Thither    also   were  transported   pic- 
tures,   mosaics,    and 
precious     sculptures. 
Charlemagne  thus  set 
a    bad    example    to 
the   ages   which    fol- 
lowed.    He    encour- 
aged a  robbery  of  the 
ancient    monuments, 
which    caused    more 
destruction       among 
them  than  was  caused 
by  all  the  ravages  of 
time  and  war. 

The  ten  years  fol- 
lowing Charlemagne's 
coronation  as  Em- 
peror were  mainly 
spent  at  his  capital, 
Aachen.  His  fame 
abroad  was  at  its 
height.  To  his  court 
came  envoys  from 
the  renowned  Ha- 

roun-al-Rashid  (ha-roon'  ar-ra-shed') ,  caliph  of  Bagdad,  whose 
present  of  an  enormous  elephant  excited  the  liveliest  interest 
among  the  curious  Franks. 


CATHEDRAL  AT  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE 

The  octagon  at  center  of  the  picture  was  built  by 
Charlemagne ;  it  is  an  example  of  the  Byzantine 
style  of  architecture. 


38  THE  EMPIRE  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 

In  arranging  for  the  succession  after  his  death,  Charlemagne 

followed  the  old  Germanic  practice  of  dividing  the  kingdom 

37.  Charie-    among  his  three  sons,  whom  he  established  as  sub-kings 

magne  s  o      j     ^  jjfe|-j[me  OVer  portions  of  his  realm.     One  of  the 

age  ana  r 

death  (814)  chief  differences  in  the  position  of  the  monarch,  as  con- 
ceived by  the  Roman  Emperors  and  by  the  barbarian  kings, 
was  that  the  Roman  Emperors  in  theory  held  their  power  as 


ROYAL  PALACE  OF  CAROLINGIAN  TIMES 
From  Viollet-le-Duc 

a  trust  in  the  name  and  interest  of  the  state,  —  that  is,  of  all,  — 
while  the  barbarian  kings  regarded  the  royal  power  as  private 
property,  to  which  ordinary  rules  of  inheritance  could  be  applied. 
Charlemagne's  arrangement,  however,  broke  down,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  his  two  older  sons  died  before  he  did.  Then  Charle- 
magne placed  the  imperial  crown  on  the  head  of  his  third 
son,  Louis,  and  recognized  him  as  his  successor.  There  was  ap- 
parently no  thought  of  the  Pope  conferring  the  crown,  as  had 
been  done  at  Charlemagne's  own  unexpected  coronation. 
Four  months  later,  in  January,  814,  the  old  Emperor  died  of  a 
fever,  being  upward  of  seventy  years  of  age. 


EDUCATION  AND   ARTS 


39 


Few  men  have  left  a  deeper  impression  on  their  times,  and 
around  few  have  clustered  so  many  legends.     Because  many 
important  personages  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  but  dim  38.  His  ap^ 
and  shadowy  figures  to  us,  owing  to  the  scantiness  of  ^^*har- 
our  means  of  information,  the  account  of  Charlemagne's  acter 
personality  and  habits,  given  by  his  secretary  and  biographer 
Eginhard  (a'gin-hart),  is  of  peculiar  interest. 

"  Charles  was  large  and  strong,  and  of  lofty  stature,  though 
not  disproportionately  tall.  The  upper  part  of  his  head  was 
round,  his  eyes  very  large  and  animated,  nose  a  little  long,  Eginhard, 
hair  fair,  and  face  laughing  and  merry.  His  appearance  ^rl^aagne> 
was  always  stately  and  dignified,  whether  he  was  standing  (condensed) 
or  sitting.  He  took  frequent  exercise  on  horseback  and  in  the 
chase.  He  enjoyed  natural  warm  springs,  and  often  practiced 
swimming,  in  which  he  was  such  an  adept  that  none  could 
surpass  him.  Thence  it  was  that  he  built  his  palace  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle,  and  lived  there  constantly  during  his  latter  years 
until  his  death.  He  used  to  wear  the  national,  that  is  to  say 
the  Prankish,  dress,  —  next  his  skin  a  linen  shirt  and  linen 
breeches,  and  above  these  a  tunic  fringed  with  silk;  while 
hose  fastened  by  bands  covered  his  legs,  and  shoes  his  feet,  and 
he  protected  his  shoulders  and  chest  in  winter  by  a  close-fitting 
coat  of  otter  or  mar- 
ten skins.  Over  all 
he  flung  a  blue  cloak, 
and  he  always  had  a 
sword  girt  about  him. 
Charlemagne  was 
temperate  in  eating 
and  particularly  so  in 
drinking,  for  he  abom- 
inated drunkenness  in 

anybody,  much  more  in  himself  and  those  of  his  household ; 
but  he  could  not  easily  abstain  from  food,  and  often  com- 
plained that  fast  days  injured  his  health.  His  meals  ordi- 
narily consisted  of  four  courses,  not  counting  the  roast,  which 


ROASTING  ON  A  SPIT 
From  a  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford 


THE   EMPIRE  OF   CHARLEMAGNE 


his  huntsmen  used  to  bring  in  on  the  spit ;  he  was  more  fond 
of  this  than  of  any  other  dish.  While  at  table  he  listened  to 
reading  or  music." 

C.   DISSOLUTION  OF  CHARLEMAGNE'S  EMPIRE 

The  power  which   Charlemagne  built  up  declined  rapidly 

after  his  death.     Civil  wars  and  rebellions  distracted  the  reign 

39.  Parti-       of  his  well-meaning  but  weak  successor,  Louis  the  Pious 

Verdun          (814-840).     Louis's    death   was   followed   by   a   terrible 

(843)  battle  between   his   three   sons   at   Fontenay'  (841).     A 

treaty  of  partition  was  then  arranged  between  the  brothers  at 

Verdun'  in  843.     One  brother,  Louis  the  German,  received  the 

eastern  third  of  the  empire,  beyond  the  rivers  Aar  and  Rhine. 


PARTITION  OF  VERDUN  (843) 


DISSOLUTION  OF  THE   EMPIRE  41 

The  youngest,  Charles  the  Bald,  received  the  western  third, 
lying  west  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Scheldt  (skelt).  The  eldest 
brother,  Lothair',  received  the  middle  strip,  with  Italy  and  the 
title  of  Emperor.  This  sweeping  partition  was  the  first  step  in 
marking  out  territories  in  which  were  to  arise  great  European 
states.  Louis's  division  included  the  districts  in  which  were 
spoken  various  German  dialects,  and  corresponds  roughly 
to  modern  Germany.  In  Charles's  portion  a  corrupted  Latin 
prevailed,  the  forerunner  of  the  French  speech,  and  this  region 
grew  in  time  to  be  modern  France.  The  middle  strip  had 
neither  unity  of  race  nor  a  common  language.  Its  parts, 
therefore,  together  with  Italy,  became  for  ten  centuries  the 
object  of  conquests  and  the  seat  of  European  wars. 

The  history  of  the  later  descendants  of  Charlemagne  makes 
a  confused  and  uninteresting  story.     The  incompetent  rulers 
in  the  various  parts  of  his  empire  quarreled  among  them-  40.  End  of 
selves,  until  they  rapidly  became  extinct.     In  Italy  the  {^^ly^nd 
Carolingian  line  of  rulers  ended  in  875 ;    in  Germany  it  Germany 
lasted  until  911.     Only  once  was  the  Frankish  empire  reunited 
under  a  single  ruler.     This  was  under  the  incompetent  Charles 
the  Fat,  one  of  the  grandsons  of  Louis  the  Pious,  who  for  three 
brief  years  (884-887)  ruled  over  the  whole  of  Charlemagne's 
realm.     His  deposition  and  death  mark  the  final  break-up  of  the 
unity  of  the  Carolingian  lands. 

In  France  for  a  hundred  years  longer  some  semblance  of 
power  remained  to  the  Carolingians.  Three  times  within  that 
period,  however,  they  were  set  aside  and  rulers  of  another  41.  Fall  of 
house  (the  Robertians,  so  called  from  an  ancestor,  Robert 
the  Strong)  were  put  in  their  place.  In  987,  the  last  of  (987) 
the  French  Carolingians  in  the  direct  line  died,  leaving  no  chil- 
dren. On  the  ground  that  the  throne  was  not  hereditary  but 
elective,  an  assembly  of  nobles  then  rejected  the  claim  of  the 
uncle  of  this  king,  and  chose  as  ruler  a  Robertian,  Hugh 
Capet  (ca-pe').  Thus  in  France  also  the  power  of  the  great 
house  from  which  had  sprung  Charles  Martel,  Pepin,  and 
Charlemagne,  came  definitely  to  an  end.  The  future  of  France 


THE  EMPIRE  OF   CHARLEMAGNE 


was  left  in  the  lands  of  its  third  dynasty,  the  Capetians 
(ca-pe'shanz),  members  of  which  ruled  there  until  the  abolition 
of  the  monarchy  by  the  French  revolution  in  1792. 

THE  DESCENDANTS  OF  CHARLEMAGNE 
(i)  CHARLEMAGNE 
(768-814) 


Charles 

(In  Italy  and  the 
Middle  Strip) 

Pepin                (2)  Louis  I,  THE  Pious 
(d.  810)                           (814-840) 

Bernard 
(d.8i8) 
(In  Germany)                       (In  France) 

1 
(3)  LOTHAIR  I 
(843-855) 

Pepin            Louis  THE  GERMAN         (5)  CHARLES  • 
(d.  838)                    (843-876)                              (843_ 

•HE  BALD 

87?) 

CJIS  II 
HE 
MMERER 
77-879) 

"1 

2ARLES 

SIMPLE 
humous) 

(4)  Louis  II      LOTHAIR  II 

IV      nf 

(8S5-87O         '-k-  OI 
v^5  —  «'    Lotharingia, 

CHARLES      CARLOMAN     Louis      (6)  CHARLES     Lo 
(K.  of            (K.  of           THE              THE  FAT         ^ 
Provence,     Bavaria,     YOUNGER    ._,  ~~rL  -      :     STA 
855-863)      876-880)         (K.of      (K-ofSwabia,    (8 
Saxony,          °7  0-007  • 
876-882)^   Ruler  of  all 
N~^/-V^  Carolingian  lands 
884-887, 
(9)  ARNULF                      deposed^87^d.888) 
K.  of  Germany 

(887  899)               |                        | 
Louis  III       CARLOMAN       Ci 
.LOUIS         (879-882)        (879-884)     THE 

ss^?                 ~™~  (P051 

29) 


RIVAL  LINE  IN  FRANCE  OF 
THE  "ROBERTIANS" 

Robert  the  Strong, 
Duke  of  the  French  (d.  866) 

Louis  IV 
(D'Outremer) 
(936-954) 

LOTHAIR 
(954-086) 

French             "(986^) 

1 

Charles,  Duke  of 
Lower  Lorraine 
(d.994) 

ODO,  Count  of  Paris       ROBERT,  Duke  of  the 
(King,  888-808)                    (King,  922-923) 

Hugh  the  Great, 
Duke  of  the  French 
(d.  056) 

Emma  =  RUDOLPH, 
Duke  of  Burgundy 
^Kint?,  923-936) 

HUGH  CAPET  (King,  987-996), 
founder  of  the  Capetian  line 
which  ruled  France  for  eight 
hundred  years  (to  1792) 

Explanation 

Names  underscored  thus  are  those  of  members  of  the  Carolingian  house  who  bore 
the  title  of  Emperor.  The  seventh  and  eighth  Emperors,  beginning  to  count  with 
Charlemagne,  were  obscure  Italian  princes,  not  of  the  Carolingian  house. 

Indicates  extinction  of  the  male  line. 

Indicates  illegitimate  descent. 


TOPICS   AND  REFERENCES  43 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

768-814.  Reign  of  Charlemagne. 

800.  Charlemagne  crowned  Emperor  at  Rome. 

843.  Partition  of  Verdun. 

875.  End  of  the  Carolingian  line  in  Italy. 

884-887.  Charlemagne's  empire  reunited  under  Charles  the  Fat. 

911.  End  of  the  Carolingian  line  in  Germany. 

987.  End  of  the  Carolingian  line  in  France ;  Hugh  Capet  becomes  king. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  What  did  Clovis,  Charles  Martel,  Pepin  the  Short, 
and  Charlemagne  each  contribute  to  the  growth  of  the  Frankish  power  ? 
(2)  In  what  consisted  the  special  greatness  of  Charlemagne?  (3)  Com- 
pare the  extent  of  the  territory  ruled  over  by  Charlemagne  with  that  of 
the  Eastern  Empire  in  his  day.  (4)  Why  was  the  papacy  more  friendly 
to  the  Franks  than  to  the  other  Germans?  (5)  Why  was  the  coronation 
of  Charlemagne  as  Emperor  so  important?  (6)  Compare  the  German 
ideas  of  law  with  modern  ideas.  (7)  Why  were  officers  like  the  "missi" 
needed  to  control  local  officials?  (8)  Why  was  Charlemagne's  care  for 
education  important?  (9)  Did  Charlemagne  in  his  habits  of  life  more 
nearly  resemble  a  Roman  Emperor  or  barbarian  chieftain  ? 

Search  Topics. —  (i)  CHARLEMAGNE'S  WARS  WITH  THE  SAXONS.  Emer- 
ton,  Introduction,  189-205.  —  (2)  LEGENDARY  ACCOUNT  OF  HIS  WAR  WITH 
THE  LOMBARDS.  Emerton,  Introduction,  181-186;  Longfellow,  Tales  of  the 
Wayside  Inn,  Pt.  Ill  (Poet's  Tale).  — (3)  STORY  OF  ROLAND.  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XXIII,  464;  Sheppard,  Fall  of  Rome,  508-513; 
Bulfinch,  Legends  of  Charlemagne;  Song  of  Roland.  —  (4)  CONTEMPORARY 
ACCOUNTS  OF  THE  CORONATION  OF  CHARLEMAGNE.  Duncalf  and  Krey, 
Parallel  Source  Problems,  Pt.  I;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  130-134;  Robinson, 
Readings  in  European  History,  I,  131-134.  —  (5)  CHARLEMAGNE'S  GOVERN- 
MENT. Sargent,  The  Franks,  ch.  xviii ;  Mombert,  Charles  the  Great,  Bk.  Ill, 
ch.  i.  —  (6)  ALCUIN  AND  THE  PALACE  SCHOOL.  Ogg,  Source  Book,  144-145 ; 
Mombert,  Charles  the  Great,  241-267;  Hodgkin,  Charles  the  Great,  235-238; 
West,  Alcuin,  ch.  iii;  Masterman,  Dawn  of  Medieval  Europe,  ch.  xx.  — 
(7)  OATHS  OF  STRASSBURG.  Ogg,  Source  Book,  149-154;  Munro,  Middle 
Ages,  20;  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  26-28. 

General  Reading.  —  Mombert's  Charles  the  Great  is  the  best  life  of  Charle- 
magne in  English.  Hodgkin's  Charles  the  Great  is  an  excellent  brief  ac- 
count ;  fuller  accounts  of  many  subjects  are  in  his  Italy  and  her  Invaders. 
The  chapters  in  Guizot's  History  of  Civilization  in  France  are  still  of  value. 
Eginhard's  contemporary  Life  of  Charlemagne  is  brief  and  is  easily  obtain- 
able in  English  translation. 


CHAPTER   II 

RAIDS  AND   SETTLEMENTS   OF  THE  NORTHMEN 
A.  ON  THE  CONTINENT 

ONE  of  the  causes  of  the  breaking  up  of  the  Carolingian 
Empire  was  a  new  flood  of  Germanic  invaders  (the  Northmen) 

42.  Causes     who  burst  upon  western  Europe  in  the  ninth  century. 
Northmen's    ^e  newcomers  were  a  sturdy  people  from  the  lands  about 
raids  the   Baltic   Sea,   where   their  descendants  —  the  modern 

Danes,  Norwegians,  and  Swedes  —  still  dwell.  They  were 
closely  related  to  the  German  tribes  whose  coming  overwhelmed 
the  Roman  Empire  four  hundred  years  before.  During  those 
earlier  invasions,  the  Northmen  had  remained  quiet;  but  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  they  too  felt  the  impulse  to 
conquest.  Their  lands  discouraged  agriculture,  while  the  sea 
invited  to  distant  adventure.  Charlemagne's  conquest  of  the 
Saxons  had  brought  Christianity  and  Frankish  rule  close  to 
their  doors,  and  thus  the  Northmen  learned  of  the  booty  and 
glory  to  be  won  in  the  rich  lands  to  the  south.  The  result  was 
a  series  of  raids  and  expeditions  by  sea,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  the  last  wave  of  the  Germanic  migrations. 

In  their  own  language  the  Northmen  were  called  "  vikings, " 
or  creekmen  (vik  =  creek),  because  of  their  habit  of  sallying  forth 

43.  Wide       from  the  creeks  and  bays  of  Scandinavia  to  plunder  and 
of  their          destroy.     Almost  the  whole  of  Christendom  suffered  at 
ravages          their  hands.    They  plundered  the  shores  alike  of  Germany, 

France,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Spain.  Everywhere  their 
method  of  attack  was  much  the  same.  In  their  light  vessels 
they  entered  the  river  mouths  and  advanced  into  the  heart 
of  the  country ;  then  they  seized  horses  and  rode  far  and  wide. 
They  directed  their  attacks  especially  against  the  churches  and 

44 


ON  THE   CONTINENT  45 

monasteries.    In  these  were  rich  gold  and  silver  vessels,  and 
fine  embroidered  cloths;    and  since  the  Northmen  were  still 
worshipers    of   the 
heathen  gods,  Woden 
and  Thor,   they  were 
restrained  by  no  reli- 
gious scruples.    It  was 
easier,  also,  to  capture 
a  church  or  a  monas- 
tery   than  to   take    a 
fortified  town,  for  the     REMAINS  or  A  VUQNG  SHIP'r"OUND  w  SwEDEN 
priests  and  monks  were 

not  fighting  men.  The  terror  inspired  by  the  Northmen's 
pitiless  ravages,  by  their  lust  for  fighting,  by  their  cruelty 
and  faithlessness,  led  to  the  insertion  of  this  prayer  in  the 
church  services:  "From  the  fury  of  the  Northmen,  good  Lord, 
deliver  us." 

At  first  the  Northmen  came  only  during  the  summer  season, 
sailing  home  when  the  winter  storms  were  due.  Before  long 
they  began  to  spend  the  winter  also  in  Christian  lands.  They 
would  seize  upon  an  island  lying  off  the  coast  by  a  river's 
mouth,  and  from  this  as  headquarters  would  go  forth  at  all 
times  of  the  year  to  ravage  the  surrounding  country.  In  the 
Prankish  lands  they  established  such  headquarters  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Scheldt  River,  and  soon  had  taken  possession  of  all 
Frisia.  In  843,  —  the  year  of  the  Partition  of  Verdun,  —  they 
seized  the  mouth  of  the  river  Loire,  and  extended  their  ravages 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Seine  and  Garonne.  Great  stretches  of 
country  fell  out  of  cultivation,  and  a  large  part  of  the  popula- 
tion perished  through  massacre  and  starvation.  In  one  of  their 
raids  they  took  and  sacked  the  royal  city  of  Aachen,  stabled 
their  horses  in  its  cathedral,  and  despoiled  the  tomb  of  Charle- 
magne. 

The  most  famous  struggle  came  at  Paris  in  the  years  885- 
886.  Paris  was  not  yet  the  capital  of  France,  but  its  situation 
made  it  already  important.  It  was  built  on  a  low  island  in 


46       RAIDS  AND   SETTLEMENTS  OF  THE   NORTHMEN 

the  Seine,  with  a  fortified  bridge  connecting  it  with  each  bank. 
Although  the  city  had  already  been  twice  sacked,  its  governor 

44.  Great       (Count  Odo)  and  its  bishop  encouraged  the  people  to  re- 
Paris  ?8g-_    sist.     The  viking  ships  are  said  to  have  numbered  seven 
886)  hundred,  and  to  have  carried  an  army  of  40,000  men. 

For  eleven  months  the  city  held  out.  Then  the  "cowardly, 
unwieldy,  incompetent"  Emperor,  Charles  the  Fat  (§  40), 
bribed  the  Northmen  to  withdraw.  The  bravery  displayed  by 
Count  Odo  in  the  defense  of  Paris  was  one  of  the  things  that 
brought  into  prominence  the  Robertian  family,  to  which  he 
belonged.  It  was  one  of  a  chain  of  events  which  enabled  his 
grandnephew  Hugh  Capet,  a  century  later,  to  wrest  the  throne 
of  France  from  Charlemagne's  enfeebled  descendants  (§41). 
The  withdrawal  of  the  Northmen  from  Paris  did  not  prevent 
them  from  settling  in  increasing  numbers  in  the  lands  about 

45.  Grant      the  lower  Seine.     Their  chief  leader  was  Rolf  (or  Rollo), 
nLmdy'to       called  "the  Walker"  because  his  gigantic  size  prevented 
Rolf  (911)      his  finding  a  horse  to  carry  him.     For  nearly  fifty  years 

he  had  plundered  Frisia,  England,  Scotland,  France;  at  the 
great  siege  of  Paris  he  had  been  one  of  the  chiefs.  Rolf,  however, 
was  something  more  than  a  mere  pirate  and  robber.  When  he 
captured  a  town  he  strengthened  its  walls,  rebuilt  its  churches, 
and  sought  to  rule  it  as  a  conquering  prince.  In  this  way  he 
secured  a  number  of  towns  north  and  south  of  the  mouth  of 
the  river  Seine.  In  the  year  911,  the  Carolingian  king  of  France, 
despairing  of  securing  peace  by  other  means,  granted  him  a 
wide  stretch  of  country  in  that  region,  with  the  title  of  duke. 
The  grant  was  made  on  three  conditions :  first,  Rolf  must  set- 
tle his  Northmen  there  and  leave  the  rest  of  the  land  at 
peace;  second,  he  must  become  a  Christian;  and  third,  he 
must  do  homage  to  the  French  king  as  his  lord.1 

The  settlement  of  the  Northmen  in  "Normandy,"  as  this 

'l  There  is  a  story  that  Rolf  was  asked  to  do  homage  by  kneeling  down  and  kiss- 
ing the  French  king's  foot.  Rolf  refused  to  do  this,  but  commanded  one  of  his  fol- 
lowers to  perform  the  humiliating  act.  The  follower  had  no  more  liking  for  the  cere- 
mony than  his  chief ;  and  the  story  runs  that  when  he  lifted  the  king's  foot  to  touch 
it  to  his  lips  he  raised  it  so  high  that  he  toppled  the  king  over  on  his  back  ! 


ON  THE   CONTINENT 


47 


land  was  soon  called,  proved  a  most  fortunate  step  for  France. 

Rolf's  followers  settled 
down  quietly  under  his 
stern  rule  and  speedily 
became  law-abiding 
subjects.  According  to 
an  ancient  chronicle, 
Rolf,  while  hunting  in 
a  forest  near  Rouen 
(roo-aN'),  his  capital, 
hung  his  gold  bracelets 
on  a  branch  of  an  oak 
tree,  and  there  they  re- 
mained for  three  years 
without  any  one  daring 
to  touch  them. 

The  energy  and  dar- 
ing which  produced 
the  Northmen's  46  North. 

Settlements     in    menindis- 

France  mani- 
fested itself  also  in  more 
distant  expeditions. 
One  stream  of  these  ad- 
venturers turned  to  the 
vast  plains  of  western 
Russia,  and  united  the 
Slavs  of  that  region 
into  a  single  great  king- 
dom (862),  of  which 
the  center  was  Kief 
(see  map,  p.  131).  The 
dynasty  which  their 
chieftain  Rurik  estab- 
lished reigned  over  Russia  for  more  than  seven  hundred  years. 
Others  of  these  restless  warriors  found  an  outlet  for  their  en- 


taut  lands 


NORSE  ART 

Carved  door  from  an  old  church  in  Iceland ;  now 
in  Copenhagen  Museum.  From  Du  Chaillu's 
The  Viking  Age.  Note  the  dragon  above  and 
the  "  world-serpent "  (Midgard)  below. 


48       RAIDS  AND   SETTLEMENTS   OF   THE    NORTHMEN 

ergies  in  serving  as  mercenary  troops  under  the  Emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople. In  the  western  Atlantic,  viking  bands  discovered 
and  settled  Iceland  in  the  ninth  century,  and  Greenland  in 
the  tenth.  And  about  the  year  1000  —  almost  five  hundred 
years  before  Columbus's  voyage  —  one  of  the  Greenland 
settlers,  named  Leif  Ericson,  brought  back  wonderful  tales 
of  a  land  of  grapes  ("Vinland")  which  he  had  found  to  the 
south.  Without  doubt,  he  had  discovered  the  mainland  of 
North  America. 

B.  KING  ALFRED  AND  THE  NORTHMEN  IN  ENGLAND 

The  island  of  Britain,  like  all  of  western  Europe,  once  formed 

part  of  the  Roman  Empire.     As  we  have  seen,  it  too  was  over- 

47  The         run   ky   Germanic   tribes    (Angles,    Saxons,    and   Jutes) 

English  in      about  the  year  449.     In  the  course  of  two  centuries  the 

newcomers  completely  conquered  the  eastern  and  southern 

parts  of  the  island.     The  Britons  were  killed,  enslaved,  or  driven 

into  the  mountains.     The  institutions  of  the  German  invaders 

were  introduced  with  but  little  admixture  of  Celtic  or  Roman 

elements.     Even  the  Christian  religion  disappeared,  along  with 

the  Latin  tongue  and  the  Roman-British  civilization.     Near  the 

close  of  the  sixth  century,  however,  Christianity  was  rein troduced. 

Within  a  hundred  years  thereafter  the  whole  island  had  accepted 

this  faith,  and  had  recognized  the  Pope's  headship  of  the  church. 

In  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  centuries  there  were  at 

least  seven   different  kingdoms  of  the  English.     They  were 

48.  The         called  respectively  the  West  Saxons,  South  Saxons,  East 

seven  king-    Saxons,   East  Anglians   (North   Folk  and   South  Folk), 

doms  united  Mercians  (or  Middle  Angles),  Northumbrians,  and  the 

men  of  Kent.     The  names  of  most  of  these  peoples  are  still 

preserved  in  the  county  names  of  the  regions  where  they  ruled 

(Sussex,  Essex,  Norfolk,  etc.).     At  first  the  different  kingdoms 

were  often  at  war.     Then   gradually  the   stronger  kingdoms 

began  to  gain  power  over  the  weaker  ones.     Finally,  at  the 

beginning  of  the  ninth  century,  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  was 

able  to  unite  all  England  under  his  single  rule.     This  union  was 


KING  ALFRED   AND   THE   NORTHMEN  IN   ENGLAND    49 


English  Territory 


made  permanent  by  the  raids  of  the  Northmen,  which  became 
dangerous  during  the  reigns  of  Egbert's  immediate  successors. 

The  Danes,  as  the  English  called  the  Northmen,  had  begun 
to  harass  the  coasts  of  England  as  early  as  787.     As  on  the 
Continent,  they  first  came  merely  to  plunder,  but  about  49.  Danish 
850  they  began  to  form  settlements.    Little  by  little  they  invasions 
overran  the  land,  until  all  England  had  been   taken   except 
Wessex  itself.    Here  they  were  checked  by  the  young  king 

Alfred,  —  "the  wisest, 
best,  and  greatest  king 
that  ever  reigned  in 
England." 

In  the  year  that 
Alfred  (871-900)  l  be- 
came king,  nine  50  Mhed 
general  battles  checks  the 
were  fought  Danes 
south  of  the  river 
Thames  (temz). 
After  seven  years  of 
struggle  Alfred  won  a 
decisive  victory  (878) 
and  drove  the  Danes 
into  their  fortified 
camp.  There  he  be- 
sieged them  for  four- 
teen days.  Inasmuch 
as  they  were  separated 
from  their  ships  and 
could  get  no  supplies, 
their  king  agreed  to 


ENGLAND  AFTER  THE  TREATY  OF  WEDMORE  (878) 


as  the  treaty  of  Wedmore. 


make  a  peace,  known 
And  then,"  says  the  old  chronicle, 


1  The  date  of  Alfred's  death  is  usually  given  as  901,  but  recent  investigations 
give  greater  probability  to  the  date  given  in  the  text.  See  Ramsey,  Foundations  of 
p.n^lund,  I,  267. 


50       RAIDS  AND   SETTLEMENTS   OF   THE   NORTHMEN 

"the  army  delivered  hostages  to  King  Alfred,  with  many 
oaths  that  they  would  leave  this  kingdom,  and  also  promised 
him  that  their  king  should  receive  baptism.  And  this  they 
accordingly  fulfilled."  By  a  revision  of  this  treaty,  made  a 
few  years  later,  the  Danes  were  to  have  all  the  country  of 
England  north  and  east  of  the  Thames  River,  and  of  the  old 
Roman  road  called  Watling  Street.  The  name  "Danelaw"  was 
given  to  this  region  because  there  the  Danish,  and  not  the 
Saxon,  law  was  in  force. 

After  the  treaty  of  Wedmore,  Wessex  for  some  time  enjoyed 
peace.      Alfred  now  had  opportunity  to  accomplish  that   re- 
si   Alfred's    organization   and   strengthening   of  his  kingdom  which, 
work  in          equally  with  his  defeat  of  the  Danes,  constitutes  his  claim 
p*ace  to  fame.     Among  his  many  works  of  peace  were  the  fol- 

lowing :  he  fortified  and  partly  rebuilt  the  city  of  London ;  he 
reorganized  the  army ;  he  collected  and  revised  the  old  laws  of 


ANGLO-SAXON  PLOW  TEAM 
From  a  MS.  Saxon  calendar,  tenth  century 

the  kingdom;  he  encouraged  industry  by  bringing  skilled 
workmen  to  England  from  foreign  countries.  He  was  also 
deeply  interested  in  education,  and  invited  to  his  court  learned 
men  from  the  Continent,  who  formed  a  school  modeled  after 
the  famous  Palace  School  of  the  Emperor  Charlemagne.  Alfred 
himself  translated  a  number  of  works  from  the  Latin  into  the 
Anglo-Saxon  tongue.  He  also  gave  orders  for  the  compilation 
of  the  great  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  which  is  a  chief  source  of 
our  knowledge  of  English  history  for  the  following  two 
centuries. 


KING  ALFRED  AND   THE   NORTHMEN  IN  ENGLAND       51 

Both  for  what  he  did  and  for  what  he  was,  Alfred  truly  de- 
serves his  title  "the  Great."    He  was  a  brave  warrior,  a  wise 
lawmaker,  a  patient  teacher,  and  a  watchful   guardian         char- 
of  his  people.     Above  all,  he  was  a  true  and  pure  man,  acter  of 
loving  his  family  and  training  his  children  with  great  Alfred 
care.    The  secret  of  his  success  is  told  in  his  own  words:   "To 
sum  up  all,"  he  said,  "it  has  ever  been  my  desire  to  live  worthily 
while  I  was  alive,  and  after  my  death  to  leave  to  those  that 
should  come  after  me  my  memory  in  good  works." 

In  the  latter  part  of  Alfred's  reign  the  war  with  the  Danes 
began  anew.     Under  his  son  and  his  three   grandsons,  who 
ruled  one  after  another,  the  Danelaw  was  reconquered  and  s     The 
again  joined  with  the  rest  of  England.     A  large  admixture  Danelaw 
of  Danish  blood,  however,  continued  in  the  north,  leav-  r 
ing  its  marks  in  the  rude  freedom  of  the  inhabitants. 

By  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  the  invasions  of  the  North- 
men had  come  to  an  end.      Those  who  remained  in  Scandinavia 
settled  down  and  organized  the  kingdoms  of  Norway,  S4  End  of 
Sweden,  and  Denmark.     About  the  year  1000  they  were  the  viking 
converted  to  the  Christian  religion.     As  in  other  European  raids 
countries,  their  wars  were  now  fought  in  the  interests  of  their 
kings.     The  period  of  viking  raids  and  settlements  was  at  an  end. 


IMPORTANT  DATES 

787.  Northmen  first  attack  England. 

862.  Rurik  the  Northman  founds  a  kingdom  in  Russia. 

871-900.  Reign  of  King  Alfred  in  England. 

885-886.  Great  siege  of  Paris  by  the  Northmen. 

911.  Normandy  ceded  to  Rolf. 

1000.  America  discovered  by  the  Northmen. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  ninth  century  Northmen  with  the 
Franks  of  that  time.  (2)  Compare  the  long  ships  of  the  vikings  with  the 
ancient  Roman  galleys.  (3)  Were  the  ships  in  which  the  Northmen  dis- 
covered Greenland  and  America  of  the  same  kind  as  their  long  war  ships  ? 


52        RAIDS  AND   SETTLEMENTS  OF  THE  NORTHMEN 

(4)  How  did  the  failure  of  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Fat  to  aid  Paris  con- 
tribute to  the  downfall  of  the  Carolingians  in  France  ?  (5)  Was  the  cession 
of  Normandy  to  Rolf  wise  or  unwise  ?  Why  ?  (6)  Compare  the  settlement 
of  the  Angles  and  Saxons  in  Britain  with  that  of  the  Franks  in  Gaul. 
(7)  Was  Alfred's  treaty  with  the  Danes  wise  or  unwise  ?  Why  ?  (8)  What 
qualities  entitle  Alfred  to  the  name  "  the  Great "  ?  (9)  Compare  Alfred  with 
Charlemagne.  (10)  Which  had  the  greater  permanent  results,  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  Northmen  in  Russia  or  their  discovery  of  America  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  NORTHMEN  AT  HOME.  Du  Chaillu,  Viking  Age, 
II,  chs.  xx,  xxi;  Keary,  Vikings  in  Western  Christendom,  ch.  v.  —  (2)  HAS- 
TINGS, A  TYPICAL  VIKING.  Harding,  Story  of  the  Middle  Ages,  117-118; 
Keary,  Vikings  in  Western  Christendom,  358-365.  —  (3)  THE  GREAT  SIEGE 
or  PARIS.  Oman,  Art  of  War,  140-148 ;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  168-171 ;  Robin- 
son, Readings  in  European  History,  I,  165-168.  —  (4)  CESSION  OF  NOR- 
MANDY TO  ROLF.  Oman,  Dark  Ages,  501-503;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  171-173. 
—  (5)  THE  NORTHMEN  IN  RUSSIA.  Rambaud,  History  of  Russia,  I,  ch. 
iv.  —  (6)  NORSE  SETTLEMENTS  IN  ICELAND  AND  GREENLAND.  Du 
Chaillu,  Viking  Age,  II,  514-519;  Fiske,  Discovery  of  America,  I,  151-163. 
—  (7)  THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  BY  THE  NORTHMEN.  Fiske,  Discovery  of 
America,  I,  164-194;  Du  Chaillu,  Viking  Age,  II,  519-530.  —  (8)  ANGLO- 
SAXON  CONQUEST  OF  BRITAIN.  Green,  Short  History  of  England,  7-16; 
Cheyney,  Readings,  35-40.  —  (9)  CONVERSION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  TO  CHRIS- 
TIANITY. Traill,  Social  England,  Vol.  I,  153-161 ;  Cheyney,  Readings,  46- 
56;  Terry,  History  of  England,  34-48;  Ogg,  Source  .Book,  72-77. — 
(10)  CHARACTER  AND  ACHIEVEMENTS  OF  KING  ALFRED.  Green,  Short 
History,  47-52;  Plummer,  Life  and  Times  of  Alfred;  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica,  "Alfred  the  Great";  Ogg,  Source  Book,  181-195;  Cheyney,  Read- 
ings, 63-69. 

General  Reading.  —  On  the  Northmen,  Keary's  Vikings  in  Western  Chris- 
tendom, Anderson's  Viking  Tales  of  the  North,  and  Du  Chaillu's  The  Viking 
Age  (2  vols.)  may  be  consulted.  For  Alfred,  in  addition  to  the  histories  of 
England  covering  this  period,  see  the  lives  by  Plummer,  Hughes,  Bowker, 
and  Pauli,  and  the  article  by  Freeman  (entitled  "Aelfred")  in  the  great 
Dictionary  of  National  Biography.  The  contemporary  biography  by  Asser 
is  the  chief  source  for  Alfred's  history;  it  may  be  had  in  several  English 
translations. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM 

A.  ORIGINS 

FEUDALISM  was  the  form  of  political,  social,  and  economic 
organization  which  prevailed  throughout  western  Europe  at 
the  height  of  the  Middle  Ages.     It  was  a  natural  result  5g  Decay 
of  the  continued   and   ever   increasing   weakness  in  the  of  central 
government.     With  the  coming  of  the  Germans  into  the  s°vernment 
Roman   Empire,   the  strong    centralized    government  of    the 
empire  had  been  broken  up,  and  disorder  held  sway.     Charle- 
magne checked   for  a   time  the   tendency  of  the  government 
to  fall  to  pieces ;  but  with  the  decline  of  the  Carolingian  power 
after  his  death,  through  internal  weakness  and  renewed  bar- 
barian invasions,  decay  again  set  in.     The  bonds  of  government 
everywhere  relaxed,  the  obligations  of  the  state  to  protect  the 
persons  and  rights  of  its  subjects  remained  unfulfilled,  and  the 
strong  oppressed  the  weak. 

Because  of  this  growing  weakness  of  the  central  government, 
rich  and  powerful  men  everywhere  in  western  Europe  took  upon 
themselves    the   burden    of    their    own    defense.     Every  g6  Begin_ 
lofty  hilltop,  every  river-island  and  stronghold,  became  nings  of 
a  site  for  the  tower  or  castle  of  some  lord.     Later  these  feudalism 
castles  were  looked  upon  by  the  lower  classes  as  centers  of  op- 
pression, but  at  first  they  were  viewed  with  different  senti- 
ments-.    They  were  then  "the  sure  places  of  deposit  for  their 
harvests  and  their  goods.       In  case  of  invasions  they  gave 
shelter  to  their  wives,  their  children,  themselves.     Each  Fustelde 
strong  castle  constituted  the  safety  of  a  district."    The  Coulanges, 
poorer  freemen  were  obliged  to  surrender  their  independence  VI>  682 
and  become  the  dependents  of  the  great  man  who  took  them 
under  his  protection,  binding  themselves  to  render  to  him  service 

53 


54 


ORIGINS  55 

against  all  other  persons.  If  they  had  land  in  their  own  right, 
they  usually  gave  it  up  to  the  lord,  who  then  gave  them  back 
the  use  of  it.  If  they  had  no  land,  the  lord  often  granted  them 
the  use  of  some  of  his  own  land.  Thus  the  lord  became  the  head 
of  a  complicated  group  of  persons  and  lands.  He  gradually  ac- 
quired most  of  the  governmental  rights  over  these,  because  of 
the  inability  or  failure  of  the  government  to  discharge  its 
duties.  Feudalism  ended  by  becoming  not  only  a  system  of 
land  tenure,  in  which  the  ownership  of  the  land  was  lodged  in 
one  person  and  its  use  in  another ;  it  became  also  a  system  of 
military,  political,  economic,  and  social  organization. 

In  the  fully  developed  feudal  system  we  can  distinguish  three 
distinct  elements,  (i)  The  first  of  these  was  the  personal 
element,  or  vassalage.  This  was  the  relationship  which  57  Feudal 
bound  a  free  dependent  to  a  lord.  The  dependent  (vassal)  elements : 
rendered  military  service  to  the  lord ;  in  return  the  lord  Vassalase 
protected  his  vassal.  The  i^oots  of  this  personal  element  may 
be  traced  in  Roman  history  to  the  relation  between  patron  and 
client,  and  among  the  early  Germans  to  the  relation  between 
the  German  chieftain  and  his  band  of  military  followers  (comi- 
tatus).  In  the  Frankish  kingdom  such  relationships  became 
almost  universal.  The  vassal  subjected  himself  to  his  lord 
by  "doing  homage"  and  taking  an  oath  of  "fealty,"  or  fidelity. 
In  the  ceremony  of  homage  he  knelt  and  placed  his  hands  in 
those  of  his  lord,  and  declared  himself  to  be  his  lord's  "man" 
(Latin,  homo)  and  promised  to  serve  him  honorably  from  that 
day  forth.  Rising  to  his  feet,  the  vassal  then  took  the  oath 
of  fealty,  swearing  faithfully  to  fulfill  his  obligations  to  his  lord. 
The  relationship  of  lord  and  vassal  became  so  general  that,  by 
the  year  900,  the  system  of  independent  freemen  had  practically 
disappeared  in  western  Europe,  and  society  had  become  a  chain 
of  dependents  mounting  from  vassal  to  vassal  up  to  the  king. 

(2)  The  second  element  in  feudalism  was  the  benefice  or  fief. 
This  may  be  defined  as  land  (or  other  property)  which  a  lord 
granted  to  another  person  to  use  without  surrendering  the 
complete  ownership  of  it,  and  on  the  condition  that  jthe 


56  THE   FEUDAL  SYSTEM 

holder  of  it  should,  in  return,  make  certain  payments  from  time 
to  time  to  the  lord,  and  perform  certain  services  which  were 
58.  Benefice  not  dishonorable.     Similar  arrangements  for  using  land 
or  fief  nad  been  known  under  the  later  Roman  Empire.     In  the 

troublous  times  which  followed  the  Germanic  conquests,  great 
landlords  found  that  they  could  not  dispose  of  the  surplus 
produce  of  their  estates,  because  of  the  decay  of  roads,  the  lack 
of  markets,  and  the  disappearance  of  money  from  circulation. 
It  was  an  economic  advantage,  therefore,  to  grant  away  the  use 
of  a  portion  of  their  land  in  return  for  rents  and  services.  At 
first  the  person  receiving  a  benefice  did  not  necessarily  become 
the  vassal  of  the  grantor,  nor  was  the  service  which  he  owed 
military.  By  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  however,  vassalage 
and  benefice-holding  were  united.  Thenceforth  a  benefice- 
holder  was  usually  also  a  vassal  of  the  lord  of  the  benefice ;  and 
the  vassal  was  normally  a  benefice-holder  from  the  lord  to  whom 
he  did  homage.  Originally,  benefices  were  granted  only  for 
a  term  of  years,  or  for  life.  Gradually,  however,  it  became  cus- 
tomary on  the  death  of  a  tenant  for  a  lord  to  regrant  the  estate 
to  the  tenant's  heir.  Primogeniture,  —  that  is,  the  right  of  the 
eldest  son  to  secure  the  whole  estate  —  became  the  rule  of 
feudal  inheritance,  as  opposed  to  the  equal  division  among  all 
the  children  recognized  by  the  Roman  and  Teutonic  law. 
Personal  property  might  be  disposed  of  by  will,  but  feudal  land 
could  not.  In  default  of  a  recognized  heir,  it  "  escheated," 
or  went  back  to  its  lord.  The  term  fief  is  used  especially  to 
denote  the  later  stage  of  the  benefice,  when  it  had  become  a 
fully  hereditary  estate  held  by  a  vassal  on  condition  of  military 
service.  Back  of  all  grants  of  fiefs  lay  the  desire  of  the  lord  to 
increase  the  number  of  his  heavily  armed  followers  serving  on 
Secretan  horseback  at  their  own  expense.  Benefices  and  fiefs 
Essaisuria  may  thus  be  looked  upon  as  a  "sort  of  money  with  which 

Feodalite,  98     kingg  an(j  jords  paid  fof  ^  servkes  of  which   they  had 

need."  To  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  there  existed  scattered 
here  and  there  amid  feudalized  lands  some  non-feudal  or  "allo- 
dial" estates  which  were  held  in  full  ownership,  and  not  from 


ORIGINS  57 

any  lord.     But  the  maxim,  "No  land  without  a  lord,  no  lord 
without  land,"  expressed  the  general  rule. 

(3)  The  third  element  in  feudalism  was  the  right  of  govern- 
ment possessed  by  the  lords  —  that  is,  the  right  which  they 
possessed  to  perform  within  their  territories  most  of  the  -_  Gov_ 
acts  which  under  the  Roman  Empire  had  been  performed  emmental 
by  the  state.  The  feudal  lords  held  courts  and  tried  rights 
cases ;  they  exacted  money  contributions  from  their  territories  ; 
they  levied  troops  and  waged  war ;  and  they  even  coined  money. 
Different  lords  possessed  these  rights  in  varying  degrees,  but 
all  the  great  lords,  both  laymen  and  churchmen,  possessed  some 
of  them.  Frequently  such  rights  were  acquired  by  grants  from 
the  crown  exempting  the  estates  of  the  recipient  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  count  and  pther  royal  officers.  Thenceforth 
the  count  had  no  control  over  such  lands.  The  functions 
which  he  formerly  discharge^  passed  to  the  lord  of  the  estate, 
who  exercised  them  not  as  powers  delegated  by  the  state,  but 
in  his  own  right  and  for  his  own  profit.  The  counts  in  their 
turn  made  their  offices  and  functions  hereditary,  along  with 
the  benefices  which  they  held.  Thus  they  became  semi-sovereign 
princes  owing  little  obedience  to  the  king.  Many  lords  also, 
who  were  neither  royal  officers  nor  possessed  of  governmental 
grants  from  the  king,  took  similar  rights  when  they  saw  others 
exercising  them.  In  these  various  ways  sovereignty,  which 
should  have  been  possessed  entire  by  the  state,  was  split  up 
into  a  thousand  fragments,  and  each  lord  seized  such  portions 
as  he  could. 

So  far,  feudalism  has  been  spoken  of  as  though  it  were  a  re- 
lationship between  a  single  tier  of  lords  and  vassals.     This, 
however,  was  far  from  being  the  case.     Often,  by  the  pro-  6o  The 
cess  known  as  "subinfeudation,"  a  vassal  who  had  re-  feudal 
ceived  a  great  estate  would  himself  subgrant  portions  of  ^yran^d 
it  to  others.    These  persons  became  his  vassals  and  undertook 
towards  him  the  same  obligations  that  he  himself  had  contracted 
toward  his  own  lord.     A  whole  system  of  fiefs  and  vassals  thus 
arose  which  may  be  thought  of  as  pyramid-shaped.     The  king 


58  THE   FEUDAL  SYSTEM 

as  supreme  landlord  stood  at  its  apex.  The  greater  and  lesser 
lords,  down  to  the  holders  of  a  simple  fief,  formed  its  successive 
grades.  Monasteries  frequently  appear,  under  feudal  condi- 
tions, both  as  lords  and  as  tenants  of  fiefs.  Bishops  owed  feudal 
service  for  the  lands  annexed  to  their  offices,  —  though  spiritu- 
ally minded  persons  were  scandalized  at  seeing  churchmen,  clad 
in  coats  of  mail,  lead  their  vassals  to  battle.  Military  service, 
and  the  tenure  of  land  on  this  condition,  became  the  ground 
of  a  new  .nobility,  the  various  ranks  in  which  were  styled 
marquis,  duke,  count  (or  earl),  viscount  (vi'count),  and  baron. 
In  this  feudal  pyramid  each  grade  except  the  lowest  had  vassals 
and  subvassals  below  it ;  each  except  the  king  had  one  or  more 
lords  above  it. 

Below  the  whole  feudal  pyramid,  and  constituting  the  in- 
dispensable base  upon  which  it  rested,  were  the  peasants, 
styled  "serfs"  and  "villeins."  They  held  little  plots  of  ground 
from  their  lords  on  condition  of  manual  services  and  regular 
payments,  both  of  which  were  regarded  as  "ignoble."  They, 
therefore,  are  not  properly  reckoned  among  the  noble  or  feudal 
classes.  The  description  of  the  peasants  and  their  mode  of 
living  will  be  given  in  a  later  chapter  (ch.  ix).  It  should  here 
be  noted,  however,  that  possession  of  at  least  a  few  families  of 
villeins  was  almost  a  necessity  to  the  feudal  lord.  It  was  only 
through  their  labor  that  he  and  his  family  were  fed  and  clothed, 
and  equipped  with  a  castle,  steeds,  and  costly  armor. 


B.   FEUDALISM  AS  A  WORKING  SYSTEM 

The  theory  of  the  feudal  system  was  comparatively  simple, 

but  its  practice  was  infinitely  complex  and  confused.     The 

61.  Break-     simple  pyramidal  relationship  just  described  is  far  from 

up  of  state      representing  the  real  facts  concerning  the  feudal  structure. 

The  same  man  often  held  fiefs  from  several  different  lords 

of  different  rank,  and  had  vassals  under  him  on  each  fief.     Thus 

the  count  of  Champagne  (sham-pan')  in  the  twelfth  century  held 

fiefs  divided  into  twenty-six  districts,  each  centering  in  a  castle. 


FEUDALISM  AS  A  WORKING   SYSTEM 


59 


His  lords  included  the  German  Emperor,  the  king  of  France, 
the  duke  of  Burgundy,  two  archbishops,  two  bishops,  and  an 
abbot,  to  each  of  whom  he  did  "homage"  and  owed  "service." l 


£=a 


German  Emperor 
King  of  France- 
Duke  of  Burgundy 
Archbishop  of  Rheims 
Archbishop  of  Sens 
Bishop  of  Langres 
Bishop  of  Autun 
Bishop  of  Auxerre 
Abbot  of  St.Denis 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  COUNT  OF  CHAMPAGNE,  I2TH  CENTURY 


Portions  of  his  lands  and  rights  he  "subinfeudated,"  on  varying 
terms,  to  more  than  two  thousand  vassal  knights,  some  of  whom 
were  also  vassals  for  other  fiefs  from  his  own  overlords. 

In  the  Roman  Empire,  as  alsq  in  modern  states,  all  persons  in 
the  land  owed  loyalty,  obedience,  and  service  directly  to  the 
head  of  the  state.  Feudalism  caused  an  almost  complete  disap- 

1  The  following  diagram,  together  with  the  map  in  the  text,  will  serve  to  illustrate 
the  feudal  relations  of  the  count  of  Champagne.  The  arrow  indicates  a  lord  to 
whom  homage  is  done  and  from  whom  one  or  more  fiefs  are  held. 


German  Emperor 
King  of  France 

Duke  of 
Burgundy    /\. 
\       f      /^Bishop  of 

Auxer: 
COUNT  OF 
CHAMPAGNE 


Subvassal — "        Subvassal  ^Subvassal  \  Subvassal 

^Subvassal          ^Subvassal  Subvassal^ 


Bishop  of 
Langre 


60  THE   FEUDAL   SYSTEM 

pearance  of  such  direct  ties,  and  substituted  for  them  the  feudal 
tie,  which  bound  each  man  only  to  his  immediate  lord  or  lords. 
In  a  feudal  society  a  man  owed  scarcely  any  obligation  what- 
ever to  those  who  stood  above  his  lord,  not  even  to  the  king  him- 
self. The  feudal  principle  thus  practically  destroyed  the  prin- 
ciple of  sovereignty,  or  the  direct  authority  of  the  state.  Per- 
haps it  is  better  to  say  that  it  would  have  destroyed  it,  had  not 
the  state  already  practically  disappeared,  through  its  own  weak- 
ness and  the  external  dangers  to  which  it  was  exposed. 

The  tie  which  bound  the  feudal  group  together  was  one  of 
personal  contract.  It  was  based  (as  has  been  seen)  on  the 
62.  Feudal  grant  and  receipt  of  land,  and  was  witnessed  by  the  "horn- 
obligations  age"  done  and  " fealty"  sworn  by  each  vassal  to  his 
"suzerain,"  —that  is,  his  lord.  By  this  contract  the  vassal 
was  pledged  to  render  "service"  to  his  lord;  the  latter  was 
bound  to  "protect"  his  vassal.  The  service  due  was,  above  all, 
military  service  —  forty  days  a  year,  on  horseback,  at  the  vas- 
sal's expense,  being  the  customary  limit.  In  addition  the 
vassal  had  to  attend  his  lord's  court  when  summoned,  in  order 
to  aid  him  with  counsel  and  advice.  He  was  also  obliged,  when 
accused,  to  submit  himself  to  the  judgment  of  his  fellow  vassals 
in  his  lord's  court.  Furthermore,  the  lord  might  require  "aids" 
in  money,  on  certain  exceptional  occasions  :  (i)  when  the  lord 
knighted  his  eldest  son ;  (2)  on  the  first  marriage  of  his  eldest 
daughter ;  (3)  to  ransom  his  person  from  captivity ;  and  (4)  to 
aid  him  in  setting  forth  on  a  crusade.  On  entering  upon  his 
inheritance,  the  heir  of  full  age  paid  a  sum  called  "relief"  (con- 
sisting usually  of  one  year's  revenue  of  the  fief),  did  homage  and 
fealty,  and  was  then  put  in  possession  of  his  estate.  If  he  was  a 
minor,  the  lord  often  had  the  custody  of  his  person  and  of  the 
fief,  with  the  right  to  take  the  profits,  until  the  heir  became  of 
age.  Finally,  the  vassal  could  not  sell  or  otherwise  alienate  his 
fief  without  the  lord's  consent;  and  over  the  marriage  of  the 
vassal's  heir  the  lord  possessed  some  control. 

It  may  well  be  supposed  that,  in  a  rude  and  disorderly  age, 
the  feudal  obligations  were  but  imperfectly  observed.     Lords 


FEUDALISM  AS  A  WORKING   SYSTEM  61 

often  failed  to  protect,  and  sometimes  even  dishonored  their 
vassals.     Vassals  frequently  refused  to  perform  their  obliga- 
tions and  defied  their  lords.     What  remedy  did  feudalism  63.  Reme- 
provide  for  such  cases?    When  a  vassal  failed  in  the  ^eaciTof 
discharge  of  his  obligations,  he  might  be  convicted  of  obligation 
" felony,"  and  his  fief  might  be  taken  away  from  him.     In  case 
the  lord   failed   to   protect,  or  otherwise  wronged  his  vassal, 
the  latter  might  appeal  to  his  lord's  suzerain.     But  such  a  step 
was  usually  considered  too  tame  or  uncertain ;   and  ordinarily 
feudal  disputes  were  settled  by  resort  to  arms. 

An  account  of  the  courts  and  modes  of  trial  of  the  feudal 
period  will  make  evident  how  difficult  it  must  often  have  been 
to  secure  justice  by  peaceful  means.     The  rights  of  juris-   64.  Juris- 
diction which  formerly  belonged  to  the  state   were  now 
possessed  by  the  feudal  lords.     The  trial  of  cases  was  trial 
a  profitable  right,  because  of  the  fines  and  confiscations  which  it 
brought ;   and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  right  was  sought 
after.     Like  other  governmental  powers,  judicial  rights  were 
sometimes  acquired  by  usurping  them,  and  sometimes  by  express 
grant  from  the  crown.     In  the  fully  developed  feudal  system, 
we  may  think  of  the  right  to  administer  justice  in  some  degree 
as  regularly  accompanying  the  possession  of  feudal  land.     In 
these  feudal  courts  there  was  administered  feudal  law,  which 
was  a  crude  outgrowth  of  the  old  Germanic  customary  law. 

In  the  trial  of  cases  there  was  no  attempt  to  ascertain  the  facts 
by  examining  witnesses  and  weighing  their  testimony.  The 
modes  of  trial  were  mainly  three  :  by  oaths  (compurgation), 
by  ordeal,  and  by  battle.  In  trial  by  oaths  the  person  accused 
swore  that  he  was  innocent,  and  produced  a  number  of  "oath 
helpers"  who  swore  that  they  believed  his  oath  to  be  "clean  and 
without  guile."  In  serious  cases  the  ordeal,  which  was  an  appeal 
to  the  judgment  of  God,  was  used.  In  the  ordeal  by  hot  iron  the 
accused  had  to  carry  a  piece  of  red-hot  iron  for  a  certain  distance 
in  his  bare  hand.  In  the  ordeal  by  hot  water  he  had  to  thrust  his 
hand  into  a  kettle  of  boiling  water.  In  either  case  the  hand  was 
then  bandaged  and  sealed  up  for  three  days.  If  the  wound 


62 


THE   FEUDAL   SYSTEM 


healed  properly,  the  person  was  declared  innocent.     In  the  cold 
water  ordeal  the  accused  was  thrown  into  a  stream  of  water, 

with  hands  and  feet 
tied  together.  If  he 
floated,  he  was  guilty ; 
but  if  he  sank,  he  was 
innocent  and  was  to 
be  rescued.  In  trial 
by  battle,  the  accuser 
threw  down  his  gaunt- 
let, which  was  taken 
up  by  the  person  ac- 
cused. The  judge 
then  determined  the 
time,  place,  and 

^F/JlKr--^^l_--      -  MlPSCIl     weaP°ns  for  the  com- 
IL&m^  r.H     ^11     bat.   Thisform of  trial 

also  was  an  appeal  to 
the  judgment  of  God, 
for  it  was  supposed 
that  He  would  inter- 
fere to  protect  the  innocent  and  reveal  the  guilty. 

Warfare  may  be  said  to  have  given  rise  not  only  to  the  favorite 
mode  of  trial  of  the  feudal  age,  but  also  to  its  chief  amusement, 
65.  Feudal    the  "  tournament,"  of  which  some  account  will  hereafter 
warfare          be  given.     Even  without  these  regulated  or  make-believe 
forms  of  battle,  the  clash  of  ill-defined  interests,  the  hatred 
borne  to  neighbor  and  stranger,  and  the  military  habits  of  the 
time,  made  private  warfare  almost  the  normal  condition 
of  the  Middle  Ages.     A  brilliant  French  historian  says: 
"War  raged  not  only  between  suzerains  and  vassals  and 
between  the  vassals  of  the  same  fief,  but  also  in  the  bosom 
of  all  the  feudal  families.     The  son  fought  against  his 
father,  because  he  could  not  wait  until  his  father's  death 
to  enjoy  his  lands ;  younger  brothers  attacked  the  elder  because 
he  was  favored  at  their  expense ;  nephews  waged  war  on  uncles, 


TRIAL  BY  BATTLE 
From  a  i5th  century  MS. 


Luchaire,  in 
Munro  and 
Sellery, 
Medieval 
Civilization, 
178  (sim- 
plified) 


FEUDALISM  AS   A   WORKING   SYSTEM  63 

because  these  wished  to  prolong  their  guardianship  unduly,  or 
refused  to  recognize  the  custom  which  excluded  collateral  heirs 
from  the  inheritance ;  and  the  son  took  arms  against  his  widowed 
mother,  because  he  disputed  her  right  to  a  part  of  her  husband's 
estates." 

From  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  the  church  exerted  itself 
to  check  this  incessant  fighting,  and  two  institutions  arose,  called 
respectively  "the  Peace  of  God"  and  "the  Truce  of  God."  66.  Re- 
By  the  Peace,  warfare  upon  the  church  and  the  weak  —  5£™*™ 
including  peasants,  merchants,  women,  and  pilgrims  —  warfare 
was  perpetually  forbidden  in  those  districts  where  the  Peace  was 


WARFARE  IN  THE  TWELFTH  CENTURY 
From  a  i2th  century  MS. 

adopted.  By  the  Truce  of  God,  a  cessation  of  warfare  wras  es- 
tablished for  all  classes  during  the  period  from  Wednesday  night 
to  Monday  morning  of  each  week,  and  in  all  holy  seasons  (Lent, 
Advent,  Whitsuntide,  etc.).  Thus  the  number  of  days  a  year 
on  which  warfare  could  be  carried  on  was  greatly  restricted. 
Violation  of  the  Peace,  or  of  the  Truce,  was  punished  by  the 
church.  In  some  districts,  sworn  associations  of  the  nobles  and 
clergy,  with  special  courts,  treasuries,  and  armies,  were  formed 
to  punish  violations ;  but  even  thus  the  Peace  and  Truce  were 
but  imperfectly  observed. 


64  THE   FEUDAL   SYSTEM 

As  governments  grew  stronger,  dukes,  kings,  and  Emperors 
exerted  themselves  to  put  down  the  abuse  of  private  warfare. 
In  Normandy,  and  in  England  after  the  Norman  conquest 
(1066),  the  crown  enforced  peace  with  a  strong  hand.  In  France 
also,  by  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  king  be- 
came strong  enough  to  make  progress  in  this  direction.  In 
Germany  the  Emperors  early  proclaimed  the  public  peace 
(Landfrieden) ;  but  "robber  barons"  continued  to  exist,  and 
"fist-right"  (the  rule  of  the  strongest)  prevailed  for  long 
periods.  It  was  only  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century  that 
effectual  steps  were  taken  to  enforce  a  permanent  peace. 

The  feudal  system,  as  we  have  been  describing  it,  took  defi- 
nite form  in  the  course  of  the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries. 

67.  Dura-      France  was  the  land  of  its  earliest  and  most  complete  devel- 
th^feudal      opment,  but  in  some  form  it  was  found  in  all  countries  of 
system  western  Europe.     It  should  be  noted  that  practice  often 

conflicted  with  feudal  theory,  and  that  feudal  customs  varied 
greatly  in  different  regions  and  at  different  times.  Until  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  system  flourished  with  such 
vigor  that  this  epoch  may  be  styled  preeminently  the  Feudal 
Age.  In  the  fourteenth  century  a  transformation  set  in,  by 
which  feudalism  ultimately  ceased  to  be  a  political  force,  and 
became  a  mere  social  and  economic  survival. 

The  disadvantages  of  feudalism  as  a  political  system  consisted 
in  (i)  its  incessant  wars  and  conflicts,  and  (2)  its  neglect  of  many 

68.  Advan-     important  government  functions.     Roads,   bridges,   and 

tages  and       public  improvements  of  all  sorts  fell  into  ruins,  and  little 
disadvan- 
tages of         effort  was  made  to  repair  the  old  or  to  construct  new  ones. 

feudalism  There  was  no  organized  police ;  justice  was  hard  to  obtain  ; 
and  "life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness"  were  at  the 
mercy  of  the  strong  and  unscrupulous.  Care  of  the  poor,  the  sick, 
and  the  orphan,  and  the  many  other  functions  which  a  modern 
state  discharges,  were  left  to  the  church  or  remained  unattended 
to.  The  evils  of  such  a  system  must  be  sufficiently  evident. 

The  advantages  of  feudalism  lay  chiefly  in  the  fact  that  it 
supplied  a  possible  form  of  government  at  a  time  when  complete 


FEUDALISM  AS  A  WORKING  SYSTEM  65 

anarchy  threatened.  It  kept  alive  the  theory  of  the  state  and 
of  a  king  who  stood  above  all  feudal  lords,  —  no  matter  how  weak 
both  were  in  practice.  A  basis  was  thus  furnished  on  which 
later  generations  could  erect  strong  centralized  governments. 
With  all  its  defects,  therefore,  feudalism  served  a  useful  purpose. 
At  the  time  of  its  origin  it  seemed  almost  the  only  possible 
alternative  to  complete  anarchy. 

The  decline  of  feudalism  was  due  to  a  number  of  causes, 
(i)  Money,  which  had  practically  disappeared  from  circulation 
during  the  Germanic  invasions,  gradually  came  again  into  ^  Causes 
use.  Military  and  other  services  which  formerly  were  of  its  de- 
paid  for  by  feudal  grants  of  land  now  began  to  be  paid  for  cline 
in  money.  Feudal  tenures  were  slowly  transformed  into  more 
modern  forms  of  landholding.  A  decrease  in  the  military  power 
of  the  nobles  followed,  and  a  loss  of  their  feudal  rights  and  priv- 
ileges. (2)  The  towns,  which  at  the  beginning  of  the  feudal 
period  did  not  exist  as  organized  bodies,  gradually  arose  and 
grew  powerful  through  industry  and  commerce.  The  townsmen 
hated  the  feudal  nobles  because  the  latter  preyed  upon  them  and 
their  commerce.  Their  aid,  therefore,  together  with  that  of 
the  clergy,  was  lent  to  restoring  the  power  of  the  state  and  to 
breaking  down  the  power  of  feudalism.  (3)  Many  feudal  nobles 
wasted  their  resources  in  the  crusades  (ch.  viii)  or  on  tourna- 
ments and  lavish  living,  and  thus  weakened  their  defensive 
power.  (4)  In  the  fifteenth  century  changes  in  methods  of  war- 
fare made  foot  soldiers  (archers  and  pikemen)  more  nearly  a 
match  for  mounted  knights.  The  introduction  of  gunpowder 
also  gave  the  king  a  more  effective  means  of  attacking  feudal 
castles.  (5)  All  these  factors  increased  the  power  of  the 
crown,  which  was  the  great  opponent  of  feudalism.  Wherever 
kings  became  strong  enough  they  sought  to  undermine  feudal- 
ism. They  did  this  directly,  by  prohibiting  private  warfare, 
limiting  castle-building,  and  otherwise  reducing  feudal  powers. 
They  did  it  indirectly  by  encouraging  sub  vassals  to  rebel  against 
their  lords,  and  to  enter  into  direct  allegiance  to  the  king.  From 
the  crown  alone  could  come  the  peace  and  orderly  government 


66  THE   FEUDAL   SYSTEM 

which  clergy,  townsmen,  and  peasants  alike  demanded.  All 
these  classes,  therefore,  aided  the  growth  of  the  crown  at  the 
expense  of  feudalism. 

The  overthrow  of  feudalism  as  a  political  power  came  at  dif- 
ferent dates  in  different  countries.  Here  it  needs  only  to  be 
pointed  out  that  feudalism  remained  a  vital  force  everywhere 
in  western  Europe,  until  at  least  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century ;  and  that  even  down  to  the  nineteenth  century  feudal 
survivals  may  be  traced  in  the  laws  and  social  usages  of  most 
European  countries. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  FEUDAL  TERMS 

vassal,  the  free  dependent  of  a  lord,  bound  to  render  military  service  in 

return  for  the  lord's  protection. 
benefice  or  fief,  land  held  by  a  vassal  of  his  lord,  on  condition  of  military 

and  other  services. 

homage,  the  act  by  which  a  vassal  becomes  the  "man"  of  his  lord, 
fealty,  the  oath  of  fidelity  taken  by  a  vassal  to  his  lord, 
suzerain,  the  name  given  to  a  lord  in  relation  to  his  vassal. 
aids,  money  payments  due  from  vassals  when  their  lord  knights  his  eldest 

son,  marries  his  eldest  daughter,  ransoms  his  person  from  captivity, 

or  goes  on  a  crusade. 

relief,  the  payment  made  to  a  lord  by  the  vassal's  heir,  if  of  full  age,  to  se- 
cure his  inheritance. 
wardship,  the  right  of  the  lord  to  have  the  custody  of  an  heir  who  is  not  of 

full  age,  and  to  receive  the  profits  from  the  fief  during  the  heir's  minority. 
escheat,  the  right  of  a  lord  to  receive  back  a  fief  when  there  are  no  heirs. 
subinf  eudation,  the  process  by  which  a  vassal  grants  away  part  of  his  fief 

to  one  who  becomes  a  subvassal  under  him. 
primogeniture,  the  right  of  the  eldest  son  to  succeed  to  the  whole  inheritance 

upon  his  father's  death, 
serfs  and  villeins,  peasants  who  hold  lands  of  their  lords  on  terms  of  manual 

services  (plowing,  harrowing,  reaping,  etc.)  on  the  lord's  own  estates. 

Their  land  tenure  was  not  feudal,  but  servile  (that  is,  not  free). 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  How  did  the  weakness  of  Charlemagne's  de- 
scendants aid  the  development  of  feudalism?  (2)  What  other  things  co- 
operated? (3)  Define  commendation,  vassal,  homage,  fealty,  fief,  ward- 
ship, (4)  How  does  a  feudal  society  differ  from  a  modern  state  as  regards 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  67 

taxation,  coining  money,  administration  of  justice,  maintenance  of  an  army, 
etc.  ?  (5)  What  were  the  chief  defects  of  the  modes  of  trial  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages  ?  (6)  Why  are  such  institutions  as  the  Peace  and  Truce  of 
God  no  longer  necessary  ?  (7)  Set  down  in  one  column  the  good  features 
of  feudalism,  and  in  another  its  bad  ones. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  MUTUAL  OBLIGATIONS  OF  LORDS  AND  VASSALS. 
Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  168-170;  Seignobos,  Feudal  Re- 
gime, 41-44;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  220-228;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European 
History,  I,  184-185.  —  (2)  CEREMONY  OF  HOMAGE  AND  FEALTY.  Ogg, 
Source  Book,  216-219;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  179-184. 
—  (3)  NON-EUROPEAN  FEUDALISM  (Japan).  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth 
ed.),  XV,  258-266;  Okuma,  Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan,  I,  23-42. — 
(4)  PRIVATE  WARFARE.  Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  177- 
182 ;  Seignobos,  Feudal  Regime,  56-57.  —  (5)  THE  PEACE  AND  TRUCE  OF  GOD. 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XXVII,  321 ;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  228- 
232;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  194-196.  —  (6)  WOMEN 
AND  CHILDREN  IN  THE  FEUDAL  REGIME.  Seignobos,  Feudal  Regime,  44- 
46. — (7)  TRIAL  BY  ORDEAL.  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XX, 
173-175;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  196-202;  Thatcher  and  McNeal,  Source  Book, 
400-410.  —  (8)  TRIAL  BY  BATTLE.  Seignobos,  Feudal  Regime,  62 ;  Ency- 
clopedia Britannica,  "  Wager  of  Battle";  Seignobos,  Medieval  and  Modern 
Civilization,  83-84. 

General  Reading.  —  The  best  brief  accounts  of  the  origin  of  feudalism  are 
in  Emerton,  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages,  Adams,  Civilization  during 
the  Middle  Ages,  Andrews,  Institutes  of  General  History.  Feudalism  as  an 
institution  may  best  be  studied  in  Seignobos,  The  Feudal  Regime.  Valuable 
illustrative  documents  are  given  in  the  source  books  prepared  by  Ogg  and 
by  Thatcher  and  McNeal,  and  also  by  Cheyney  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania Translations  and  Reprints,  IV,  No.  3.  Pollock  and  Maitland, 
History  of  the  English  Law,  give  an  extended  account  of  English  feudalism, 
but  this  is  too  technical  for  high  school  pupils.  For  the  teacher  who  reads 
French,  the  best  accounts  are  in  Esmein,  Cours  Elementaire  d'Histoire  du 
Droit  Franqaise,  and  Luchaire,  Manuel  des  Institutions  Franqaises.  The 
older  accounts,  given  by  Guizot  and  Hallam,  are  misleading. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  NORMAN   CONQUESTS 
A.  THE*  NORMANS  AT  HOME  AND  IN  ITALY 

WHEN  Rolf  and  his  Northmen  were  granted  lands -in  western 

France,  in  911   (§45),  no  one  dreamed  that  within  little  more 

70.  The         tnan  a  nun(lre<i  years  the  descendants  of  these  fierce  pagans 

Normans  at    would  develop  into  one  of  the  most  civilized  peoples  of 

western  Europe.     It  is  to  the  story  of  how  this  came  to 

pass  that  we  must  now  give  our  attention. 

The  name  "  Normans,"  by  which  this  people  is  known  in 
France,  is  merely  a  softened  form  of  the  word  Northmen.  In 
their  later,  as  in  their  earlier,  history  they  showed  a  remarkable 
spirit  of  war  and  adventure.  In  other  respects,  however,  the 
Normans  differed  profoundly  from  the  Northmen,  and  in  usage 
the  two  names  should  be  carefully  distinguished. 

Rolf  and  the  Norman  dukes  who  followed  him  were  men  of 
much  ability.     Under  their  rule  Normandy  became  a  feudal  prin- 
cipality.    It  differed  from  the  other  fiefs  of  northern  France,  how- 
ever, (i)  in  the  ability  with  which  it  was  governed,  (2)  in  the 
greater  attention  which  was  given  to  learning  and  architecture, 
and  (3)  in  the  hardy  and  adventurous  character  of  its  inhabit- 
Dudo  His-     ants>     "O  France,"  exclaims  a  historian  of  the  eleventh 
tory  of  the       century,  "  thou  wast  bowed  down,  crushed  to  earth.     Be- 
Normans        ^^  ^^  comes  to  thee  from  Denmark  a  new  race.     That 
race    shall   raise    thy  name    and    thy  empire,   even  unto  the 
heavens  ! "     In  the  Norman  conquest  of  England  and  of  southern 
Italy,  in  the  leading  part  which  the  Normans  played  in  the  cru- 
sades, and  in  the  hardy  character  of  their  seamen  to  the  end  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  evidences  of  their  superior  vigor  and  daring 
were  abundantly  given. 

68 


THE   NORMANS  IN   ITALY 


69 


Since  the  days  of   Charlemagne,  the   East-Roman   (Byzan- 
tine) or  Greek  Empire  had  preserved  an  uncertain  foothold  in 
southern  Italy.     Its  sway  was  threatened  by  the  growth  71-  Greeks 
of  feudal  lordships,  by  the  pretensions  of  German  kings,  ^ns  ™&~ 
and  by  Saracen  (Mohammedan)  invasions.     Sicily  since  Italy 
8-78  had  been  almost  wholly  Mohammedan.     In  the  first  half 
of  the  ninth  century,  Saracens  had  gained  a  footing  in  southern 
Italy  also.     Though  they  were  temporarily  dislodged,  no  per- 
manent relief  could  be  hoped  for  while  the  neighboring  lands 
were  in  their  hands. 

It  was  this  situation  in  the  rich  and  fertile  South  which  gave 
Norman  adventurers  their  first  opportunity  for  further  conquest. 
While  making  a  religious  pilgrimage  to  a  famous  shrine  72.  Begin- 
in  southern  Italy,  some  Norman  warriors  were  enlisted  ^an  con-° 
in  a  petty  war  between  two  Christian  princes   (1017),   quests  there 
and  thus  discovered  the  weakness  of  the  land.      Soon  other 
Normans  flocked  thither  to  take  service  under  different  princes 
and  nobles,  selling  their  swords  to  the  highest  bidders.     Pres- 
ently they  began  to  establish  a  power  of  their  own ;     and  in 
1071   they  took  Bari 


(ba're),  the  last  pos- 
session of  the  Greek 
governors  in  Italy. 

In  these  conquests 
five  of  the  twelve  sons 
of  a  poor  Norman 
noble  played  principal 
parts.  The  fourth 
son,  Robert  Guiscard 
(ges-car';  which  means 
"the  cunning"), 
made  the  greatest 
name  for  himself. 
The  daughter  of  the 
Greek  Emperor  described  him  as  he  appeared  to  his  enemies : 
"His  high  stature  excelled  that  of  the  most  mighty  warriors. 


Conquered  from 
Eastern  Empire 
Conquered  from 
Lombard  Princes 
Conquered  from 
Mohammedans 


SCALE   OF  MILES 


150 


NORMAN  CONQUESTS  IN  ITALY 


;o  THE  NORMAN  CONQUESTS 

His  complexion  was  ruddy,  his  hair  fair,  his  shoulders  broad, 
his  eyes  flashed  fire.  It  is  said  that  his  voice  was  like  the 
voice  of  a  whole  multitude,  and  could  put  to  flight  an  army  of 
sixty  thousand  men."  Like  all  the  Normans,  he  was  a  cruel 
conqueror,  and  to  this  day  ruined  cities  bear  witness  to  his 
ferocity.  Before  Robert  Guiscard  died  (in  1085)  almost  aM 
southern  Italy  acknowledged  him  as  lord.  The  conquests  of 
Roger,  the  youngest  of  the  family,  were  equally  remarkable. 
On  the  invitation  of  discontented  Christians  he  landed  in 
Sicily ;  and  after  thirty  years  of  untiring  warfare  he  succeeded 
in  conquering  the  last  of  that  island  from  its  Saracen  rulers. 

One  of  the  distinguishing  traits  of  the  Normans,  and  one  which 
was  of  great  value  to  them  as  rulers,  was  the  ability  which  they 

73.  The         showed  to  adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions;   another 
Sicily  °D         was  tne*r  wim'ngness  to  let  the  people  over  whom  they 
founded         ruled  keep  their  own  language,  laws,  customs,  and  beliefs. 

These  qualities  were  strikingly  displayed  in  their  new  conquests. 
On  the  ruins  of  Greek,  Lombard,  and  Saracen  power,  they  erected 
a  strong  feudal  state.  The  claims  of  Pope  and  Emperor  over 
these  lands  led  to  some  unavoidable  friction  and  conflict.  In 
the  end,  the  Norman  rule,  under  the  title  of  the  kingdom  of 
Sicily,  was  formally  recognized  by  the  Pope ;  he  insisted,  how- 
ever, that  the  kingdom  be  held  as  a  fief  of  the  papacy  (1135). 
The  new  kingdom  lasted,  with  some  changes  of  rulers,  until 
the  formation  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Italy  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  One  result  of  the  establishing  of  the  Normans  as  the 
ruling  race  in  southern  Italy  was  to  facilitate  the  clearing  of 
the  central  Mediterranean  of  its  Mohammedan  pirates. 

B.   THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST  OF  ENGLAND 

At  the  same  time  that  Norman  nobles  were  winning  dominions 

74.  England  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  their  duke  was  extending  his  power 
after  Alfred    OVer  England.     We  have  seen  .  that  after  Alfred's  death, 

in  900,  his  son  and  grandsons  reconquered  the  Danelaw. 
Early  in  the  eleventh  century,  —  as  a  result  of  the  weakness 


THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST  OF  ENGLAND      71 

and  folly  of  the  English  king  and  the  strengthening  of  Scan- 
dinavian power  through  the  organization  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  —  the  invasions  of  the  Danes 
were  renewed.  In  1016  Canute  (ca-nut'),  king  of  Denmark 
and  Norway,  brought  all  England  under  his  sway.  He  was  a 
just  and  Christian  king,  and  ruled  his  English  kingdom  with 
the  same  strength  and  wisdom  that  he  bestowed  on  his  Scan- 
dinavian realms. 

Soon  after  Canute's  death  the  old  English  line  of  kings  was 
restored  in  the  person  of  Edward  the  Confessor  (1042-1066), 
who  was  so  called  because  of  his  piety.  Edward  proved  75'  Edward 
a  feeble  ruler.  He  had  been  reared  at  the  Norman  court, 
where  ways  of  life  were  less  rude  than  in  England;  and  1066) 
the  favor  which  he  showed  to  Normans  and  Frenchmen  angered 
his  English  subjects.  His  reign  was  filled  with  quarrels  between 
his  Norman  favorites  and  the  English,  and  with  rebellions  of  his 
great  nobles,  or  earls.  When  he  died  without  children,  in  1066, 
Earl  Harold,  the  most  powerful  and  capable  man  in  the  kingdom, 
succeeded  him  on  the  throne.  Duke  William  of  Normandy, 
however,  had  claims  to  the  English  kingship,  and  at  once  pre- 
pared to  invade  England. 

William  the  Conqueror,  as  he  is  known  in  history,  was  the 
sixth  duke  of  Normandy  in  descent  from  Rolf.     He  was  only 
seven  years  of  age  when  his  father  died  on  a  pilgrimage  76.  Duke 
to  Palestine,  and  the  minority  of  the  young  duke  was  one  cl^j^m 
long  struggle  against  his  Norman  barons.     With  the  aid  England 
of  the  French  king,  William  at  last  crushed  his  enemies,  and  then 
built  up  a  military  power  which  made  Normandy  one  of  the 
strongest  governments  of  Europe.     His  claim  to  the  throne  of 
England  was  based  on  a  promise  from  Edward  the  Confessor, 
who  was  his  father's  cousin,  that  the  English  crown  should  de- 
scend to  him.     In  addition  he  had  extorted  from  Earl  Harold 
an  oath  to  support  this  claim,  when  the  latter  was  shipwrecked 
on  the  coast  of  Normandy.     Though  his  claims  were  little  more 
than  pretexts,  William  landed  an  army,  in  September,  1066,  on 
the  south  coast  of  England.     Harold  had  been  called  to  the 


72  THE   NORMAN    CONQUESTS 

north  to  repel  an  invasion  by  the  king  of  Norway,  and  returned 
too  late  to  prevent  William's  landing.     The  earls  of  the  northern 


SHIPS  OF  WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR 
From  tapestry  made  in  England  for  William's  brother,  Odo  of  Bayeux 

counties  treacherously  refused  Harold  aid,  and  he  was  forced  to 
meet  the  Normans  with  only  his  own  troops. 

The  battle  took  place  on  a  ridge  near  the  town  of  Hastings. 

The  strength  of  the  English  consisted  in  their  mailed  footmen 

77.  Battle      armed  with  the  battle-ax,  while  that  of  the  Normans  lay 

of  Hastings    in  their  archers  and  mounted  men  at  arms.     Two  different 

modes  of  warfare  were  contending,  as  well  as  two  peoples 

and  two  civilizations.     The  battle  raged  all  day,  and  for  a  long 

time  the  issue  was  in  doubt.     In  spite  of  their  heavy  horsemen, 


DEATH  OF  HAROLD 
From  the  Bayeux  Tapestry.    Harold  is  the  second  figure  from  the  left. 


THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST  OF  ENGLAND       73 

the  Normans  were  unable  to  break  the  English  line.  Three 
horses  were  killed  under  William,  but  he  received  no  injury. 
Once  the  cry  went  forth,  "  The  duke  is  down  ! "  and  the  Normans 
began  to  give  way.  But  William  tore  off  his  helmet,  that  they 
might  better  see  his  face,  and  cried :  "I  live,  and  by  God's  help 
shall  have  the  victory  ! "  To  draw  the  English  from  their  strong 
position,  William  ordered  a  portion  of  his  troops  to  pretend  to 
flee.  This  ruse  was  partly  successful,  but  still  the  "shield 
wall"  of  Harold's  guard  held  firm.  At  last  an  arrow  struck 
Harold  in  the  eye,  piercing  to  the  brain.  With  their  heroic 
leader  gone,  the  English  army  was  soon  destroyed  (October  14, 
1066).  There  was  no  English  leader  left  to  take  Harold's 
place.  Soon  William  was  formally  chosen  king,  and  was 
crowned  at  Westminster,  near  London,  on  Christmas  Day,  1066. 
Every  English  king  or  queen  who  has  reigned  since  then  has 
been  a  descendant  of  this  Norman  conqueror. 

Before  taking  up  the  far-reaching  effects  of  the  Norman  con- 
quest, we  must  consider  the  government  and  institutions  of 
the  English  kingdom  before  the  coming  of  the  Normans.   7g.  English 
The  unit  of  local  government  was  the  township.     Ordi-  ^^ent 
narily  this  was  a  village,  with  its  surrounding  lands.     By  hundred,' 
the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest  its  inhabitants  were  and  shire 
usually  under  the  rule  of  some  local  noble,  and  were  sinking 
into  a  condition  similar  to  that  of  the  villeins  of  the  Continent. 
A  number  of  townships  were  grouped  to  form  the  next  higher 
division,  called  the  hundred.1     Each  hundred  had  its  monthly 
"moot,"  or  court.     To  this  came  the  lords  of  the  lands  within 
the  hundred,  either  in  person  or  by  their  stewards.     With  them 
came  also  the  parish  priest,  the  "reeve"  (village  head),  and  the 
"  four  best  men  "  of  each  township.     This  body  was  the  most  im- 
portant local  court  for  the  trial  of  both  civil  and  criminal  cases. 

The  hundreds,  in  turn,  were  grouped  into  about  forty  shires, 

1  It  is  uncertain  whether  this  district  was  first  called  a  "hundred"  from  the 
amount  of  land  which  it  contained,  the  number  of  families  which  settled  it,  or  the 
number  of  warriors  it  supplied  to  the  army.  In  the  state  of  Delaware  certain  local 
districts  still  bear  this  old  English  name. 


74  THE   NORMAN   CONQUESTS 

or  counties  (as  the  Normans  called  them).  Some  of  these  (foi 
example,  Kent,  Sussex,  Essex)  had  in  earlier  days  been  independ- 
ent kingdoms.  The  shire-moot,  or  shire-court,  was  called  to- 
gether twice  a  year  by  the  " shire-reeve "  (sheriff),  who  repre- 
sented the  authority  of  the  king  in  the  shire.  Its  presiding 
officers  were  the  earl,  or  head  of  the  shire,  who  was  always  a 
powerful  noble  of  the  district,  and  the  bishop,  whose  diocese 
often  corresponded  closely  to  the  territory  of  the  county.  The 
shire-court  was  made  up  of  the  landowners  of  the  shire,  and  of 
representatives  of  the  hundreds  and  townships.  In  this  court 
all  cases  not  disposed  of  in  the  hundred-courts  were  tried,  and 
here  also  were  settled  many  questions  relating  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  district. 

These  local  courts  were  an  important  means  in  training  the 
mass  of  the  English  people  in  self-government.  In  the  words 
of  a  modern  English  statesman,  they  are  "the  cradle  of  our 
liberties,  in  which  are  to  be  found  the  origin  of  our  juries  and 
the  model  of  our  parliaments." 

The  local  institutions  described  above  were  continued  by 
William  the  Conqueror  and  his  successors  with  little  change. 

79.  Central     The  Norman  genius  for  organization,  however,  bound  all 
sfa-e^gth-611*    Parts  °f  the  kingdom  more  closely  together,  and  established 
ened  at  the  head  of  the  state  a  central  government  which  was 

strong  enough  to  keep  the  turbulent  nobles  in  check  and  to 
secure  protection  and  justice  to  all  subjects.  This  is  one  of  the 
first  instances  of  a  strong  central  government  under  which  local 
self-government  was  not  destroyed. 

As  we  have  seen  in  an  earlier  section,  Normandy  by  1066  was 
completely  feudalized.  In  England  feudalism  had  developed 

80.  Feudal     mucn  more  slowly  than  on  the   Continent,   but  in  the 
system  in       reigns  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and  Harold  we  can  already 

trace  its  effects.  The  Norman  conquerors  brought  with 
them  a  full-grown  feudal  system,  which  they  proceeded  to  es- 
tablish in  England.  The  property  of  those  who  fought  against 
William  at  Hastings  was  treated  as  forfeited,  and  was  either 
granted  to  new  holders  or  confirmed  to  the  old  ones  on  the  pay- 


THE   NORMAN  CONQUEST  OF   ENGLAND 


75 


ment  of  heavy  fines.  In  either  event  the  tenure  established  was 
a  feudal  one,  conditioned  on  the  performance  of  military  service, 
with  all  the  "feudal  incidents"  of  relief,  aids,  wardship,  and 
marriage  rights. 

William,  however,  took  pains  to  see  that  in  England  feudalism 
should  not  become  the  menace  to  the  crown  that  it  was  in 
France.  An  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king,  taking  precedence 
of  the  fealty  due  to  feudal  lords,  was  demanded  from  all  freemen. 
Of  this  an  old  chronicler  says :  "  There  came  to  him  all  the  land- 
owning men  there  were  over  all  England,  and  all  bowed  down 
before  him  and  became  his  men,  and  swore  oaths  of  fealty  An  lo  Saxon 
to  him,  that  they  would  be  faithful  to  him  against  all  Chronicle, 

other  men."  The  result  year  Io8s 
of  this  was  that,  if  a  lord  was 
disloyal  to  the  king,  his  vas- 
sals were  bound  to  fight 
against  their  lord  and  for  the 
king.  The  Conqueror,  more- 
over, continued  the  old  Anglo- 
Saxon  national  militia,  as  well 
as  the  old  assemblies  of  the 
people,  as  a  check  on  the 
power  of  the  lords.  It  also 
happened  that  the  lands 
granted  his  Norman  follow- 
ers, however  extensive  they 
might  be,  were  widely  scat- 
tered, and  not  in  compact 
blocks,  as  they  were  in  France. 
This  fact  made  it  more  diffi- 
cult than  in  France  for  a 
great  lord  to  gather  men  to 
make  war  upon  the  king. 

In  addition  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  feudal  system  and  the  strengthening  of  the 
monarchy,  the  Norman  conquest  had  other  important  re- 


STATUE  OF  WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR 
At  Falaise,  his  birthplace 


76  THE  NORMAN  CONQUESTS 

suits  for  England.     The  insular  position  of  that  country  had 

thus  far  kept  it  out  of  the  main  current  of  European  develop- 

81.  Other       merit.     Now,  for  several  generations,  the  kings  of  Eng- 

results  of       land  were  also  dukes  of  Normandy,  and  consequently 

i  conquest    vassalg  Qf  ^  king  Qf  Fnmce       ThuSj  both  for  good  and 

for  evil,  England  was  drawn  into  the  conflicts  of  European 
politics.  The  Normans,  moreover,  brought  with  them  to  Eng- 
land their  language  (the  Norman-French),  their  architecture, 
and  their  customs,  which  in  many  ways  were  more  refined  than 
those  of  the  English.  In  the  course  of  the  next  three  centuries, 
the  English  and  Normans  in  England  united  into  a  single  na- 
tional stock.  The  Anglo-Saxon  tongue  of  the  common  people, 
the  Norman-French  of  the  nobles,  and  the  Latin  of  the  church 
and  the  royal  law  courts  in  time  blended  to  form  the  English 
language  as  we  find  it  in  the  works  of  Chaucer  and  Shakespeare. 
The  victory  of  the  Normans  was  a  turning  point  in  English 
history.  Britons,  Romans,  English,  Danes,  and  Normans,  — 
all  made  their  conquests  and  left  their  successive  impressions  on 
the  life  of  the  island.  This,  however,  was  to  be  the  last  of  the 
invasions.  Never  afterward  did  a  foreign  foe  take  possession  of 
English  soil.  Thenceforth,  what  England  was  to  be  was  deter- 
mined not  by  any  outside  power,  but  by  its  own  inhabitants. 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

1016.  Canute,  King  of  Denmark,  conquers  England. 

1017.  Norman  conquest  of  southern  Italy  begun. 

1042.  Edward  the  Confessor  secures  the  throne  in  England. 
1066.  Death  of  Edward ;  battle  of  Hastings ;  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, conquers  England. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  rapid  progress  of  the  Normans  in 
France  with  the  progress  of  the  Franks  and  English  after  their  settlement  in 
Gaul  and  in  Britain.  (2)  What  things  aided  the  Norman  conquest  of  Sicily 
and  southern  Italy  ?  (3)  How  did  the  coming  of  the  Normans  enlarge  the 
Pope's  power  over  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  ?  (4)  What  things  aided  the 
Norman  conquest  of  England?  (5)  Was  William's  claim  to  the  English 
throne  just  or  unjust  ?  Why  ?  (6)  Why  is  the  battle  of  Hastings  consid- 


THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST  OF  ENGLAND       77 

ered  one  of  the  decisive  battles  in  the  history  of  the  world?  (7)  What 
features  of  our  local  government  can  be  traced  back  to  ancient  England? 
(8)  Was  the  Norman  conquest  a  good  or  a  bad  thing  for  England  ?  Why  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  NORMANS  IN  FRANCE.  Green,  Short  History, 
71-74;  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  83-84;  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth 
ed.),  "Normans."  —  (2)  SICILY  AND  SOUTHERN  ITALY  BEFORE  THE  NOR- 
MAN CONQUEST.  Crawford,  Rulers  of  the  South,  II,  70-124. —  (3)  ROB- 
ERT Guise ARD  AND  THE  NORMANS  IN  ITALY.  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall 
(Bury's  ed.),  VI,  184-193;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Age,  210-214;  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  106-108,  114,  117-118. — 
(4)  ENGLAND  ON  THE  EVE  OF  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST.  Green,  Short 
History,  63-70.  See  also  histories  of  England,  by  Gardiner,  Tout,  Terry, 
and  Oman.  —  (5)  EARLY  LIFE  OF  WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR.  Freeman,  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  ch.  ii.  —  (6)  CLAIMS  OF  WILLIAM  TO  THE  ENGLISH  THRONE. 
Freeman,  William  the  Conqueror,  chs.  iii,  v,  vi ;  Terry,  History  of  England,  131- 
136 ;  Green,  Short  History,  77-78 ;  Cheyney,  Readings,  90-92.  —  (7)  BATTLE 
OF  HASTINGS.  Ogg,  Source  Book,  233-241 ;  Cheyney,  Readings,  93-101 ; 
Traill,  Social  England,  I,  299-300;  Oman,  Art  of  War,  150-164. — 
(8)  GOVERNMENT  OF  ENGLAND  BEFORE  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST.  Mon- 
tague, Elements  of  English  Constitutional  History,  ch.  ii;  Cheyney,  Short 
History,  78-83;  Walker,  Essentials  in  English  History,  55-61.  —  (9)  COM- 
PARISON OF  FEUDALISM  IN  ENGLAND  AND  ON  THE  CONTINENT. 
Green,  Short  History,  83-87 ;  Montague,  Elements  of  English  Constitutional 
History,  ch.  iv.  —  (10)  EFFECT  OF  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST  ON  THE  ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE.  Lounsbury,  English  Language,  ch.  iv,  v ;  Halleck,  History  of 
English  Literature,  48-56.  —  (n)  CHARACTER  AND  PERSONALITY  OF  WIL- 
LIAM. Green,  Short  History,  74-77;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  241-244;  Cheyney, 
Readings  in  English  History,  107-108. 

General  Reading.  —  For  the  Normans  in  France  and  the  Norman  con- 
quest of  England,  see  Freeman's  William  I ,  Short  History  of  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, and  his  monumental  Norman  Conquest  of  England  (6  vols.).  For  the 
Normans  in  Italy  read  Freeman's  Historical  Essays,  Series  III  ("The  Nor- 
mans at  Palermo"),  and  Crawford's  Rulers  of  the  South. 


I  -  \Catholie  Christian  Church 
1  -  1  in  time  of  Pope  Gregory  I. 


690-604. 

I  -  1  Old  Celtic  Christian 
1  -  '  Church. 

Lott-to  Mohammedanitm 

t>ySl4. 

I  -  1  Converted-to  Christianity 
1  -  '  by  814. 

ffa  met  underscored  =Abandoned 
Arian  Christianity  for  Roman. 


MOHAMMEDANS,  CHRISTIANS, 

AND  PAGANS 
AliOl  T  600-814 


MOHAMMEDANS,  CHRISTIANS, 

AND  PAGANS 
NEAR  END  OF  11TH  CENTURA 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


V'-0N          200          400         60 


AN     S  E  *        ABAQDAC 


Intermixed  colors  indic 
intermixtur 


CHAPTER   V 

THE  MEDIEVAL   CHURCH 

A.   SOME  GENERAL  FEATURES 

THE  church  as  we  find  it  in  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages 
means  especially  the  Latin  or  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The 
Greek  Church,  however,  continued  to  hold  sway  in  eastern  82.  Separa- 
Europe.  Differences  of  language  and  civilization  between  ^J^a^ek 
the  East  and  the  West,  together  with  the  political  disputes  churches 
which  have  been  touched  upon  in  dealing  with  the  rise  of  the 
papacy  (§  20) ,  had  early  paved  the  way  for  a  breach  between  the 
two  churches.  In  religious  usages  there  were  some  minor  dif- 
ferences, such  as  the  time  of  keeping  Easter.  There  was  also  a 
dispute  as  to  the  validity  of  a  change  which  the  West  had  made 
in  the  wording  of  the  creed  adopted  by  the  whole  church  at 
Nicae'a  in  325.  Above  all,  the  Greeks  refused  to  recognize  the 
supremacy  which  the  Pope  claimed  over  the  church.  As  a  result 
of  long-continued  disputes,  the  Pope  and  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople (the  head  of  the  Eastern  Church)  excommunicated 
each  other  in  1054.  Thenceforth  members  of  the  two  churches 
looked  upon  each  other  as  "heretics."  Many  efforts  have  since 
been  made  to  heal  the  breach ;  but  to  the  present  time  the  two 
churches  remain  separate  and  mutually  hostile. 

The  unbroken  rule  of  the  church  over  the  lives  and  spirits 
of  men,  down  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  features  of  the  Middle  Ages.     It  is  difficult  for  g3  Power 
us    to    realize    how    extensive    and    absolute   that    rule  of  the  Latin 
was.     In  all  western  Europe  there  was  but  one  church,   Cht 
ruled  over  by  the  Pope  at  Rome.     This  was  not  a  mere  vol- 
untary association,  concerned  only  with  man's  spiritual  and 

79 


8o  THE   MEDIEVAL  CHURCH 

moral  welfare;  it  was  rather  a  state  within  the  state.     Or  perhaps 

it  may  better  be  described  as  a  great  international  state,  whose 

territory  included  all  western  Christendom,  and  whose  claims 

and  jurisdictions  crossed  and  conflicted  with  those  of  temporal 

governments.     A   recent    legal   writer    says   of   the    medieval 

church:     "It  has  laws,   lawmakers,   law  courts,   lawyers.     It 

Maitland,       uses  physical  force  to  compel  men  to  obey  its  laws.     It 

Canon  Law      keeps  prisons.     In  the  thirteenth  century,  though  with 

in  England,  J ' 

100  (con-         squeamish  phrases,  it  pronounces  sentence  of  death.     It  is 

densed)  no  voluntary  society.     If  people  are  not  born  into  it,  they 

are  baptized  into  it  when  they  cannot  help  themselves.  If  they 
attempt  to  leave  it,  they  are  guilty  of  the  crime  of  treason,  and 
are  likely  to  be  burned.  It  is  supported  by  involuntary  con- 
tributions, by  tithe  and  tax." 

Some  of  the  special  features  which  distinguish  the  medieval 

84   Special     church  from  modern-  religious  societies  may  be  summed 

features  of      up  as  follows  :  — 

(i)  Its  universality.  The  whole  Christian  population 
was  obliged  to  belong  to  it,  just  as  to-day  every  one  must  be- 
long to  the  state  under  which  he  lives. 

(2)  Its  much  greater  wealth.      Through  gifts  from  pious  or 
conscience-stricken  individuals,  and  the  industry  of  the  monks, 
it  became  the  greatest  proprietor  of  land  in  Europe,  owning 
probably  one  third  of  the  soil  suitable  for  cultivation. 

(3)  Its  power  in  temporal  matters.     Church  law  and  church 
courts  decided  cases  relating  to  marriage,  divorce,_  inheritance 
under  wills,  contracts  made  binding  by  oaths,  etc.     In  addition, 
the  church  claimed  the  right  to  try  all  cases  which  involved 
clergymen,  even  accusations  of  crime  against  them.     All  cases 
which  concerned  persons  under  the  special  protection  of  the 
church,  —  such  as  students,  crusaders,  widows,  and  orphans,  — 
were  also  triable  in  the  church  courts. 

(4)  Its  power  of  coercion  through  excommunication  and  interdict. 
Excommunication  cut  off  an  offending  person  from  the  hope  of 
heaven  by  excluding  him  from  the  fellowship  of  the  church ;  it 
also  made  him  practically  an  outlaw  from  society.     "By  virtue 


SOME   GENERAL   FEATURES 


8l 


of  the  divine  authority  conferred  on  the  bishops  by  Saint  Peter," 
reads  one  excommunication,  "we  cast  him  out  from  the  bosom  of 
our  Holy  Mother  Church.  Let  him  be  accursed  in  his  town, 
accursed  in  his  field,  accursed  in  his  home.  Let 
no  Christian  speak  to  him  or  eat  with  him ;  let 
no  priest  say  mass  for  him,  nor  give  him  the 
communion  ;  let  him  be  buried  like  the  ass.  And 

as  these   torches  cast 
down    by    our    hands 
are  about  to  be  extin- 
guished,  so   may  the 
light  of  his  life  be  ex- 
tinguished,   unless   he 
repent  and  give  satis- 
faction  by   his   devo- 
tion."   Excommunica- 
tion applied  to  persons, 
the  interdict  to  territo- 
ries.    The  chief  use  of 
the   interdict    was    to 
force  disobedient  rulers 
to  submit  to  the  church 
through  fear  of  rebel- 
lion of  their  subjects.     In  time  of  interdict  church 
doors  were  closed,  the  bells  silenced,  and   the 
people  of  the  district  left  without  the  consola- 
tions  of  religion.     Marriages  could  not  be  cele- 
brated, and  even  the  dead  were  buried  without 
ceremony  in  unhallowed  ground. 

These  great  powers  of  the  church  were  exer- 
cised exclusively   by  the  clergy,  —  that   is,  the 
priests  and  other  officers  of  the  church.     They  were  set  8g  The 
off  sharply  from  the  laity,  as  the  rest  of  the  Christian   clergy  as 
community  was'  called.     The  one  class  was  likened  to  the  an  order 
soul,  and  the  other  to  the  body  of  a  man ;    and  churchmen 
taught  that  "the  least  of  the  priestly  order  is  worthier  than 


RECEIVING  THE  TONSURE 
From  a  i4th  century  MS. 


a 


82  THE   MEDIEVAL   CHURCH 

any  king."  To  the  clergy  alone  were  committed  the  carrying 
on  of  the  worship  of  the  church,  the  administration  of  its  sac- 
raments, and  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Christian 
community. 

The  ceremony  of  " tonsure"  marked  the  entrance  of  the  can- 
didate into  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  In  the  Greek  Church  this 
meant  shaving  the  hair  from  the  whole  head.  In  the  Roman 
or  Latin  Church  only  the  top  of  the  head  was  shaved,  leaving  a 
narrow  fringe  of  hair  all  around,  —  in  memory,  it  was  said,  of 
Christ's  crown  of  thorns.  In  addition  to  this  distinctive  mark 
(which  was  periodically  renewed),  the  clergy  wore  garments  of 
peculiar  cut,  distinguishing  them  from  the  laity  and  one  rank 
from  another.  That  they  might  serve  God  with  more  singleness 
of  purpose,  it  was  ordered  in  the  Latin  Church,  from  the  fourth 
century  on,  that  priests  and  the  higher  clergy  should  be  "celi- 
bate," -  that  is,  should  not  marry.  In  the  Greek  Church  the 
practice  of  celibacy  was  generally  confined  to  the  monks.  Even 
in  the  Latin  Church  several  centuries  passed  before  it  became 
universal.  In  order  that  the  clergy  might  be  free  in  performing 
their  religious  duties,  they  secured  the  privilege  of  not  being  tried 
by  the  secular  law  and  the  secular  courts.  Thereafter  clergymen 
were  only  under  the  church  or  "canon"  law,  and  could  be  tried 
only  by  ecclesiastical  courts.  This  privilege,  which  was  known 
as  "benefit  of  clergy,"  crept  sooner  or  later  into  the  laws  of  every 
nation  of  western  Europe.  Its  evils  were  seen  when  persons 
who  had  no  intention  of  becoming  priests  became  clerics,  or 
clerks,  merely  that  they  might  secure  protection  in  their  mis- 
deeds.1 

In  what  has  been  said  already  concerning  the  power  of  the 
clergy,  we  have  dwelt  more  upon  the  externals  of  their  position. 

1  There  were  a  number  of  minor  grades  among  the  clergy,  below  the  ranks  of 
priests,  deacons,  and  subdeacons,  who  alone  constituted  the  "major  orders."  The 
author  of  a  twelfth-century  textbook  defines  these  minor  grades  as  "doorkeepers, 
readers,  exorcists  [casters  out  of  devils],  and  acolytes."  The  modern  business 
meaning  of  the  word  "clerk"  comes  from  the  fact  that  the  clergy  were  long  the  only 
educated  class,  and  hence  a  cleric  (clerk)  was  employed  for  all  work  involving  writing 
and  the  keeping  of  accounts. 


SOME   GENERAL   FEATURES 


The  real  power  of  the  clergy,  as  shown  by  the  sway  which  they 
held  over  the  minds  of  men,  rested  upon  the  position  of  the 
priest  as  divinely  appointed  mediator  between  God  and  man,  86.  The  sac- 
and  as  the  authoritative  teacher  in  matters  of  faith  and  ran1611*8 

morals.  In  the 
teaching  of  the 
church,  the  "sacra- 
ments" were  recog- 
nized as  the  ordi- 
nary channels  of  di- 
vine  grace;  that 
is,  they  were  the 
means  through  which 
Christ's  "vicarious 
atonement"  on  the 
cross  was  applied  to 
the  needs  of  the 
individual  soul. 
Without  this  atone- 
ment man  could  not 
be  saved  from  the 
consequences  of  his 
sinful  nature,  and 
after  death  must  suf- 
fer eternally  the 
punishments  of  hell. 
These  sacraments 
(with  the  exception 
of  baptism  and  mat- 
rimony) the  clergy 
only  could  validly 
administer. 

The  sacraments 
were  seven  in  num- 
ber, (i)  In  the  sacrament  of  Baptism  the  child  (or  adult)  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Christian  community.  (2)  Confirmation 


THREE  SACRAMENTS  :  ORDINATION,  MARRIAGE, 
EXTREME  UNCTION 

Part  of  a  triptych  painted  in  the  i4th  century ; 
Antwerp  Museum 


84  THE  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH 

admitted  him  into  full  church  fellowship.  (3)  In  the  Holy 
Eucharist  (or  Lord's  Supper),  administered  in  the  service  called 
the  "  mass,"  the  spirit  of  the  participant  was  strengthened  by  the 
reception  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Savior,  under  the  forms  of 
the  bread  and  wine.  (4)  Penance  included  confession  to  the  priest 
at  least  once  a  year,  the  performance  of  various  acts  to  test  the 
reality  of  repentance,  and  absolution  by  the  priest  from  the 
guilt  of  sin.  (5)  Extreme  Unction  was  the  anointing  with  oil 
of  those  about  to  die;  it  strengthened  the  soul  for  its  dark 
journey  and  cleansed  it  from  the  remainder  of  venial  sins. 
(6)  Ordination  was  the  rite  whereby  one  was  made  a  member 
of  the  various  grades  of  the  clergy.  (7)  Matrimony  was  the 
sacrament  by  which  a  Christian  man  and  woman  were  joined  in 
lawful  marriage. 

The  theory  underlying  this  whole  system  was  that  the  sac- 
raments derived  their  force  from  the  power  which  Christ  gave 
the  Apostles,  and  which  they  transmitted  to  their  successors 
through  the  sacrament  of  ordination. 

With  the  growth  of  the  church  in  organization,  its  worship 
assumed  definite  form.     Latin  was  the  language  of  the  West 
87.  Church     at  the  time  that  Christianity  was  introduced ;   so  it  be- 
an? wor-        came,  and  has  remained,   the  language  of  the  Roman 
ship  Catholic  Church.     In  many  regions,  however,  portions  of 

the  service,  as  well  as  sermons,  were  given  in  the  language  of 
the  people.  The  chief  place  in  the  service  was  given  to  the 
celebration  of  the  "mass,"  or  Lord's  Supper.  In  the  twelfth 
century  the  term  "  transubstantiation "  was  introduced  to  des- 
ignate precisely  that  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  the  sub- 
stance of  the  wine  were  changed  into  the  substance  of  the  physi- 
cal body  and  blood  of  Christ,  while  retaining  the  color,  taste, 
and  other  physical  properties  of  bread  and  wine.  The  same  wor- 
ship and  reverence  was  then  given  to  the  consecrated  bread,  or 
host,  as  to  God  Himself.  The  spiritual  benefits  of  the  mass  were 
available  not  only  for  those  on  earth,  but  also  for  departed  souls 
undergoing  purification  for  sins  in  purgatory.  Men  often  gave 
sums  of  money  or  other  valuable  property  to  the  church,  to  pay 


THE   CHURCH  ORGANIZATION  85 

for  the  performance  of  masses  for  the  benefit  of  dead  friends, 
or  for  themselves  after  death. 

From  the  honors  which  were  early  shown  to  the  memory  of 
the  martyrs  arose  the  practice  of  venerating  the  saints,  whose 
intercession  was  asked  both  for  the  living  and  for  the  dead.  The 
chief  of  the  saints  was  the  Virgin  Mary,  who  was  venerated  as 
the  Mother  of  God.  Countless  churches  were  dedicated  to  her, 
and  her  aid  and  intercession  were  invoked  in  every  need.  Bones 
of  martyrs,  pieces  of  the  cross  on  which  Christ  was  crucified,  and 
similar  relics  were  sought  out,  cherished,  and  venerated,  and 
made  to  work  miracles  of  healing. 

Christmas,  Easter,  and  a  number  of  other  church  festivals 
were  celebrated  with  processions,  and  with  a  pomp  and  splendor 
of  ceremonial  which  appealed  powerfully  to  the  popular  imagina- 
tion. Rude  dramatizations  of  the  Incarnation  and  Redemption 
were  presented;  and  from  these,  and  from  "miracle  plays" 
and  "moralities,"  the  modern  drama  was  developed. 

Preaching  played  a  less  prominent  part  in  medieval  religion 
than  it  does  to-day,  though  from  time  to  ^ime  great  preachers 
arose  to  preach  a  crusade  or  a  moral  reformation.  The  parish 
priests,  because  of  the  great  cost  of  hand-written  books  and  the 
lack  of  schools,  were  usually  poorly  educated,  and  refrained  from 
preaching. 

B.  THE  CHURCH  ORGANIZATION 

To  carry  on  the  great  work  of  the  church,  officers  of  various 
ranks  were  necessary.  The  whole  of  western  Christendom  was 
divided  into  "parishes,"  each  consisting  usually  of  a  single  gg.  Parish 
village  or  of  a  definite  part  of  a  town ;  and  each  of  these  Priests 
had  its  parish  church  presided  over  by  the  parish  priest.  The 
priest  was  appointed  by  the  bishop ;  but  laymen  who  gave  lands 
to  found  the  churches  usually  reserved  to  themselves  and  their 
successors  the  right  of  "patronage,"  that  is,  of  deciding  who 
should  be  appointed.  The  priest  brought  the  church  most 
closely  home  to  the  lives  of  his  parishioners.  He  conducted 
services,  heard  confessions,  granted  absolution,  and  baptized, 


86 


THE   CHURCH  ORGANIZATION 


married,  and  buried  the  folk  of  his  parish.     "The  priest  was  the 
leader  in  the  parish,  and  the  churches  were  the  gathering  Munro 
places  not  only  for  religious  services  but  also  for  social  Middle  Ages, 
diversions.     Sunday  was  the  holiday  for  the  hard-working  3I 
population,  and  it  was  spent  in  or  near  the  church.     In  addition 
to  the  religious  services,  which  all  attended,  the  priest  would 
read  to  the  people  letters  from  the  absent  —  especially  during 
the  time  of  the  crusades  —  and  would  announce  any  news  that 
he  had  heard.     Often  between  the  morning  and  evening  services 
there  were  games  or  other  amusements." 

The  parishes  were  grouped  into  " dioceses,"  each  under  the 
bishop  of  that  "see,"  or  bishopric.     The  word  "bishop"  (epi- 
scopus)  means  "overseer,"  and  it  aptly  characterized  his  8p  Bishops 
functions.     He  watched  over  the  work  of  the  diocese,  and  arch- 
visited  and  disciplined  the  clergy,  consecrated  churches, 
and  administered  the  sacraments  of  confirmation  and  ordination. 
The  church  over  which  he  him- 
self presided  was  called  a  "cathe- 
dral, "  and  was  usually  the  largest, 
finest,  and  most  richly  adorned 
in  the  diocese.     The  "tithe,"  or 
church  due  of  one  tenth  of  all 
the  produce  of  the  soil,  was  paid 
to  his  agents,  and  by  him  appor- 
tioned among  the  parishes.     He 
presided  in  person  or  by  deputy 
over  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  the 
diocese,  to  which  all  the  clergy, 
and  laymen   in   many  kinds   of 
cases,  were  subject.     His  power 
over  both  clergy  and  people  was 
very  great ;  for,  by  virtue  of  the 
large  estates  which  he  held  on 

feudal  tenure,  he  was  often  a  ter- 

BISHOP  ON  THRONE 
ntonal  prince  as  well  as  a  high 

.„  From  a  i3th  century  ivory  carving  m 

officer  of  the  church.     Closely  as-  the  Louvre 


88  THE  MEDIEVAL  CHURCH 

sociated  with  the  bishop  in  conducting  the  cathedral  services 
and  in  administering  the  affairs  of  the  diocese,  were  a  body  of 
clergy  called  " canons,"  and  known  collectively  as  the  "cathedral 
chapter,"  whose  function  it  was  to  elect  the  bishop  when  a 
vacancy  occurred. 

The  dioceses  were  grouped  together  into  "provinces,"  over 
each  of  which  was  an  archbishop.  In  addition  to  his  powers 
and  duties  as  bishop  of  one  of  the  dioceses,  the  archbishop 
supervised  the  work  of  the  church  throughout  his  province. 
His  special  mark  of  distinction  was  the  "pallium,"  which  the 
Pope  alone  could  confer.  This  was  a  narrow  band  of  white 
wool,  worn  loosely  around  the  neck.  The  archbishop's  cathedral 
was  usually  in  the  most  important  city  of  the  province,  so  he 
was  spoken  of  as  the  "metropolitan."  In  each  country  there 
was  a  tendency  for  some  one  archbishop  to  gain  preeminence 
over  the  others,  and  be  recognized  as  "primate."  Thus  the 
archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  primate  of  all  England,  while 
the  archbishops  of  Rheims  (remz)  and  Mainz  (mints)  claimed 
preeminence  respectively  in  France  arid  Germany. 

At  the  head  of  the  whole  great  system  of  the  church  stood  the 

papacy.     Many  causes  had  contributed  to  make  the  bishop 

90.  The         °f  R°me  the  "universal  overseer,"  or  head  of  the  Latin 

Pope  and       Church.     Among  these  were  (i)  the  political  importance 

his  powers      of  Rome>  ^  ^  wealth  of  the  church  there,  (3)  the  ability 

and  moderation  which  its  bishops  showed  in  doctrinal  disputes, 
and  (4)  the  martyrdom  and  burial  at  Rome  of  Saint  Peter  and 
Saint  Paul.  Most  important  of  all,  the  Pope's  headship  rested 
upon  (5)  the  belief  that  Peter  had  been  made  by  Christ  the  chief 
of  the  Apostles,  and  given  "the  power  of  the  keys,"  that  is,  the 
power  "to  bind  and  to  loose."1  Peter  was  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  the  bishopric  of  Rome,  and  the  power  given  him  by 
Christ  he  was  held  to  have  transmitted  to  his  successors.  The 

1  "And  I  say  also  unto  thee,  that  thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this  rock  I  will  build 
my  church ;  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not  prevail  against  it.  And  I  will  give  unto 
thee  the  keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven :  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  bind  upon  earth 
shall  be  bound  in  heaven ;  and  whatsoever  thou  shalt  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed 
in  heaven."  —  Matthew,  xvi,  18-19. 


THE    CHURCH   ORGANIZATION  89 

extent  of  the  powers  which  the  Pope  claimed  will  be  made 
evident  in  chapters  which  follow.  Here  we  need  only  sketch  in 
outline  his  chief  functions  :  — 

(1)  The  Pope  was  the  supreme  lawgiver  of  the  church,   his 
edicts  being  issued  in  the  form  of  "bulls"  (so  called  from  the 
bulla  or  seal  attached)  and  "decretals."    The  chief  textbook  of 
canon  law  in  the  Middle  Ages  declared  that  the  Popes  "are 
above  all  the  laws  of  the  church,  and  can  use  them  according 
to  their  wish."     Accordingly,  we  not  only  find  the  Pope  making 
new  laws  as  occasion  demands,  but  also  by  his  dispensations 
annulling  the  law  of  the  church  in  particular  cases,  —  for  example, 
permitting  cousins  to  marry,  or  freeing  monks  from  their  vows. 

(2)  He  was  the  supreme  judge  of  the  church,  for  on  one  ground 
or  another  almost  any  case  which  arose  in  western  Europe  might 
be  carried  on  appeal  to  his  court  at  Rome.     "The  Popes  alone 
judge,"  says  the  textbook  of  canon  law  quoted  above,  "and 
they  cannot  be  judged  by  any  one."     Appeals  involved  the 
parties  in  vexatious  journeys  to  Rome,  large  court  fees,  and 
long  delays.     Great  inconveniences,   and  frequently  a  defeat 
of  justice,  were  some  of  the  results  of  this  system. 

(3)  As  supreme  administrator  of  the  church,  the  Pope  could  set 
aside  local  rights  of  election  or  appointment,  and  himself  appoint 
to  the  bishoprics  and  other  rich  "livings"  in  the  church.     Ulti- 
mately the  practice  arose  of  demanding,  under  the  name  of 
annates,  a  year's  revenue  from  each  appointee  to  a  bishopric,  as 
the  price  of  confirming  him  in  his  office. 

(4)  The  Pope  appointed  papal  legates  to  represent  him  at  the 
various  courts  of  Europe,  to  open  and  preside  over  councils, 
and  to   discharge  other  missions.     Through   these  important 
agents   the  Pope's  power  was  brought  into  every  corner  of 
western  Christendom. 

(5)  As  the  supreme  guardian  of  the  faith  and  morals  of  western 
Christendom,  the  Pope  fulfilled  his  loftiest  function.     When  all 
deductions  have  been  made,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  in  Walker 
the  language  of  a  Protestant  historian,  "the  papacy  as   The Refor- 
a  whole  showed  more  of  enlightenment,  moral  purpose,  and   matwn>  5 


go  THE   MEDIEVAL    CHURCH 

political  wisdom  than  any  succession  of  kings  and  emperors 
that  medieval  Europe  knew."  Popes  often  acted  as  pro- 
tectors of  the  poor  and  the  weak  against  the  mighty.  Kings 
and  princes  were  excommunicated  and  threatened  with  deposi- 
tion because  of  their  sins  and  oppressions.  A  noted  case  was 
that  of  a  great-grandson  of  Charlemagne,  who  had  divorced 
his  queen  and  married  again,  contrary  to  the  teachings  of  the 
church  and  the  Pope's  command.  After  prolonged  resistance 
he  was  compelled  to  put  away  his  second  wife,  take  back  his 
injured  queen,  and  recognize  the  Pope's  authority. 

(6)  Finally,  the  Pope  was  the  ruler  of  a  principality  in  Italy 
called  the  Papal  States,  over  which  he  exercised  all  the  rights  that 
a  king  has  in  his  kingdom.  In  later  times  the  administration, 
defense,  and  enlargement  of  the  Papal  States  engaged  much 
of  the  Pope's  attention.  The  formation  of  this  principality 
dates  back  to  the  downfall  of  Byzantine  and  Lombard  rule  in 
central  Italy  in  the  eighth  century,  and  to  the  donations  of  land 
made  to  the  papacy  by  the  Frankish  kings,  Pepin  the  Short 
and  Charlemagne  (§§  22,  27). 

Because  of  their  bearing  on  the  claims  of  the  papacy  we 
must  here  say  a  few  words  about  two  documents  which  are 
91.  Forged  now  known  to  be  forgeries,  but  which,  down  to  the  middle 
fuuf Fdse  °^  t^ie  fifteenth  century,  were  accepted  unquestioningly 
Decretals  as  genuine.  These  are  the  forged  Donation  of  Constantine 
and  the  False  Decretals.  The  Donation  of  Constantine  rep- 
resents that  Emperor  as  having  been  cleansed  from  leprosy 
by  the  prayers  of  the  Pope.  In  gratitude  for  this  he  is  said  to 
have  resolved  to  forsake  Rome  for  a  new  capital  on  the  Bos- 
porus. Accordingly,  so  the  document  claims,  he  conferred 
upon  the  Pope  "the  city  of  Rome,  and  all  the  provinces,  dis- 
tricts, and  cities  of  Italy,  and  of  the  western  regions."  That 
is  to  say,  the  Emperor  Constantine  the  Great  is  represented 
as  conferring  upon  the  Pope  the  right  to  rule  over  the  Western 
Empire,  which,  of  course,  is  historically  not  true.  The  False 
Decretals  are  a  collection  of  imaginary  letters  of  early  Popes 
and  decrees  of  councils,  which  show  the  Popes  as  acting  from 


THE   CHURCH  ORGANIZATION 


the  first  as  supreme  rulers  in  the  church.  Both  Donation  and 
Decretals  are  now  recognized  by  Protestants  and  Catholics 
alike  to  be  forgeries  of  the  clumsiest  sort.  The  Donation  was 
forged  in  the  eighth  century,  and  the  False  Decretals  in  the 
ninth.  But  the  ignorance  and  lack  of  critical  inquiry  of  the 
Middle  Ages  caused  them  to  be  accepted  without  question  for 
six  hundred  years.  The  extent  to  which  these  documents  aided 
the  development  of  the  Pope's  power  over  the  church  and  his 
acquisition  of  the  Papal  States  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Alzog 
But  a  Catholic  historian  admits  that  they  "did,  in  matter  Church  His- 
of  fact,  hasten  the  development  and  insure  the  triumph"  tory>  IIj  274 
of  the  principles  of  papal  headship  and  temporal  rule  which 
they  embody. 

To  assist  the  Pope  in  his  work  of  governing  the  church,  a 
clerical  council  was  gradually  formed,  the  members  of  which  were 

called    cardinals.  02.  The 


This  body  was 
at  first  composed  of 
the  bishops  of  the 
seven  great  churches 
at  Rome,  together 
with  other  high  clergy- 
men of  that  district. 
Later  other  Italians, 
and  gradually  some 
foreign  clergymen, 
were  admitted.  The 
importance  of  the  car- 
dinals as  an  organized 
body  dates  from  1059, 
when  the  chief  part  in 

electing    the    PopC    WaS 

conferred  upon  them. 
From  time  to  time, 
to  decide  great  questions  which  concerned  the  church,  gen- 
eral or  "  ecumen'ical  "  councils  of  the  whole  church  were 


g2. 

cardinals 


_ 

ROME  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


92  THE   MEDIEVAL   CHURCH 

called.     The  first  of  these,  held  at  Nicaea,  in  Asia  Minor,  in 

the  year  325,  condemned  the  Arian  heresy  (§  16).     The  first 

General   ei&ht  councils  were  recognized  by  the  Greek  and  Latin 

councils  of      churches  alike ;  but  beginning  with  the  ninth  they  were 

the  church      really    concerneci    only    with    the    affairs    of    the    Latin 

Church.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  troubles  in  the  church 
revived  the  use  of  councils.  It  then  became  a  burning  question 
whether  the  Pope  was  above  such  assemblies,  or  they  above  the 
papacy;  that  is,  whether  the  Pope,  or  the  council  of  higher 
clergy  representing  the  church  as  a  whole,  finally  revealed  the 
will  of  God. 

One  source  of  the  church's  strength  was  its  democracy.     At 

a  later  time  its  higher  offices,  especially  in  Germany  and  France, 

Democ-  became  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  well-born;   but 

racy  of  the      at  the  height  of  the  Middle  Ages  this  was  not  the  case. 

The  church  long  offered  almost  the  only  career  in  which 

a  poor  and  humbly  born  boy  of  talent  might  rise  to  a  position 

of  power  and  importance.     Until  the  growth  of  the  lawyer  class 

in  the  twelfth  century,  the  priesthood  was  the  only  calling  in 

which  success  depended  mainly  upon  learning  and  intelligence. 

Even  the  papacy  was  not  closed  to  baseborn  lads  of  ability. 

Among  the  Popes  of  this  period  we  find  the  son  of  a  peasant,  of 

a  shepherd,  of  a  cobbler,  of  a  baker,  of  a  carpenter,  and  of  a 

physician,  and  one  who  in  his  early  days  had  begged  his  bread 

from  door  to  door  in  the  island  of  Crete. 


C.   THE  "REGULAR"  CLERGY 

In  the  foregoing  account  of  the  church  we  have  been  con- 
cerned mainly  with  what  were  called  the  " secular"  clergy,  that 
95.  Bene-      ^s>  clergy  wno  lived  in  the  "world"   (seculum).     There 
dictine  was  in  addition  an  enormous  body  of  so-called  "regular 

clergy"  who  might,  under  proper  circumstances,  fill  any 
of  the  above  offices.  The  "  regular  "  clergy  were  those  who  lived 
under  a  "rule"  (regula),  such  as  those  of  the  different  monastic 
orders.  In  the  West  the  rule  of  Saint  Benedict,  who  died  in 


THE   "REGULAR"    CLERGY 


93 


543)  was  the  most  important  monastic  ordinance.  It  breathed 
an  essentially  mild  and  practical  spirit,  as  opposed  to  the  wild 
extravagances  of  eastern  zealots  like  Sim'eon  Styli'tes,  who 
dwelt  for  thirty  years  on  the  narrow  top  of  a  lofty  column. 
Benedict's  rule  enjoined  upon  the  brethren  the  three  vows  of 
poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  to  their  abbot,  or  head.  They 
were  to  labor  with  their  hands,  especially  at  agriculture. 
They  were  to  join  in  public  worship  once  during  the  night 
(about  two  o'clock),  and  at  seven  stated  " hours  " 
during  the  day.  The  monks  were  also  en- 
couraged to  read  and  to  copy  books.  They 
ate  together  in  a  "  refectory,"  at  which  time 
one  of  their  number  was  appointed  to  read 
aloud.  The  Benedictine  monks  slept  in  a  com- 
mon dormitory  and  not  in  separate  cells.  Each 
monastery  was  a  settlement  complete  in  itself, 
surrounded  by  a  wall,  and  the  monks  were  not 
allowed  to  wander  forth  at  will.  New  mon- 
asteries were  often  located  on  waste  ground,  in 
swamps,  and  in  dense  forests.  By  reclaiming 
such  lands  and  teaching  better  methods  of 
agriculture  the  monks  rendered  a  great  service 
to  society.  An  equal  or  greater  service  was 
rendered  to  the  cause  of  learning  by  the  labors  Fromtuar  *$$  cen" 
of  the  monks  in  copying  books,  which  other- 
wise would  have  perished  in  the  dark  days  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  They  also  conducted  schools,  in  which  boys  were 
taught  the  elements  of  learning.  In  this  way  the  seeds  of  the 
learning  and  culture  of  antiquity  were  kept  alive  by  the  monks,  to 
blossom  forth  again  in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance.  The  house 
of  Saint  Gall  in  Switzerland  is  a  type  of  the  great  monasteries  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  tenth  century  its  estates  amounted 
to  160,000  "plowlands,"  on  which  dwelt  a  populous  community 
of  laborers,  shepherds,  and  workmen  of  various  trades  em- 
ployed by  the  monastery,  together  with  the  serfs  who  w.ere 
bound  to  work  three  days  a  week  in  tilling  the  monastery 


BENEDICTINE 
MONK 


94 


THE  MEDIEVAL   CHURCH 


96.  Monas- 
tic reform ; 
Order  of 
Cluny 


lands.  The  convent  itself  numbered  more  than  five  hundred 
monks. 

The  Benedictine  monasteries  were  entirely  independent  of 
one  another.  Theoretically,  the  bishop  had  the  right  of  visit- 
ing and  correcting 
the  monasteries  in 
his  diocese ;  but 
frequently  the 
monks  secured  papal 
grants  which  freed  them 
from  the  bishop's  con- 
trol.  Many  monaster- 
ies, also,  became  very 
wealthy  through  gifts  of 
lands  and  goods.  Then 
luxury  and  corruption 
crept  in;  and  great 
nobles  sought  to  secure 
control  of  monastic  es- 
tates, often  by  the 
appointment  of  "lay" 
abbots  who  drew  the 
monastery  revenues 
without  taking  monastic 

vows.  Such  periods  of  decay  were  followed  by  times  of  re- 
vival, and  these  in  turn  by  new  decline  —  and  so  on  to  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  monastery  of  Cluny,  in  eastern  France,  was  the  center 
of  such  a  revival  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries.  The 
monasteries  which  it  reformed  were  brought  into  permanent 
dependence  on  the  abbot  of  the  head  monastery  at  Cluny,  their 
"priors"  or  heads  being  appointed  by  him.  The  name  "con- 
gregation" was  given  to  such  a  union  of  monasteries  under 
a  single  head.  The  congregation  of  Cluny  grew  until,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  it  numbered  more  than  two  thousand  monas- 
teries. The  strict  self-denial  of  these  monks,  the  splendor  of  the 


MONASTERY  OF  ST.  GALL 
From  a  plan  made  in  1596 


THE  "REGULAR"   CLERGY  95 

worship  in  their  great  churches,  their  zeal  for  learning  and  edu- 
cation, and  a  succession  of  distinguished  abbots,  account  for  the 
spread  of  the  Cluniac  movement  throughout  Europe. 

In   course   of   time   other   reformed   monastic   organizations 
arose.     The  various  orders  were  distinguished  by  differences 
in  the  color  and  cut  of  their  garments,  as  well  as  in  their        other 
mode  of  life.      In  addition  to  the  organizations  for  men,  monastic 
there   were   also   many   for   women.     The    "nunneries,"   orders 
or  houses  of  these  organizations,  were  numerous,  widespread, 
and  crowded.     They  offered  a  safe  refuge  to  defenseless  women 
in  an  age  of  violence;    and  nuns  who  possessed  talent,  high 
birth,  or  sanctity  might  rise  as  abbesses  to  positions  of  honor 
and  influence. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  arose  new  sorts  of  monastic  organ- 
izations, largely  as  a  result  of  the  need  of  a  more  flexible  force 
with  which  to  combat  a  widespread  heresy  in  France  and     g  The 
Italy  (see  ch.  x).     These  were  the  orders  of  Mendicant  or  mendicant 
Begging  Friars.     The  older  orders  sought  to  shut  out  the  ° 
world,   and  gave   themselves   up    to    prayer    and    meditation 
largely  to  save  their  own  souls.     The  mendicant  orders  lived 
and  labored  in  the  world,  seeking  preferably  the  poorest  quarters 
of  the  towns,  where  they  worked  to  help  and  to  save  others. 
The  Dominicans  (also  called  Black  Friars)  were  founded  by 
Saint  Dom'inic  (died  1221),  a  Spaniard  of  noble  family.     The 
Francis'cans  (called  Gray  Friars)  were  founded  by  Saint  Francis, 
an  Italian.     "No  human  creature  since  Christ,"  says  a  Lea,  inguisi- 
modern  Protestant  writer,   "has  more  fully  incarnated  tj 
the  ideal  of  Christianity  than  Francis.     Amid  the  extrava-  1, 260 
gance  of  his  asceticism,  there  shines  forth  the  Christian  love 
and  humility  with  which  he  devoted  himself  to  the  wretched 
and  neglected  —  the  outcasts  for  whom,  in  that  rude  time, 
there  were  few  indeed  to  care."     Both  orders,  after  some  hesita- 
tion, were  authorized  by  the  papacy,  and  became  its  stanch 
supporters.     The    Dominicans    applied    themselves    especially 
to  preaching  and  teaching,  while  the  Franciscans  turned  rather 
to  care  of   the   poor  and   sick.     Everywhere  the  friars  were 


96  THE   MEDIEVAL   CHURCH 

enthusiastically  welcomed.     "They  went  out   two   by  two," 

says  a  contemporary;    "they  took  neither  wallet,  nor  money, 

Jacques  de      nor  bread,  nor  shoes,  for  they  were  not  permitted  to  pos- 

Vitry,  in         sess  anything.     They  had  neither  monastery,  nor  church, 

UppeAuguste,  nor  lands,  nor  beasts.     They  made  use  of  neither  fur  nor 

80  linen,  but  wore  only  tunics  of  wool,  terminating  in  a  hood, 

without  capes  or  mantles  or  any  other  garment.      If  they  were 

invited  to  eat,  they  ate  what  they  found;  if  they  were  given 

anything,  they  kept  none  of  it  for  the  morrow.     Once  or  twice 

a  year  they  gathered  together  for  their  general  chapter,  after 

which  their  superior  sent  them,  two  together  or  more,  into  the 

different  provinces.     They  were  so  increased  in  a  little  time 

'       that  there  was  no  province  in  Christendom  where  they  had  not 

their  brethren."    Nothing  in  this  world,  however,  is  proof  against 

decay.     Before  two  centuries  had  passed  the  mendicant  orders 

also  had  sunk  into  decline,  and  their  members  were  often  held 

up  to  popular  reproach  and  contempt. 

In  the  heat  of  the  Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
another  notable  order  was  founded,  that  of  the  Jesuits,  which 
will  be  described  in  its  place  (§  400). 

In  summing  up  this  chapter,  we  may  say  that  while  decen- 
tralizing forces  prevailed  in  the  state,  the  church  grew  steadily 
99.  General  in  unity  and  in  strength.  The  Pope's  headship  was  ad- 
summary  vanced  as-  the  Emperor's  power  declined.  Successive 
waves  of  monastic  reform  resulted  in  the  formation  of  new 
orders  of  monks,  and  these  made  new  efforts  to  revive  and 
purify  the  church.  Impressive  church  services  were  devised, 
and  education  began  to  spread  among  the  clergy,  though  con- 
fined within  narrow  limits.  The  chief  problem  of  the  church 
was  how  to  secure  the  clergy  from  oppression  at  the  hands  of 
feudal  lords  and  other  rulers.  Before  the  eleventh  century,  the 
practical  problems  caused  by  the  invasions  of  the  Northmen  and 
the  decay  of  civil  govemment  so  occupied  men's  minds  as  not 
to  permit  of  much  speculation  on  the  relations  of  the  spiritual 
and  temporal  powers.  The  church  had  need  of  the  aid  of  tem- 
poral rulers  to  rescue  and  protect  it  from  danger,  and  so  did  not 


THE   "REGULAR"    CLERGY  97 

dare  to  quarrel  with  its  champions.  By  the  eleventh  century 
these  dangers  were  past.  Men's  minds  then  began  to  turn  to 
questions  of  principles  and  theory.  It  was  inevitable  that  the 
two  great  powers,  the  temporal  and  the  spiritual,  should  come 
into  conflict  in  their  representatives,  the  empire  and  the  papacy. 
It  is  to  this  conflict,  which  constitutes  the  chief  feature  of  the 
history  of  the  next  two  centuries,  that  we  turn  in  the  following 
chapter. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  — •  (i)  Compare  the  power  of  a  modern  religious  society 
with  that  of  the  medieval  church  on  each  of  the  four  points  in  §  83. 

(2)  Which  of  the  seven  sacraments  are  retained  in  Protestant  churches? 

(3)  How  many  archbishoprics  are  shown  in  the  map  on  page  86  ?    (4)  How 
many  bishoprics  were  under  the  archbishop  of  Mainz  ?     (5)  How  many 
monasteries  were  m  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  ?    (6)  Was  monasticism 
a  good  or  a  bad  thing  for  religion  ?     For  society  ?     For  the  state  ?     Give 
your  reasons.     (7)  Why  does  the  church  play  a  less  prominent  part   in 
modern  life  than  it  did  in  medieval  times  ? 

Search  Topics. —  (i)  ST.  BENEDICT  AND  THE  BENEDICTINE  RULE.  Wis- 
hart,  Monks  and  Monasteries,  131-158;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  83-90;  Hender- 
son, Documents,  274-314. — '(2)  MONASTIC  ATTITUDE  or  MIND.  Wishart, 
354-370.  —  (3)  SERVICES  OF  MONKS  AND  DANGERS  OF  MONASTICISM. 
Emerton,  Introduction,  ch.  xi;  Wishart,  386-412;  Kingsley,  Roman  and 
Teuton,  ch.  ix;  Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  129-136.  —  (4) 
DAILY  LIFE  EN  A  MEDIEVAL  MONASTERY.  Jessopp,  The  Coming  of  the 
Friars,  ch.  iii ;  Gasquet,  English  Monastic  Life,  chs.  ii,  vi,  vii.  —  (5)  THE 
MONASTERY  OF  CLUNY.  Munro  and  Sellery,  137-152;  Ogg,  245-249; 
Wishart,  177-180.  —  (6)  ST.  BERNARD  AND  THE  CISTERCIANS.  Wishart, 
192-197;  Munro  and  Sellery,  153-158,  406-431;  Ogg,  250-260.  —  (7) 
MONASTIC  ORDERS  FOR  WOMEN.  Wishart,  106-115.  —  (8)  ORIGIN  OF  THE 
DRAMA.  Halleck,  History  of  English  Literature,  134-142.  —  (9)  PARISH 
PRIESTS  AND  THEIR  PEOPLE.  Cutts,  Parish  Priests  and  their  People,  ch.  ix ; 
Gasquet,  Parish  Life  in  Medieval  England,  ch.  iv.  —  (10)  AN  ACCOUNT  OF 
A  PAPAL  ELECTION.  Nineteenth  Century  (magazine),  April,  1897.  —  (n) 
ST.  FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI.  Wishart,  208-230;  Jessopp,  ch.  i;  Ogg,  360-379. 

General  Reading.  —  Among  numerous  excellent  histories  of  the  church 
those  by  Sheldon,  Schaff,  Milman,  Niebuhr,  Moeller,  and  Gieseler  may  be 
mentioned.  Trench's  Lectures  on  Medieval  Church  History  is  scholarly,  brief, 
and  readable.  The  best  Catholic  church  history  is  by  Alzog  (3  vols.).  The 
Catholic  Encyclopedia  (15  vols.)  is  a  mine  of  information  on  many  subjects. 


"VA/ 

THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE 

IN  THE 

TENTH  AND  ELEVENTH  CENTURIES 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

I  5  So  100  '  200       ~~1  300 


&SS& 


•>-••  .:>..,-  mp~ 

S.ls£tTY 


10       Longitude      Eart     from      Greenwich        15          L.i..i>o*Tt8,  tNGB'sco.,  N.' 

ss 


CHAPTER  VI 

EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY:  THE  INVESTITURE  CONFLICT 
A.  THE  REVIVAL  OF  THE  EMPIRE 

THE  fall  of  the  Carolingian  rule  in  the  eastern  or  German 
part  of  Charlemagne's  Empire  (911)  coincided  with  a  period 

of  great   confusion   and   disorder  in   those  lands.     This          T 

100.  inva- 

was  due  chiefly  to  the  beginning  of  a  new  series  of  bar-  sion  by  the 
barian   invasions.     The   newcomers   were   the   Magyars  H^ga*1*115 
(mod'yorz) ,  or  Hungarians,  from  central  Asia.     They  were  akin 
to  the  old  Huns  and  Avars,  and  like  them  threatened  to  destroy 
European  civilization.     They  were  especially  renowned  for  their 
insatiable  greed  and  the  fury  of  their  fighting. 

The  weakness  of  the  central  government  in  Germany  threw 
the  burden  of  defense  against  these  invaders  upon  the  local 
counts  and  dukes.     These  officers  used  the  opportunity   IOI   Ger_ 
to  strengthen  and  make  practically  hereditary  their  offices,    man  duchies 
and  so  laid  the  foundations  of  a  number  of  powerful  semi-    ora 
national  duchies.     The  inhabitants  of  these  duchies  were  origi- 
nally separate   peoples   or    "stems"   of  the   German   race  — 
the  Bavarians,  Saxons,  etc. ;  and  from  this  fact  these  territories 
are  often  called  "stem"  duchies.     In  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  five  of  these  duchies  took  definite  shape,  and  formed 
the  basis  of  German  political  geography  thenceforth  down  to 
modern  times.     Bavaria  lay  on  either  side  of  the  Danube  at 
its  northernmost  bend ;  Swabia  included  the  headwaters  of  the 
Danube  and  of  the  Rhine ;  Franconia  lay  to  the  north  of  Swabia, 
with  lands  on  both  sides  of  the  middle  Rhine ;   and  Saxony  lay 
north  of  Franconia,  bordering  on  the  North  Sea.     Lotharin'gia 
(or  Lorraine')  lay  to  the  west  of  Saxony,  Franconia,  and  Swabia, 
and  was   sometimes   German   and   sometimes   French  in  rule. 

99 


IOO 


EMPIRE   AND    PAPACY 


To  the  east  of  these  stem  duchies  lay  a  fringe  of  border  districts, 
the  holders  of  which  acquired  such  large  powers  that  they  be- 
came practically  independent  of  their  dukes.  Bohe'mia,  behind 
its  mountain  barriers,  formed  an  alien  Slavic  wedge  driven  into 
the  eastern  borders  of  Germany. 

Complete  decay  of  Germany  after  the  fall  of  the  Carolingians 
was  prevented  by  the  election  of  the  head  of  one  of  these  stem 
102.  Otto  I,  duchies  as  German  king.  The  first  to  be  so  chosen  was 
German  ^e  Franconian  duke;  but  he  proved  to  be  weaker  than 
(936-973)  the  Saxon  dukes,  and  after  his  death  members  of  the  Saxon 
house  ruled  Germany  for  four  reigns.1 
The  first  of  these  reigns  which  calls  for 
consideration  is  that  of  Otto  I  (936-973). 
He  was  called  Otto  the  Great,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  important  kings  of 
Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages.  He  is 
described  as  having  a  powerful  figure, 
a  red  face,  a  long  wavy  beard,  and  eyes 
that  moved  incessantly  "as  if  they  were  RING  SEAL  OF  OTTO  I 
watching  their  prey."  His  deeds  show  Note  the  spelling  Oddo 
him  to  have  been  a  man  of  energy,  courage,  and  military  skill. 


following  genealogy  will  show  the  relationships  of  the  Saxon  kings  and 
their  immediate  successors :  — 

THE  SAXON  AND  FRANCONIAN  (OR  SALIAN)  KINGS  OF  GERMANY 
(i)  HENRY  I,  THE  SAXON  (919-936) 


(2)  OTTO  I,  THE  GREAT  (936-973) 
Refounded  Holy  Roman  Empire  (962) 

Liutgarde  (3)  OTTO  II  (973-983) 


(4)  OTTO  IIIj983-ioo2) 


Otto 

Henry 


(6)  CONRAD  II,  THE  SALIAN  (1024-1039) 

(7)  HENRY  III  (1039-1056) 

(8)  HENRY  IV  (1056-1106) 


Conrad 
(d.  noi) 


(9)  HENRY  V  (1106-1125) 


Henry,  Duke  of  Bavaria 


Henry 

(5)  HENRY  II,  THE  SAINT 
(1002-1024) 


Agnes  =  Frederick  of  Hohenstanfen 
(see  table,  page  115) 


THE   REVIVAL  OF  THE   EMPIRE    ,;;>  IOJ 


He  strove  to  increase  the  kingly  power  -6ver;,tr$e  4uke%  and      , 
gained  a  measure  of  success  in  this,  mainly  by  building  Xip-tke 
power  of  the  great  churchmen  in  the  state  as  a  counterpoise  to 
that  of  the  great  nobles. 

The  value  of  Otto's  measures  was  revealed  when  (in  955)  the 
Hungarians  next  advanced  up  the  Danube  valley.  On  the 
banks  of  the  river  Lech  (16k),  in  Swabia,  these  formidable 
invaders  were  for  the  first  time  decisively  defeated,  and  their 
forces  slain,  drowned,  or  scattered  in  the  pursuit.  Otto's  vic- 
tory was  as  great  a  deliverance  for  Germany  as  that  of  Charles 
Martel  over  the  Moors  had  been  for  France.  Soon  thereafter 
the  Hungarians  settled  down  to  agricultural  and  pastoral  life 
and  were  converted  to  Christianity.  In  the  year  1000  the 
Pope  sent  a  crown  to  their  king,  and  thus  admitted  the  Hun- 
garians to  the  family  of  European  nations.  Through  their 
acceptance  of  Roman  Christianity,  the  boundary  of  western 
Christendom  was  shifted  far  to  the  eastward. 

Otto's  reign  saw  also  the  beginning  of  an  important  German 
expansion  northeastward,  at  the  expense  of  the  Slavs,  which 
won  for  modern  Germany  some  of  its  most  important  territory. 
Here  also  Roman  Christianity  progressed,  through  the  establish- 
ment of  an  archbishopric  at  Mag'deburg  (in  967),  and  of  a  num- 
ber of  bishoprics  dependent  on  it.  From  these  centers  civiliza- 
tion and  Christianity  slowly  spread  among  the  neighboring  Slavs. 

But  the  most  important  event  of  Otto's  reign  arose  out  of 
his  dealings  with  Italy.     Since  the  downfall  of  the  Carolingians 
that  land  had  suffered  many  ills.     Saracen  and  Hun-   IQ3  Italy 
garian  raids  had  devastated  it,   and  whole  cities  were  in  the  tenth 
ruined.     Conflicts  raged  between  the  townsmen,  led  by  centufy 
their  bishops,  and  the  feudal  nobles.     The  central  government 
was  disputed  among  a  series  of  shadowy  kings  and  Emperors, 
no  one  of  whom  won  wide  recognition.     The  papacy,  which 
might  have  taken  the  lead  in  combating  these  evils,  was  itself 
a  prey  to  corrupt  and  greedy  local  nobles  ;   and  violence,  blood- 
shed, and  scandal  stained  its  history  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  the  tenth  century. 


EMPIRE   AND   PAPACY 

•  In,  95 1-  the  aid  of  Otto  was  sought  by  the  widow  of  one  of  the 
contestants  for  the  Italian  crown.  He  led  an  expedition  into 

104  Empire   ^aly,  and  rescued  and  married  the  lady  who  had  sought 
revived  by      his  aid.     A  revolt  recalled  him  to  Germany ;  but  ten  years 

™  2'  later,  on  the  invitation  of  the  Pope,  he  went  a  second  time 
into  Italy.  He  now  assumed  the  crown  of  Italy ;  and  at  Rome, 
on  February  2,  962,  the  Pope  crowned  him  Emperor.  A  few 
days  later  Otto  confirmed  all  the  grants  that  had  been  made 
to  the  Popes  by  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  and  decreed  that  the 
papal  elections  should  thereafter  be  conducted  with  the  fullest 
liberty.  The  coronation  of  Otto  revived  the  imperial  title  and 
refounded  the  Empire  of  Charlemagne,  —  to  last  (at  least  in 
name)  for  about  eight  centuries  and  a  half  longer.  The  new 
empire  differed  in  some  important  respects  from  the  former  one. 
France  no  longer  made  part  of  it,  and  imperial  interests  were 
confined  almost  entirely  to  Germany  and  Italy.  The  very 
title  used  by  his  successors,  that  of  "the  Holy  Roman  Empire 
of  the  German  Nation,"  indicates  its  Teutonic  nature.  The 
close  connection  between  Germany  and  Italy,  which  the  empire 
brought  about,  proved  hurtful  to  both.  To  Italy  it  brought  the 
ruin  of  all  hopes  of  nationality  and  of  a  native  government. 
For  Germany  it  meant  the  sacrifice  of  the  substance  of  power 
at  home  for  the  shadow  of  dominion  beyond  the  Alps.  To  the 
papacy  alone  the  connection  was  of  immediate  value,  for  the 
imperial  power  protected  it  against  the  greed  and  corruption 
of  local  nobles. 

Three  members  of  the  Saxon  house  followed  Otto  I  on  the 
German  and  imperial  throne,  —  his  son,  his  grandson,  and  his 

105  Fran-     grandnephew ;     but  the  events  of  none  of  these  reigns 
conian  or       were  important  enough  to  call  for  mention  here.1     Upon 

the  death  without  heirs  of  the  last  of  the  Saxon  rulers, 
a  new  German  house,  that  of  the  Franconians,  or  Salians, 
ascended  the  throne.  Under  its  first  two  members,  Conrad  II 

1  Otto  III,  the  grandson  of  Otto  I,  was  the  most  notable  of  these  three  Emperors. 
He  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  three  years  (983),  and  for  a  time  the  regency 
was  in  the  hands  of  his  mother,  a  Byzantine  princess.  His  closest  friend  and  teacher 


THE   REVIVAL  OF   THE   EMPIRE  103 

and  Henry  III,  the  medieval  empire  is  considered  to  have  reached 
its  height.  Burgundy  (see  map,  p.  98)  was  added  to  the  empire 
by  peaceable  succession,  and  Po- 
land, Bohemia,  and  Hungary  be- 
came subject  nations.  The  power 
of  the  German  dukes  was  de- 
creased, and  a  nominal  control 
over  Italy,  with  the  imperial  title, 
was  maintained.  But  the  most 
important  event  in  these  reigns 
was  a  slowly  developing  movement 

for  church  reform,   which   in   the  SEAL  OF  HENRY  m 

next   reign   produced   one   of    the    "Heinricus  Dei    Gratia    Roma- 
most    dramatic    struggles    of    the        norum  Operator  Augustus " 
Middle  Ages,  —  the  Investiture  Conflict  between  the  papacy 
and  the  empire. 

B.   THE  INVESTITURE  CONFLICT 

In    the    chapter    on    the   Medieval    Church    we    have    de- 
scribed the  reform  movement  which  spread  from  the  monastery 
of  Cluny  throughout  western  Europe.     The  program  of   106.  Need 
this  movement  did  not  stop  with  the  purification  of  the  ^^eorB 
monasteries.     It  extended  as  well  to  the  secular  clergy,   church 
whose  condition  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  was  de- 
plorable.    The  three  great  evils  most  complained  of  in  the 
church  were   clerical    marriage,   sim'ony,   and   lay   investiture. 
(i)  The  clergy  (with  the  exception  only  of   the   monks  and 
of  some  bishops  and  priests)  openly  and  freely  entered  into  the 

was  a  French  monk  named  Gerbert,  who  had  studied  in  Spain,  and  whose  rare  mathe- 
matical knowledge  made  him  seem  a  magician  to  after  ages ;  in  999  Gerbert  became 
Pope,  with  the  name  Sylvester  II,  —  the  first  French  Pope.  From  his  mother  and 
his  teacher  Otto  III  received  exalted  ideas  of  the  imperial  power,  which  he  sought 
to  put  in  practice.  He  abandoned  Germany  and  made  Rome  his  capital,  where  he 
surrounded  himself  with  high-sounding  officials  and  an  elaborate  ceremonial,  in 
imitation  of  the  Byzantine  court.  Soon  the  fickle  Romans  revolted ;  hurt  at  their 
ingratitude,  Otto  then  wandered  about  Italy  until  his  death  at  the  early  age  of 
twenty-two. 


104  EMPIRE  AND    PAPACY 

marriage  relation.  One  great  danger  of  this  practice  was  the 
temptation  that  it  offered  to  married  churchmen  to  provide 
for  their  children  out  of  the  lands  in  their  possession,  thereby 
impoverishing  the  church.  Another  objection  was  that  it 
centered  the  thoughts  and  affections  of  the  clergy  upon  their 
families,  and  prevented  their  single-hearted  devotion  to  the 
church.  (2)  Simony  was  the  purchase  in  any  way  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal office,  the  word  being  derived  from  the  name  of  that  Simon 
Ma'gus  who  sought  to  buy  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (see  Acts, 
viii,  17-24).  (3)  Closely  connected  with  this  evil  was  the  right 
exercised  by  Emperors  and  princes  of  "investing"  newly  elected 
bishops  with  the  ring  and  staff,  which  were  the  symbols  of  their 
spiritual  office,  and  requiring  from  them  homage  and  fealty 
for  the  lands  which  they  held.  Accompanying  the  control 
thus  secured  were  encroachments  upon  the  freedom  of  election, 
so  that  the  higher  clergy  almost  everywhere  became  the  ap- 
Montalem-  pointees  of  temporal  rulers.  Says  a  Catholic  writer,  in 
onii  w™ t  speaking  of  this  period :  "Kings  could  dispose,  absolutely 
II,  309  and  without  control,  of  all  ecclesiastical  dignities.  All 

was  venal,  from  the  episcopate,  and  sometimes  even  the  papacy, 
down  to  the  smallest  rural  benefice." 

In  the  beginning  this  reform  movement  was  perforce  carried 
on  independently  of  the  papacy,  which  at  that  time  was  sunk 
107.  Henry    under  the  control  of  the  selfish  nobles  of  central  Italy. 
Ill  and  the     When  the  Emperor  Henry  III  went  to  Italy,  in  1046,  he 
found  three  rivals  claiming  to  be  Pope,  and  each  in  pos- 
session of  a  portion  of  the  city.     At  a  council  called  near  Rome, 
all  three  claimants  were  deposed  for  simony;    and  a  German 
bishop  of  unblemished  life  and  piety  was  chosen,  —  the  first  of 
a  series  of  four  German  Popes.     Of  those  who  had  filled  the 
papal  chair  in  the  three  preceding  centuries,  only  four  had  not 
been  born  in  Rome  or  Jhe  papal  states;    with  these  German 
Popes  the  papacy  took  on  a  more  international  character. 

The  Popes  now  took  the  lead  in  the  reform  movement ;  and 
under  their  direction  synods  (local  councils  of  the  clergy)  were 
held  in  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  which  everywhere  con- 


THE  INVESTITURE   CONFLICT 


105 


demned  the  married  and  simoniacal  clergy.  But  the  greatest 
thing  which  these  German  Popes  did  was  to  bring  to  Rome  the 
monk  Hil'debrand,  as  adviser  and  chief  subordinate  officer  of 
the  papacy. 

Hildebrand  was  of  lowly  German  origin,  but  was  born  in 
Tus'cany.  He  had  received  his  education  and  monastic  train- 
ing in  a  Roman  i0g.  Rise  of 
monastery,  of  Hildebrand 
which  his  uncle  was 
abbot.  For  a  time 
he  was  an  inmate  of 
the  monastery  of 
Cluny.  There  one  of 
these  German  Popes 
found  him,  and  was 
so  impressed  with  his 
ability  and  character 
that  he  took  Hilder 
brand  to  Rome.  Until 
Hildebrand's  own 
election  to  the  papacy 
in  1073,  as  Gregory 
VII,  he  was  the  real 
power  behind  the 
papal  throne, —  under 
five  different  Popes, 
covering  a  period  of 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  Physically  he  was  far  from  imposing.  He  was  of 
small  stature,  ungainly  figure,  and  feeble  voice.  But  he  pos- 
sessed a  mind  of  restless  activity,  uncommon  penetration,  Hefele, 
and  an  inflexible  will.  The  substance  of  his  policy  was  to  quoted  in 
enforce  the  Pope's  supremacy  over  the  church  and  over  church  His- 
all  temporal  princes.  A  famous  Catholic  historian  sums  tory,  II,  489 
up  Hildebrand's  design  in  these  words:  "Seeing  the  world 
sunk  in  wickedness  and  threatened  with  impending  ruin, 


HILDEBRAND  (GREGORY  VII) 
From  an  old  print 


io6 


EMPIRE   AND   PAPACY 


and  believing  that  the  Pope  alone  could  save  it,  he  con- 
ceived the  vast  design  of  forming  a  universal  theocracy,  which 
should  embrace  every  kingdom  of  Christendom,  and  of  whose 
policy  the  Ten  Commandments  should  be  the  fundamental 
principle.  Over  this  commonwealth  of  nations  the  Pope  was 
to  preside.  The  spiritual  power  was  to  stand  related  to  the  tem- 
poral as  the  sun  to  the  moon,  imparting  light  and  strength, 
without,  however,  destroying  it  or  depriving  princes  of  their 
sovereignty." 

While  Henry  III  lived,  Hildebrand  did  not  dare  shake  off  the 

Emperor's  control.     When  that  prince  died,  he  left  an  infant 

109.  Prepa-  °^  s^x  years>  Henry  IV,  to  rule  under  the  regency  of  his 

rations  for      mother.     "The  princes,"  says  a  chronicler,   "chafed  at 

ugg  e  being  governed  by  a  woman  or  a  child ;    they  demanded 

their  ancient  freedom;    they  disputed  among  themselves  the 

chief  place;  at  last  they  plotted 
the  deposition  of  their  lord  and 
king." 

With  little  now  to  fear  from  be- 
yond the  Alps,  Hildebrand  set 
about  organizing  new  safeguards 
for  papal  independence.  Every- 
where he  could  count  upon  the  re- 
form party  as  favorable  to  his 
plans.  The  Countess  Matilda  of 
Tuscany  gave  him  protection  and 
resources,  and  finally  donated  to 
the  papacy  her  vast  estates, 
stretching  almost  to  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa.  New  treaties  also  were 
concluded  with  the  Normans  of 

TERRITORIES  OF  THE  COUNTESS     southern  Italy,  by  which  they  be- 
came    the     Pope's    vassals,    and 

agreed  to  aid  him  against  all  men.  Then  in  1059  (§  92)  a  decree 
was  issued  changing  the  method  of  papal  elections.  In  the 
early  church  the  Pope  had  been  chosen  by  "the  clergy  and 


THE  INVESTITURE   CONFLICT  107 

people"  of  Rome.  Under  Charlemagne,  and  also  under  the 
Saxon  Emperors  and  their  successors,  the  Emperor  practically 
appointed  to  that  office.  The  decree  of  1059  promoted  the  in- 
dependence of  the  papacy  by  providing  that  the  real  selection 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  cardinals,  —  that  is,  of  the  Pope's 
own  clerical  council. 

The  time  at  last  came,  in  1073,  when  Hildebrand  himself 
was  to  don  the  papal  crown.     The  election  was  irregular  and 
not  according  to  the  decree  of  1059.    The  people,  assembled   II0.  Hiide- 
in  the  church  for  the  funeral  services  of  the  late  Pope,  brand  as 
raised  the  cry,  "Let  Hildebrand  be  our  bishop!"     One  cr^VH^ 
of  the  cardinals  turned  to  the  crowd  and  recalled  how   (1073-1085,) 
much  Hildebrand  had  done  for  the  church  and  for  Rome.     On  all 
sides  the  cry  was  then  raised,  "Saint  Peter  crowns  Hildebrand 
as  Pope!"     In  spite  of  his  resistance,  Hildebrand  was  forth- 
with arrayed  in  the  scarlet  robe,  crowned  with  the  papal  tiara, 
and  seated  in  the  chair  of  Saint  Peter.     In  accordance  with 
a  practice  which  had  prevailed  since  the   tenth   century,   he 
took  a  new  name  as  Pope,  and  thenceforth  is  known  as  Gregory 
VII. 

The  claims  of  Gregory  to  treat  the  temporal  power  as  sub- 
ordinate to  the  papacy  made  a  struggle  with  the  empire  inevi- 
table.    The  imperial  power,  at  this  time,  was  far  from   llx   Ger_ 
strong.     The  Emperor  Henry  IV  had  been  allowed  to  many  under 
grow  up  with  alternations  of  stern  repression  and  careless  IIenry  Iv 
indulgence,  and  thus  arrived  at  manhood  without  training  to 
rule,  with  an  undisciplined  temper,  and  with  a  heedlessness  of 
moral  restraint  which  led  him  into  many  excesses.     Finally, 
his  rule  was  weakened  by  the  disaffection  of  the  Saxons,  who 
had  been  the  chief  support  of  the  throne  under  Otto  I.     In 
1073  their  discontent  ripened  into  revolt ;    and  although  Henry, 
after  one  humiliating  defeat,  put  down  the  rebellion,  there  con- 
tinued to  exist  in  Germany  a  disaffected  party,  with  which 
Gregory  formed  an  alliance. 

In  1075  Gregory  brought  the  question  of  investiture  into  a 
position   of   chief   importance.     He   declared   that   investiture 


Io8  EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 

by  laymen,  even  by  kings  and  Emperors,  was  void,  and  pro- 
nounced excommunication  against  all  who  disregarded  his  de- 
112.  Inves-     cree-     Temporal  rulers  generally  felt  that  this  decree  in- 
titure  Con-     fringed  their  just  rights.     Bishops  and  archbishops,  espe- 
cially in  Germany,  were  not  merely  officers  of  the  church. 
By  virtue  of  the  lands  attached  to  their  offices,  they  were  great 
feudal  princes  as  well,  and  exercised  high  influence  in  the  state. 
The  Emperor,   therefore,   could  not   consent   to   give   up   all 
means  of  keeping  out  undesirable  men  from  these  positions. 
Henry  IV  resolved  to  make  himself  the  head  of  the  resistance 


GOSLAR,  BIRTHPLACE  OF  HENRY  IV  (Modern  condition). 

to  the  Pope  on  this  question.  He  continued  to  grant  lay  in- 
vestiture, and  he  associated  with  persons  whom  the  Pope  had 
excommunicated. 

When  it  was  reported  to  King  Henry  that  he  was  summoned 
to  appear  at  Rome  to  justify  his  actions,  he  replied:  " Henry, 
king  not  by  usurpation,  but  by  the  will  of  God,  to  Hildebrand, 
no  longer  Pope,  but  false  monk.  Thou  hast  attacked  me,  who  am 
consecrated  king,  and  who,  according  to  the  tradition  of  the 
fathers,  can  be  judged  by  God  alone  and  can  be  deposed  for  no 
crime  save  the  abandonment  of  the  faith.  Condemned  by 
the  judgment  of  our  bishops,  and  by  our  own,  descend  !  Quit 
the  place  which  thou  hast  usurped  !  Let  another  take  the  seat 
of  Saint  Peter,  who  seeks  not  to  cover  violence  with  the  cloak 


THE  INVESTITURE   CONFLICT 


109 


of   religion,   and  who  teaches   the   sound   doctrine   of   Saint 
Peter!" 

To  this  Gregory  replied  in  February,  1076,  by  sentence  of 
excommunication.  "Blessed  Peter,  prince  of  the  Apostles," 
he  wrote,  "be  thou  my  witness  that  the  Holy  Roman  Church 
called  me  against  my  will  to  govern  it !  As  thy  representative 
I  have  received  from  God  the  power  to  bind  and  loose  in  heaven 
and  upon  earth.  Full  of  this  conviction,  for  the  honor  and  de- 
fense of  thy  church,  I  deny  to  King  Henry,  who  with  unheard-of 
pride  has  risen  against  thy  church,  the  government  of  Germany 
and  of  Italy.  I  absolve  all  Christians  from  the  oaths  of  fidelity 
they  have  taken  or  may  take  to  him;  and  I  forbid  that  any 

person  shall  serve  him 
as  king." 

The  most  powerful 
of  the  German  princes 
were  already  op-  113.  Pope's 
posed  to  Henry, 
and  declared  (1077) 
that  unless  the  excom- 
munication was  re- 
moved by  a  certain 
day,  he  would  be 
treated  as  deposed  and 
a  new  king  elected. 
Henry's  only  hope 
was  to  break  the  alli- 
ance between  the  Pope 
and  his  enemies  in 
Germany.  To  ac- 
complish this  he  set 

off  secretly  across  the 

POPE  GREGORY  VII,  HENRY  W,  AND  COUNTESS      A1  ,-,       A      j      r 

MATILDA  AT  CANOSSA  ^P5'    m    the    dead    °f 

From  a  twelfth  century  MS.  in  Vatican  Library         Wmter'       accompanied 

only  by  his  wife,   his 
young  son,  and  one   attendant.     At   Canos'sa  he  found   the 


HO  EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 

Pope,  who  was  already  on  his  way  to  Germany  to  arrange  the 
government  with  the  princes.  The  Pope  at  first  refused  to 
see  the  king,  and  for  three  days  Henry  was  obliged  to  stand 
as  a  suppliant  —  fasting  and  barefooted  —  without  the  castle 
gates.  At  last  Gregory  yielded  to  the  entreaties  of  the  Countess 
Matilda,  and  admitted  him  to  reconciliation.  The  excommuni- 
cation was  raised,  but  only  on  hard  conditions. 

The  humiliation  of  the  Emperor  at  Canossa  was  the  most 
brilliant  victory  that  the  papacy  ever  won  over  the  temporal 
The        power;   but  it  was  merely  an  incident  in  a  long  struggle, 
conflict  con-    Henry's  German  enemies  were  displeased  that  the  Pope 
had  removed  the  excommunication,  and  persisted  in  elect- 
ing a  new  king.     Civil  war  followed;   and  as  Henry  continued 
to  give  lay  investiture,  the  Pope  renewed  his  excommunication. 
A  strong  party  now  rallied  to  .Henry's  support,  and  he  caused 
an  assembly  of  German  and  Italian  bishops  to  declare  Gregory 
deposed  and  set-up  an  anti-pope.     In  1081  Henry  mastered  his 
German  enemies  sufficiently  to  come  to  Italy  with  an  army. 
After  three  years'   campaigning  all  Rome,  except  the  strong 
fortress  of  St.  Angelo,  was  in  his  hands. 

The  dauntless  Gregory  meanwhile  had  sent  for  aid  to  the 
Normans  of  southern  Italy.  Upon  their  approach,  Henry 
Death  ^ast^y  quitted  Rome,  which  was  taken  and  sacked  by  the 
of  Gregory  Normans.  When  they  retired,  the  Pope,  who  dared  not 
VII  (1085)  remain  behind,  accompanied  them.  In  May,  1085, 
Gregory  VII  died  at  Salerno  in  southern  Italy.  In  his  last 
hours  he  said,  "I  have  loved  justice,  and  hated  iniquity;  there- 
fore I  die  in  exile."  He  had  done  much  to  clear  the  church  of 
the  scandals  which  clung  to  it,  and  he  had  raised  the  papal  power 
to  a  higher  pitch  than  ever  before.  But  he  had  embroiled  the 
papacy  not  only  with  the  empire,  but  wijth  most  of  the  kings  of 
Europe.  Had  his  ideas  triumphed,  Europe  would  have  been 
left  practically  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  papacy,  distant  and 
disassociated  from  royal  families  or  national  feeling  —  a  single 
monarchical  rule  supported  by  all  the  terrors  of  religious 
authority. 


THE    INVESTITURE   CONFLICT  III 

The  death  of  Gregory  VII  was  far  from  ending  the  Investiture 
Conflict.  With  varying  success  the  Popes  after  Gregory  con- 
tinued the  struggle,  until  Henry's  death  in  1106.  The  Il6  The 
latter's  undutiful  son,  Henry  V,  had  rebelled  in  aid  of  the  conflict  set- 
papal  policy;  but  when  once  seated  upon  the  throne  he 
proved  as  stanch  an  upholder  of  the  imperial  claims  as  his  father. 
A  compromise  was  finally  arranged  in  1122,  in  what  is  called 
(from  the  German  city  where  it  was  concluded)  the  Concor'dat  of 
Worms.  By  its  terms  (i)  the  Emperor  gave  up  "all  investiture 
by  the  ring  and  the  staff,"  and  promised  that  there  should  be 
" freedom  of  election  and  of  consecration."  (2)  In  return, 
the  Pope  granted  that  the  election  of  bishops  and  abbots  should 
take  place  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  or  of  his  representa- 
tive, so  that  objection  might  be  made  to  persons  unsatisfactory 
to  him.  It  was  also  agreed  (3)  that  the  person  so  elected  should 
receive  from  the  Emperor,  by  being  touched  with  his  scepter, 
"the  property  and  the  immunities  of  his  office,"  and  should  duly 
fulfill  the  obligations,  such  as  homage,  arising  therefrom.  In 
this  settlement  the  papacy  gained  the  abolition  of  lay  investi- 
ture, and  so  secured  greater  freedom  for  the  church.  Some 
solid  advantages,  however,  remained  to  the  empire,  and  the 
compromise  was  one  which  Gregory  VII  would  have  been  loath 
to  approve.  It  gave,  indeed,  only  a  breathing  spell  in  the 
struggle  between  the  world-church  and  the  world-state.  The 
two  institutions  were  mutually  exclusive,  and  new  occasions  for 
controversy  were  not  slow  to  arise.  In  the  world-empire  of 
Charlemagne  or  Otto  I  there  was  no  room  for  an  independent 
church.  In  the  world-papacy  of  Hildebrand  there  was  no  room 
for  an  independent  empire  or  kingdom.  The  conflict  had  to 
continue  until  the  power  of  one  or  of  the  other  was  destroyed. 


IMPORTANT  DATES 

955-  Otto  I  defeats  the  Hungarians. 

962.  Otto  I  revives  the  empire. 
1073.  Hildebrand,  Gregory  VII,  becomes  Pope. 
1077.  Emperor  Henry  IV  at  Canossa. 
1 122.  The  Concordat  of  Worms  settles  the  Investiture  Conflict. 


112  EMPIRE   AND   PAPACY 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  Hungarians,  who  were  invading 
Europe  from  the  east  in  the  tenth  century,  with  the  Northmen,  who  were 
overrunning  the  western  lands.  (2)  What  changes  of  religion  in  the  ninth 
and  tenth  centuries  are  shown  by  the  maps  on  page  78  ?  (3)  Compare  the 
empire  of  Otto  I  with  that  of  Charlemagne.  (4)  What  was  the  chief  service 
that  the  Saxon  Emperors  rendered  to  Germany?  To  the  papacy?  (5)  In 
what  respects  was  the  power  of  the  Franconian  Emperors  greater  than  that 
of  the  Saxon  ?  (6)  How  did  the  purifying  of  the  papacy  prove  a  bad  thing  for 
the  Emperors  ?  (7)  To  what  extent  do  you  think  desire  for  power  influ- 
enced Gregory  VII  ?  (8)  Was  his  policy  a  good  or  a  bad  one  for  the  world  ? 
Give  your  reasons.  (9)  Make  a  list  of  the  forces  supporting  Gregory  VII 
and  those  supporting  Henry  IV.  (10)  Was  the  interview  at  Canossa  a  vic- 
tory for  the  Pope  or  for  the  Emperor?  Why?  (n)  Show  that  the  Con- 
cordat of  Worms  was  a  real  compromise.  (12)  Why  are  conflicts  between 
church  and  state  less  frequent  to-day  than  in  the  Middle  Ages  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  RAIDS  OF  THE  HUNGARIANS.  Emerton,  Medieval 
Europe,  106-109,  i3°-i34-  —  (2)  WORK  OF  HENRY  I  FOR  GERMANY.  Emer- 
ton, 103-110;  Henderson,  Germany  in  the  Middle  Ages,  117-122;  Tout, 
Empire  and  Papacy,  12-18;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Age,  167-170.  —  (3)  PERSONALITY  AND  WORK  OF  OTTO  I.  Bemont  and 
Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  275-277;  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  84-88, 
133-144;  Tout,  18-35;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  181-184.  —  (4)  CHARACTER 
AND  IDEAS  OF  OTTO  III.  Bryce,  144-148;  Tout,  41-47.  —  (5)  THEORY  OF 
THE  EMPIRE.  Bryce,  ch.  vii.  —  (6)  CHARACTER  AND  AIMS  OF  HILDEBRAND. 
Emerton,  230-231,  240,  244-245;  Tout,  124-127;  Thatcher  and  Schwill, 
261-265;  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Bk.  VII,  ch.  i;  Pattison,  Leading 
Figures  in  European  History  ("Hildebrand") ;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  261- 
264.  —  (7)  MINORITY  OF  HENRY  IV.  Emerton,  232-239;  Henderson,  189- 
210;  Tout,  120-124 ;  Rpbinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  266-271. — 
(8)  HENRY  IV  AT  CANOSSA.  Emerton,  253-254;  Tout,  130-132;  Milman, 
Bk.  VII,  ch.  ii;  Duncalf  and  Krey,  Parallel  Source  Problems  in  Medieval 
History,  29-90;  Ogg,  273-278;  Robinson,  I,  282-283. 

General  Reading.  —  On  the  papacy  and  empire  in  the  Middle  Ages  see 
Lees,  The  Central  Period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Tout,  Papacy  and  Empire,  Bryce, 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany,  and  Emerton, 
Medieval  Europe,  in  addition  to  the  church  histories  mentioned  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter.  Stephens's  Hildebrand  and  his  Times  is  an  excellent  brief 
book.  Fisher's  Medieval  Empire  (2  vols.)  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the 
organization  and  working  of  the  empire. 


CHAPTER  VII 


EMPIRE  AND    PAPACY:  FALL  OF   THE  HOHENSTAUFENS 
A.   GUELF  AND  GHIBELLINE 

WITH  the  death  of  Henry  V  without  children,  in  1125,  the 
Franconian  or  Salian  line  of  rulers  disappears  from  German 

historv.     The   "7.  Acces- 

most 

of      the 


r   ,    sion  of  the 
powerful    Hohenstau- 


noble  fens  (1138) 
families  which  were 
left  was  that  of  the 
Hohenstaufens  (ho'en- 
stou-fenz).  Their 
chief  castle,  from 
which  the  family  took 
its  name,  stood  on  a 
spur  of  the  Alps  which 
separates  the  upper 
Danube  from  the 
Neckar  valley.  Be- 
cause of  the  stanch 
loyalty  with  which  its 
heads  had  supported 
the  empire  in  the  In- 
vestiture Conflict, 
they  had  been  re- 
warded with  rich 
grants  of  lands  and 
offices  in  Swabia  and  Franconia.  It  was  natural  that  the  Hohen- 
staufens should  aspire  to  the  vacant  kingship,  but  for  the  time 
their  ambition  was  defeated.  After  the  brief  rule  of  a  Saxon 


RUINS  OF  HOHENSTAUFEN  (From  an  old  print) 


II4  EMPIRE    AND    PAPACY 

king,  however,  a  Hohenstaufen  was  chosen  in  1138.  But  it 
was  not  until  the  accession,  in  1152,  of  Frederick  I,  called 
Barbaros'sa  from  his  red  beard,  that  this  most  brilliant  of  the 
medieval  imperial  houses  began  to  leave  its  impress  on  German 
and  Italian  history. 

With  the  accession  of  Frederick  I  came  a  definite  recognition 
of  the  elective  character^  the  imperial  office.     The  kingship  in 
118.  Im-        Germany,  as  in  all  the  kingdoms  founded  by  the  Teutonic 
becomes  C<     mva-ders,  originally  presented  a  rude  combination  of  the 
elective          elective   and  hereditary  principles.     One  family  in  each 
early  German  tribe  had  a  hereditary  claim  to  rule,  but  from 
among  the  members  of  this  family  the  warriors  were  free  to 
choose  the  bravest  or  the  most  popular  as  king.     In  England, 
Spain,  and  France  (in  spite  of  the  temporary  triumph  of  the 
elective  principle  in  the  accession  of  Hugh  Capet),  the  heredi- 
tary   principle    gradually   prevailed.      Thus    by    the    twelfth 
century  the  rulers  in  these  countries  followed  one  another  in 
practically  the  order  of  hereditary  right.     In  Germany,  however, 
a  contrary  development  had  taken  place.     With  the  accession 
of  Frederick  it  became  established  as  uthe  cardinal  principle 
of  the  law  of  the  Roman  Empire,"  to  use  the  language  of  a 
Otto  of  contemporary  chronicler,    "that   the  succession  depends 

Freising,  not  upon  hereditary  right,  but  on  the  election  of  the 
Chronicle  prmces."  This  difference  was  due  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
both  the  Saxon  and  Franconian  houses  became  extinct,  in  the 
male  line,  after  only  a  few  reigns,  and  so  gave  opportunity 
for  free  election.  The  desire  of  the  great  nobles  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  a  strong  hereditary  royal  power  was  also  a  factor. 
But  most  important  of  all  was  the  fact  that  the  German  king, 
after  his  coronation  by  the  Pope,  was  also  Emperor.  The 
Popes  never  admitted  that  the  imperial  dignity  was  hereditary, 
or  that  the  coronation  as  Emperor  was  to  be  considered  a  mere 
form.  Papal  influence,  therefore,  combined  with  favoring  cir- 
cumstances and  the  interest  of  the  princes  to  keep  up  and 
strengthen  the  custom  of  election.  The  right  of  choice,  which 
first  belonged  to  the  whole  body  of  freemen,  was  by  degrees 


GUELF  AND    GHIBELLINE 


vested  in  their  leaders.  In  a  later  chapter  we  shall  see  how 
this  right  to  elect  was  subsequently  given  to  a  definite  elec- 
toral college  of  seven  members  (§  300). 

The  chief  rivals  of  the  Hohenstaufens  in   Germany,  both 
before  and  after  their  accession  to  the  throne,  were  the  Welfs, 
who   possessed   the   important   duchies   of   Bavaria   and   "9-  Rival- 
Saxony.1     For  three  quarters  of  a  century  the  kingdom  j^sel°  and 
was  torn  by  the  quarrels  of  these  two  families.     Their  Ghibelline 
rival  cries,  "Hi  Welfen  !"  and  "Hi  Waiblingen  !"  (vi'bling-en ; 
from  a  little  village  in  Swabia  near  the  castle  of  Hohenstaufen), 
gave  rise  to  new  party  names.     Beginning  as  a  struggle  between 
rival   families,   the   contest  became   a  warfare   of  contending 
principles.     The  Hohenstaufen  party  stood  for  the  principle 
of  strong  monarchical  government  and  for  imperial  rule  over 
Italy.     The  Welf  party  represented  feudal  opposition  to  the 
monarchy,  and  the  independence  of  the  Italian   towns.     In 
Italy  the  names  of  the  two  parties  appear  as  Guelf  (gwelf)  and 
Ghibelline  (gib'el-m),  the  latter  being  a  corruption  of  Waiblingen. 

1  The  relationship  of  the  members  of  these  two  houses  will  be  apparent  from  the 
following  table :  — 

THE  HOUSES  OF  WELF  AND  HOHENSTAUFEN  IN  GERMANY 

Frederick 
(i)  LOTHAIR  II,  OF  SAXONY     Henry  the  Black,  of 

(1125-1137)  Duke  of  Bavaria,      HOHENSTAUFEN  =  Agnes,  sister  of  the 


head  of  the  house 
of  WELF 

Emperor 
(see  table 

HENRY  V 
,  p.  100) 

IRAD  III 
-H52) 

Hohen- 
en  king 

Gertrude  =  Henry  the  Proud              Judith  = 

Henry  the  Lion  (d.  1195) 

1 

=  Frederick  the  One-eyed 
Duke  of  Swabia 

(2)  CO] 

("3? 
first 
RICK  I,  BARBAROSSA      stauf 
(1152-1190) 

~1 
(6)  OTTO  IV  (1198-1214)         William,    (3)  FREDE 
(d.  1218)                       ancestor 
of  the 
Electors  of 
Hanover               t.\  T 
and  of  the              %* 
Hanoverian 
sovereigns           /7\  pR 
of  Great            (7)(lF* 
Britain 

IENRY  VI            (5)  PHILIP  OF  SWABIA 
)o-ii97)                     (1198-1208) 

EDERICK  II 
5-1250) 

r~ 

Henry    (8)  CONRAD  IV  . 
(d.  1242)    (1250-1254) 

Manfred 
(illegit.;d.  1266) 

Conradin  (slain,  1268) 


Il6  EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 

It  was  impossible  for  the  papacy  to  avoid  taking  sides.    In 
Germany  its  influence  was  usually,  and  in  Italy  almost  always,  on 
Fisher,  the  side  of  the  Guelfs.     "  Broadly  speaking,  the  Guelfs  were 

Em£™!l,       Papalists,  the  Ghibellines  imperialists.     The  Ghibellines 
331  were  the  party  who  desired  a  strong  government,   the 

Guelfs  the  party  who  preferred  particularism  [decentralized 
government].  The  Ghibellines  would  bring  in  the  German, 
the  Guelfs  would  cry  'Italy  for  the  Italians.'"  But  these 
larger  issues  were  gradually  lost  sight  of  in  the  feuds  of  factions. 
By  the  fifteenth  century  the  names  Guelf  and  Ghibelline  lin- 
gered only  in  Italy,  where  they  came  to  mean  little  more  than 
party  differences  in  the  mode  of  building  battlements,  in  wearing 
feathers  in  the  cap,  in  cutting  fruit  at  the  table,  in  habits  of 
yawning,  passing  in  the  street,  throwing  dice,  gestures  in  speak- 
ing or  swearing. 

B.   FREDERICK  BARBAROSSA,  THE  PAPACY,  AND  THE 
ITALIAN  COMMUNES 

Frederick  Barbarossa  was  in  many  respects  the  ideal  Emperor  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  He  combined  the  qualities  of  a  skilled  statesman 
120.  Fred-  and  good  general  with  the  virtues  of  a  crusader  and  hero 
Barbarossa  °^  romance-  His  greatest  ambition,  as  he  wrote  the  Pope 
(1152-1190)  soon  after  his  accession,  was  to  restore  the  Roman  Empire 
in  all  its  ancient  vigor.  Frederick  was  no  dreamer ;  he  sought 
to  know  his  rights  as  Emperor,  and  he  used  practical  means  to 
enforce  them.  He  has  well  been  called  an  "imperialist  Hilde- 
brand."  Frederick's  attempt  to  revive  the  imperial  power  in 
Italy  caused  a  renewal  of  the  contest  between  the  empire 
and  the  papacy.  It  also  brought  him  into  conflict  with  a  new 
power  which  was  arising  there,  —  the  Italian  towns,  or  com- 
munes (§  194).  The  city  of  Mil 'an,  in  Lombardy,  was  one  of 
the  most  important  of  these ;  and  Frederick's  first  Italian  expe- 
dition was  in  part  due  to  the  attempts  which  that  city  was 
making  to  extend  its  rule  over  neighboring  towns. 

Hastening  over  the  Alps  by  the  Brenner  Pass,  in  1154,  Fred- 


FREDERICK   BARBAROSSA 


117 


erick  taught  the  Italians  that  the  Emperor's  power  was  still 
to  be  feared.     The  arrogance  of  Milan  was  checked,  and  one 

of  her  allies  destroyecl.     The  Pope,    121.  Fred- 
who  had  been  driven  from  Rome  by  ^"rossa^n 
a  revolt,  was  restored,  and  Frederick  Italy 
was  crowned  Emperor. 

On  a  second  expedition,  in  1158,  it  was 
announced  that  the  Emperor's  control 
over  the  cities  was  no  longer  to  be  merely 
nominal,  but  that  their  officers  would  be 
appointed  by  him.  The  citizens  of  Milan 
revolted  against  this  decree,  and  held  out 
with  heroic  courage  for  three  years.  At 
last  famine  forced  them  to  yield.  Fred- 
erick then  ordered  that  their  city  should 
be  destroyed.  The  loudest  complaints 
against  Milan  had  come  from  other  Ital- 
ian towns ;  and  it  was  their  forces  which 
now  carried  out  the  order  of  destruction 
(1162). 

It  was  soon  evident  that  Frederick  in- 
tended to  establish  a  strong  centralized 
government  in  Italy.  This  policy  122.  New 
threatened  the  territorial  independ-  JJJSfthe 
ence  of  the  papacy,  as  well  as  the  papacy 
rights  of  self-government  enjoyed  by  the 
towns.  Already  the  relations  between 
Frederick  and  the  Pope  had  become 
strained.  When  he  went  to  Rome  to  De- 
ceive the  imperial  crown,  a  bitter  quarrel 
had  arisen  over  his  refusal  to  hold  the 
Pope's  stirrup  while  the  latter  dismounted.  At  another  time 
a  legate  of  the  Pope  delivered  a  letter  to  Frederick  in  which 
mention  was  made  of  the  "benefits"  (beneficial)  conferred  upon 
the  Emperor  by  the  Pope.  When  objection  was  made  to  the 
letter  on  the  ground  that  the  language  used  might  bear  the  sense 


FREDERICK  1 

Twelfth  century  sculp- 
ture on  wall  of  a 
Bavarian  monastery 


u8 


EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 


of  a  feudal  "benefice"  granted  by  a  lord  to  a  vassal,  the  legate 
added  fuel  to  the  fire  by  asking,  "Of  whom,  then,  does  he  hold 
the  empire  but  of  our  lord  the  Pope  ?  "  In  a  written  declaration 


C    A   R    I    A/    r 


M 


Venice  Cities -of  the 

~"  Lombard  League 

Lucca  Cities  of  the 
Tuscan  League 


THE  LOMBARD  LEAGUE  (1167)  AND  THE  TUSCAN  LEAGUE  (1196) 

Frederick  replied  that  "the  empire  is  held  by  us,  through  the 
election  of  the  princes,  from  God  alone."  Subsequently  the 
Pope  explained  that  the  word  beneficia  in  his  letter  meant  benefits 
and  not  fiefs ;  but  the  distrust  aroused  could  not  be  allayed. 
When  this  Pope  died  (1159)  a  majority  of  the  cardinals  chose 
as  Pope,  under  the  name  of  Alexander  III,  the  legate  whose 
bold  language  had  called  forth  Frederick's  declaration  concern- 
ing the  imperial  office.  In  ability  and  lofty  ambition  this  Pope 
proved  a  worthy  successor  of  the  great  Hildebrand.  The 


FREDERICK   BARBAROSSA 


IIQ 


minority  of  the  cardinals  elected  an  anti-pope  favorable  to  the 
imperial  cause.  To  the  demand  that  the  disputed  election  be 
referred  to  a  council  of  the  whole  church,  Alexander  replied, 
"No  one  has  the  right  to  judge  me,  since  I  am  the  supreme 
judge  of  all  the  world."  Frederick  naturally  supported  the 
anti-pope;  but  France,  England,  and  the  rest  of  western 
Christendom  recognized  Alexander  III.  Alexander  excom- 
municated the  Emperor,  and  encouraged  his  Italian  enemies  on 
every  hand  to  unite  against  him. 

Hitherto  the  Lombard  cities  had  been  disunited  and  mutually 
hostile,  and  it  had  been  easy  for  the  Emperor  to  subdue  them. 
Even  the  cities  which  had  sided  with  the  Emperor  now  123.  For- 
saw    that    his   harsh    control  endangered  their  liberties.   |JJ*  ^°m 
With  the  help  of  the  Pope,  the  chief  towns  of  the  plain  of  bard  League 
the  Po,  —  from  Milan  to  Venice,  and  from  Ber'gamo  to  Bologna 
(bo-lon'ya), —  united  themselves  into  the  Lombard  League  to 
resist  the  Emperor's  claims  in  Italy.     The  very  cities  which 
formerly  had  demanded  the  destruction  of  Milan  now  lent  their 
aid  to  rebuild  it.     Out  of  hatred  for  German  rule,  Italy  seemed 
about  to  arrive  at  a  consciousness  of  national  unity. 

For  several  years 
Frederick  was  so  occu- 
pied with  troubles  I24  Battle 
in  Germany  that  of  Legnano 
he  was  not  able  (1I?6) 
to  act  effectively  against 
the  menacing  combina- 
tion which  had  arisen 
in  Italy.  In  1174,  how- 
ever, he  led  a  new  ex- 
pedition thither.-  Two 
years  later  there  oc- 
curred a  decisive  battle 
at  Legnano  (la-nya'no), 

MAIL-CLAD  GERMAN  HORSEMAN  near    Milan.       The   im- 

From  a  twelfth  century  MS.  perial    army   numbered 


120  EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 

six  thousand  horsemen,  as  against  the  eight  thousand  troops  of 
the  Lombard  League.  After  a  desperate  conflict  the  Emperor 
was  unhorsed,  and  the  imperial  forces  fled.  With  difficulty  and 
almost  unattended  Frederick  reached  a  place  of  safety.  "  Glo- 
rious has  been  our  triumph,"  wrote  the  Milanese  to  Bologna, 
"infinite  the  number  of  the  killed  among  the  enemy,  the 
drowned,  the  prisoners.  We  have  in  our  hands  the  shield,  the 
banner,  cross,  and  lance  of  the  Emperor ;  and  we  found  silver 
and  gold  in  his  coffers,  and  booty  of  inestimable  value.  But 
we  do  not  consider  these  things  ours,  but  the  common  property 
of  the  Pope  and  the  Italians." 

Frederick  was  now  forced  to  make  peace.     At  Venice,  in 
1177,  —  just  one  hundred  yea'rs  after  Henry  IV  had  humbled 

125.  Trea-     himself  before  Gregory  VII  at  Canossa,  —  he  acknowl- 
ice&nd  6       edged  Alexander  as  Pope,  and  prostrated  himself  at  his 
Constance      feet.     The  final  peace  with  the  communes  was  not  con- 
cluded until   1183,  at  Constance,  a  city  in  Swabia.     By  this 
treaty  the  Emperor  recognized  the  rights  of  the  Lombard  cities 
to  elect  their  own  officers,  to  build  fortifications,  to  enter  into 
leagues,   to  raise  troops,  and  to  coin  money.       Thenceforth 
these  cities  were  practically  self-governing  republics,  the  barest 
overlordship   remaining   to   the   Emperor.     Under   these   new 
conplitions  their  commerce  flourished  more  and  more ;  but  their 
political  life,  under  the  overstimulus  of  freedom,  broke  out 
incessantly  into  quarrels  and  riots. 

While  Frederick  was  pursuing  the  shadow  of  power  in  Italy, 
his  rival,  Henry  the  Lion,  of  the  house  of  Welf,  was  seizing  its 

126.  Fail        substance  in  Germany.     He  consolidated  the  rule  of  his 
of  the  Welf     family  over  Bavaria  and  Saxony,  and  continued  the  Saxon 

policy  of  extending  German  dominion  over  the  Slavic 
lands  to  the  northeast.  In  this  way  the  boundary  of  Germany, 
which  in  Charlemagne's  day  was  the  Elbe  River,  was  pushed 
eastward  to  the  Oder.  Henry's  policy,  however,  was  wholly 
selfish.  He  refused  to  lend  any  assistance  to  Frederick 
Barbarossa  in  his  campaigns  against  the  Lombard  League. 
Frederick  determined,  therefore,  to  humble  this  rival,  whose 


FREDERICK   BARBAROSSA  •      121 

power  was  growing  to  a  dangerous  pitch.  A  pretext  was  found 
in  complaints  of  Saxon  bishops,  who  accused  Henry  of  oppressing 
them.  After  four  times  failing  to  appear  for  trial,  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  banishment  and  the  forfeiture  of  his  lands.  Ulti- 
mately he  regained  part  of  his  estates,  which  became  the  nucleus 
of  the  later  duchy  of  Brunswick  and  electorate  of  Hanover 
(see  maps,  pp.  259,  482).  The  duchies  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria 
were  shorn  of  much  of  their  territory  before  being  given  to 
new  holders.  These  changes  practically  marked  the  end  of  the 
" stem-duchy"  system  of  territorial  organization,  and  the  begin- 
ning of  a  policy  of  division  and  subdivision  which  by  the  end 
of  the  Middle  Ages  made  Germany  a  chaos  of  petty  principalities 
and  lordships.  Actually  the  benefit  of  the  downfall  of  Henry 
the  Lion  went  not  to  the  Emperor,  but  to  the  local  nobility  who 
supplied  the  force  by  which  it  was  carried  out. 

Frederick's  reign  constitutes  one  of  the  most  brilliant  epochs 
in  the  history  of  medieval  Germany.  The  rural  districts 
advanced  in  prosperity.  Forests  were  cleared,  land  in-  Ger_ 

creased  in  value,   and  agriculture  was  improved,  while  many  under 
the   condition  of  the  peasants  was  materially  bettered. 
The  towns  grew  in  population,  wealth,  privileges,  and  power ; 
but  the  time  was  not  yet  come  when  they,  like  the  cities  of 
Italy,  should  be  practically  self-governing  republics.     At  the 
same  time   the   turbulent   life   of   the   nobles   was   somewhat 
softened  and  refined,  and  a  courtly  German  literature  was  born 
in  the  lays  of  the  "  Minnesingers  "  (§  220). 

Toward   the   end   of  his  long   reign,   Frederick   Barbarossa 
"took  the  cross,"  and  departed  for  the  East  on  the  Third 
Crusade  (§  167),  where  he  died.     Later  ages,  looking  back  I2g  D^^ 
to  the  splendors  of  his  reign,  feigned  to  believe  that  he  of  Freder- 
was  not  dead,  and  applied  to  him  the  legend  of  another  lck  ("90) 
Frederick,  now  identified  as  a  count  of  Thuringia.     The  vanished 
ruler,  they  said,  was  sleeping  through  the  ages  in  a  rocky  cavern 
of  a  German  mountain.     When  the  ravens  ceased  to  fly  about 
its  summit,  he  would  awaken,  and  would  return  to  chastise  evil- 
doers and  bring  back  the  golden  age. 


122  EMPIRE   AND   PAPACY 

C.   FREDERICK  II,  AND  THE  FALL  OF  THE  HOHENSTAUFENS 

The  right  of  Frederick  Barbarossa's  son,  Henry  VI,  to  the 
imperial  throne  was  secured  by  his  election  during  his  father's 
12     A  dis-     lifetime.     He  added  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  to  the  lands 
puted  sue-      ruled  over  by  the  Hohenstaufens,  through  his  marriage 
with  the  heiress  of  the  last  Norman  ruler  of  that  kingdom. 
His  early  death  in  1197  left  as  heir  to  the  Hohenstaufen  house 
his  three-year-old  son,  later  Frederick  II.     A  contest  for  the  im- 
perial throne  followed,  in  which  the  Hohenstaufens  supported 
Henry's  brother,  Philip  of  Swabia,  while  the  Welfs  supported 
the  son  of  Henry  the  Lion,  who  is  known  as  Otto  IV. 

The  dispute  over  the  imperial  election  gave  opportunity  for 
the  papacy  once  more  to  advance  its  claim  to  temporal  power, 
130  In-         and  m  P°pe  Innocent  III  (1198-1216)  it  found  a  worthy 
nocent  III       champion.     Innocent  III  was  in  many  respects  the  ablest 
and  most  powerful  Pope  of  the  Middle  Ages.     He  was  in 
the  prime  of  life,  had  been  trained  in  the  study  of  Roman  and 
canon  law,  and  his  severe  and  lofty  character  inspired  universal 
respect.     He  firmly  established  the  Papal  States  in  Italy;  and 
had  as  vassal  kingdoms  under  him  Sicily  and  Naples,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  Portugal,  Aragon,  and  Poland.      Even  King    John 
of  England  was  forced  to  surrender  his  kingdom  into  the  hands 
of  the  Pope's  legate,  and  receive  it  back  as  a  fief  of  the  pa- 
pacy (§  236).     The  papal  suzerainty  over  the  empire,  which 
Milman,          Frederick  Barbarossa  so  vigorously    rejected,  was  again 
fianity  V        asserted;    and  Innocent  now  claimed  the  right  to  decide 
510-514          the   disputed   imperial   election.     His  decision  was  that 
Philip  was  unworthy  as  "an  obstinate  persecutor  of  the  church, 
and  the  representative  of  a  hostile  house";  while  Otto,  though 
chosen  by  a  minority,  was  "himself  devoted  to  the  church,  of 
a  race  devoted  to  the  church.     Him,  therefore,  we  proclaim 
and  acknowledge  as  king;    him  we  summon  to   take  the  im- 
perial crown." 

Although  Otto  was  given  the  crown  because  of  his  supposed 
friendship  to  the  church,  he  soon  laid  claim  to  what  the  Pope 


FREDERICK    II 


123 


regarded  as  unwarranted  rights  in  Italy,  and  defied  the  Pope's 
excommunication.  Innocent  III  therefore  joined  with  Otto's 
German  enemies  in  declaring  him  deposed,  and  put  forth  Battle 
against  him  the  young  Hohenstaufen,  Frederick  II,  now  of  Bou vines 
seventeen  years  old.  Foreign  alliances  were  entered  (I2I4) 
into  on  both  sides.  The  Hohenstaufen  supporters  were  aided 
by  King  Philip  Augustus  of  France,  who  had  his  own  interests 
to  further.  Otto  was  supported  with  men  and  money  from 
his  uncle,  King  John  of  England,  who  was  at  war  with  France. 
The  decisive  battle  took  place  at  Bou  vines  (boo-ven'),  in  northern 
France,  in  July,  1214.  The  issue  involved  not  merely  the  pos- 
session of  the  imperial  crown;  it  also  involved  the  French 
occupation  of  Normandy  and  other  English  fiefs  in  France,  and 
the  cause  of  English  liberty  against  the  tyranny  of  King  John 
(§  236).  Thus  the  day  of  Bouvines  has  well  been  called  "the 
greatest  single  day  in  the  history  of  the  Middle  Ages."  It 
ended  in  victory  for  the  partisans  of  Frederick  II,  and  to  him 
now  passed  the  German  and  imperial  crowns. 

Frederick  II  was  already  beginning  to  show  the  qualities 
which  won  for  him  the  name  "the  wonder  of  the  world."     From 

contact    with    his    Greek  I32   Char_ 
and   Saracen   subjects  in  acter  of 
Sicily  he  had  gained  a  cul-   Frederick  n 
ture    unknown    in    the    North. 
He  also  developed  a  toleration 
if  not  indifference  in  religion, 
and    a    looseness   of    personal 
morality,  which  gave  his  ene- 
mies openings  for  attack.     He 
was    an    impassioned    poet,    a 
profound  lawgiver,  and  a  subtle 
politician.      The    spirit   which 


SEAL  OF  FREDERICK  II  (BEFORE  1220) 
"  Friedericus   Dei   Gratia  Romanorum 


he  displayed   was   really   more 
modern  than  medieval. 
Sicihae  "  Frederick  had  been  reared  as 

a  ward  of  Innocent  III,  but  the  intimate  relations  thus  estab- 


124  EMPIRE  AND  PAPACY 

lished  did  not  prevent  his  engaging  in  a  desperate  struggle  with 
the  papacy  after  Innocent's  death.  Before  his  coronation  as 
Emperor,  Frederick  solemnly  swore  to  abolish  all  laws  injuri- 
ous to  the  liberties  of  the  church,  to  cede  Sicily  to  his  son  to 
be  held  as  a  fief  of  the  papacy  and  not  of  the  empire,  to  re- 
store to  the  papacy  the  inheritance  of  the  Countess  Matilda 
(§  109),  and  to  undertake  a  new  crusade.  These  promises  he 
broke  almost  as  soon  as  they  were  made. 

Instead  of  surrendering  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  to  his  son, 
Frederick  kept  it  in  his  own  hands,  and  proceeded  to  carry 

133.  His  re-   out  a  remarkable  series  of  reforms  which  made  it  for  a 
forms  in         time  the  strongest  and  best-governed  kingdom  in  Europe. 

Because  these  measures  reproduce  or  anticipate  the  means 
used  in  other  countries  to  build  up  centralized  modern  states, 
they  are  worthy  of  special  mention.  They  included  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

1.  In  judicial  matters  the  king's  courts  were  put  above  the  feudal 

and  ecclesiastical  courts. 

2.  The  nobles  and  clergy  were  made  subject  to  taxation  equally  with 

the  townsmen. 

3.  All  castles  built  by  the  feudal  nobles  without  authority  from  the 

king  were  to  be  destroyed. 

4.  The  right  of  private  warfare,  trials  by  ordeal,  and  serfdom  on  the 

royal  domains  were  abolished. 

5.  Representatives  of  the  towns  were  admitted  to  the  central  assem- 

bly, which  before  was  merely  a  feudal  council. 

Milman,  An  English  historian  says  of  Frederick's  rule  in  Sicily: 
Otristianti  "The  world  had  seen  no  court  so  splendid,  no  system 
V,  398  of  laws  so  majestically  equitable.  A  new  order  of  things 

appeared  to  be  arising,  an  epoch  to  be  commencing  in  human 

civilization." 

Frederick's  policy  in  Germany  was  directly  opposed  to  that 

embodied  in  his  Sicilian  reforms.     In  Germany,  as  a  result  of  his 

134.  His        necessities  there,  he  "threw  to  the  winds  every  national 
policy  in         and  monarchical  tradition,"   and   granted   privileges  to 
Germany       ^  nobies  an(j  great  churchmen  by  which  they  became 


FREDERICK   II  125 

truly  "lords"  of  their  lands,  possessed  of  all  rights  and  juris- 
dictions. On  the  other  hand,  he  gave  large  privileges  to  the 
towns,  seeking  in  them  a  support  against  the  Pope  and  rebellious 
nobles.  The  net  result  of  his  policy  was  the  enfeeblement  of 
the  central  authority.  Germany  more  and  more  ceased  to  be  a 
state,  such  as  England  and  France  were  becoming,  and  grew  into 
a  confederation  of  sovereign  principalities. 

Frederick's  tardy  fulfillment  (§  172)  of  his  vow  to  go  upon 
a  crusade  brought  upon  him  repeated  excommunications  from 
the  Pope.     His  Sicilian  reforms  made  him,  in  the  Pope's  135-  His 
eyes,    an    oppressor    of   the    clergy.     His   immoral   pri-  Jjjjffhe 
vate  life  increased  the  friction  with  the  church ;   and  the  papacy 
toleration  which  he  showed  his  Mohammedan  subjects,  and  his 
use  of  them  as  troops  in  his  wars,  caused  him  to  be  suspected  as 
a  heretic.     But  the  main  cause  of  the  bitter  and  unrelenting 
hostility  which  successive  Popes  now  showed  to  the  Hohen- 
staufens  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  Frederick  retained 
Sicily  and  Naples.     Their  possession,  along  with  Germany  and 
northern  Italy,  enabled  him  to  hem  in  the  Papal  States  on 
all  sides,  and  to  threaten  the  territorial  independence  which 
the  Popes  deemed  necessary  to  their  security. 

As  a  result  of  these  causes,  there  began  in  1239  the  last  stage 
of  the  fatal  struggle  of  papacy  and  empire,  —  a  struggle  which 
brought  political  ruin  on  both  powers.  The  Pope  renewed  his 
excommunication,  and  absolved  Frederick's  subjects  from  their 
allegiance.  Both  Pope  and  Emperor  appealed  to  Europe  in 
letters  of  impassioned  denunciation.  The  Pope  called  a  church 
council  to  be  held  at  Rome,  but  Frederick  prevented  its  assem- 
bling by  capturing  the  fleet  carrying  most  of  its  members.  In 
the  midst  of  the  struggle  the  Pope  died,  and  one  of  Frederick's 
friends  was  elected  as  his  successor.  When  Frederick  heard  the 
news  he  exclaimed,  "I  have  lost  a  good  friend,  for  no  Pope  can 
be  a  Ghibelline."  His  prophecy  proved  true,  for  the  new  Pope 
vigorously  continued  the  policy  of  his  predecessor.  At  a 
church  council  held  at  Lyons  in  1245,  Frederick  was  pronounced 
guilty  of  perjury,  heresy,  and  sacrilege.  He  was  declared 


126  EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 

deposed,  and  the  war  against  the  Hohenstaufens  was  turned 
into  a  crusade,  with  the  same  spiritual  rewards  as  for  warring 
against  the  Mohammedans. 

Revolt  now  broke  out  in  Germany,  and  in  Italy  Guelf  and 

Ghibelline  fought  each  other  on  every  hand  with  furious  hatred. 

136  Death     To  the  end  of  his  life  Frederick  was  able  to  maintain  the 

of  Frederick   imperial    cause,    though   with   increasing    difficulty.     In 

December,  1250,  he  was  attacked  by  a  disease  from  which, 

after  a  short  illness,  he  died.     An  English  writer  of  that  time 

called  him  "the  greatest  prince  of  the  world";  but  his  powers 

were  lost  on  an  age  not  ripe  for  them. 

After  Frederick's  death  his  reforms  were  overthrown,  and  his 
empire  crumbled  to  pieces.      His  son  was  obliged  to  abandon 

137.  Fall  of    Germany  in  order  to  secure  his  inheritance  in  Italy.     For 
the  Hohen-    a  time  Frederick's  descendants  waged  a  desperate  struggle 

in  the  latter  land  against  the  Pope's  policy  of  exterminat- 
ing them  root  and  branch.  To  overthrow  the  Hohenstaufens, 
the  Pope  sought  aid  from  the  newly  arising  national  kingdoms 
beyond  the  Alps.  When  he  failed  to  gain  his  end  through 
English  aid,  the  Pope  turned  to  France.  In  1265  a  treaty  was 
concluded  with  Charles  of  Anjou  (aN-zhoo'),  the  brother  of  the 
French  king,  by  which  he  was  to  be  given  the  kingdoms  of  Naples 
and  Sicily,  under  suzerainty  of  the  Pope,  in  return  for  driving 
out  the  descendants  of  Frederick  II.  Three  years  later  Charles 
defeated  the  Hohenstaufens  in  battle,  and  cruelly  put  to  death 
Frederick's  young  grandson,  the  last  representative  of  that 
imperial  house.  The  papacy  was  thus  freed  from  the  menace  to 
its  territorial  independence.  But  this  end  was  gained  only  by 
fixing  upon  its  borders  a  French  power,  from  which  it  was  to 
suffer,  before  a  half  century  passed,  a  humiliation  infinitely 
worse  than  anything  threatened  by  Hohenstaufen  rule. 

Germany  after  the  overthrow  of  the  Hohenstaufens  was  for 
nearly  a  score  of  years  without  any  generally  recognized  ruler. 

138.  The        The  Great  Interregnum,  as  this  period  is  called,  lasted 
Great  In-         , 

terregnum      irom  1250  to  1273.     Private  warfare  was  waged  on  every 

(1256-1273)    hand.     Robber  knights,  sallying  forth  from  their  castles, 


FALL   OF   THE   HOHENSTAUFEXS 


127 


wasted  the  lands  of  their  neighbors,  swooped  down  upon  mer- 
chant trains,  and  from  time  to  time  attacked  the  cities  them- 
selves. It  was  a  time 
of  unrestrained  an- 
archy, the  only  law 
which  was  recognized 
being  "the  law  of  the 
fist."  This,  for  Ger- 
many, was  the  im- 
mediate effect  of  the 
overthrow  of  the  em- 
pire by  the  papal 
power. 

In     Europe    as     a 
whole  equally  remark- 
able    changes  I39.  Gen- 
were      taking    eral  results 
.  we-     ,       oftheHoh- 

place.          From    enstaufen 
whatever    point  struggle 
we  may  view  it,"  says 
a     French     historian, 
"the     death    of  Lavisse 
Frederick  II  and  and  Ram- 
the    fall   of    the 


CHARLES  OF  ANJOU  INVESTED  WITH  THE  CROWN 
OF  THE  Two  SICILIES  BY  A  BULL  GIVEN  BY 
THE  POPE  (CLEMENT  IV) 


Fresco  pictured  in  Viollet-le-Duc 


baud,  His- 
toire  Gene- 

house  of  Hohen-  rale>  n» 2 
staufen  mark  the  end  of  one  epoch  and  the  beginning  of  an- 
other. The  Middle  Age  proper,  in  the  form  which  it  had 
worn  since  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  was  now  at  an  end. 
This  is  as  true  in  the  history  of  thought  and  the  arts  as  it  is 
in  political  history.  In  the  course  of  the  long  struggle  between 
church  and  empire,  a  new  society  had  been  formed,  with  differ- 
ent features  and  a  spirit  that  was  wanting  to  the  old.  From 
Charlemagne  to  Frederick  II  the  papacy  and  the  empire  oc- 
cupy the  first  place  in  the  history  of  the  time;  but  now  the 
papacy  had  crushed  the  empire."  The  old  ideal  of  two  pow- 
ers divinely  commissioned  to  rule  the  world  in  conjunction  — 


128  EMPIRE  AND   PAPACY 

the  ideal  expressed  in  the  figures  of  the  "two  swords,"  and  of 
the  "two  lights"  (the  sun  and  the  moon) — was  now  aban- 
doned. The  papacy  itself  for  a  time  sought  to  be  the  supreme 
head  in  temporal  affairs  as  well  as  in  spiritual.  This  con- 
ception was  embodied  in  the  person  of  a  Pope  (Bon'iface  VIII), 
who  arrayed  himself  in  the  papal  crown  and  the  imperial  robe, 
and  exclaimed,  "I  am  Caesar  —  I  am  Emperor  ! "  But,  though 
the  empire  had  fallen,  the  national  monarchies  of  Europe  were 
just  arising;  and  with  Philip  IV  of  France,  the  head  of  the 
most  formidable  of  these,  the  papacy  soon  came  into  disastrous 
collision. 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

1152.  Accession  of  Frederick  Barbarossa. 

1159.  Alexander  III  elected  Pope;  new  contest  between  papacy  and 

empire. 

1176.  Frederick  defeated  by  the  league  of  Lombard  towns  at  Legnano. 
1183.  Peace  of  Constance. 
1190.  Death  of  Frederick  Barbarossa. 
1198-1216.  Innocent  in  Pope. 

1214.  Battle  of  Bouvines. 

1215.  Frederick  II  becomes  Emperor ;  new  quarrels  with  the  papacy. 
1250.  Death  of  Frederick  II,  followed  by  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufens. 
1256-1273.  Great  Interregnum  in  Germany. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.—  (i)  What  advantages  were  possessed  in  the  Middle 
Ages  by  a  settled  hereditary  succession  over  a  line  of  elective  rulers  ?  Why 
are  there  not  the  same  advantages  to-day?  (2)  Did  the  Welfs  or  the 
Hohenstaufens  represent  the  cause  of  progress  in  Germany  ?  In  Italy  ?  Give 
your  reasons.  (3)  What  were  the  grounds  of  the  Emperor's  claim  to  con- 
trol the  Italian  cities  ?  (4)  On  what  historical  grounds  might  the  Pope  claim 
that  the  Emperor  was  his  vassal  for  the  imperial  crown  ?  (5)  Why  should 
the  Popes  oppose  the  development  of  the  Emperor's  power  in  Italy? 
(6)  Which  was  of  greater  importance  for  history,  the  Emperor's  attempts 
to  control  Italy  or  the  quiet  expansion  of  Germany  to  the  northeast  ?  (7)  Had 
Frederick  I  or  the  Italian  communes  the  better  right  in  their  struggle? 
(8)  Compare  the  papal  power  under  Innocent  III  with  that  under  Gregory 
VII.  (9)  In  what  respects  do  the  measures  of  Frederick  II  in  Sicily  show 
him  to  have  been  ahead  of  his  time?  (10)  Was  the  weakening  of  the  cen- 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  129 

tral  power  in  Germany  good  or  bad  for  that  land?  (n)  Why  could  "no 
Pope  be  a  Ghibelline"?  (12)  Why  was  the  opposition  of  the  Popes  to 
Frederick  II  greater  than  to  Frederick  I  ?  (13)  State  in  your  own  language 
the  significance  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Hohenstaufens. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  GUELF  AND  GHIBELLINE  RIVALRIES  IN  ITALY. 
Symonds,  Short  History  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  29-31 ;  Encyclopedia  Bri- 
tannica  (nth  ed.),  XII,  668-669.  —  (2)  RJSE  OF  THE  ITALIAN  COMMUNES. 
Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  284-288, 522-528 ;  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  237- 
239 ;  Symonds,  Short  History  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  ch.  ii.  —  (3)  PERSON- 
ALITY OF  FREDERICK  BARBAROSSA.  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe, 
303-304;  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  246-247,  271-273.  —  (4)  ARNOLD 
OF  BRESCIA.  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  293-297,  454-456;  Bemont  and 
Monod,  306-308 ;  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Bk.  VIII,  ch.  vi.  —  (5)  HENRY 
THE  LION.  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  264-268.  —  (6)  CRUSADE  AND 
DEATH  OF  FREDERICK  BARBAROSSA.  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  299-300; 
Thatcher  and  McNeal,  Source  Book,  529-535.  —  (7)  ACQUISITION  OF  THE 
KINGDOM  OF  SICILY  BY  THE  HOHENSTAUFENS.  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
205-206.  —  (8)  CHARACTER  AND  WORK  OF  POPE  INNOCENT  III.  Tout, 
Empire  and  Papacy,  313-316;  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  321- 
325 ;  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Bk.  IX,  ch.  i,  close  of  ch.  x.  —  (9)  EVENTS 
LEADING  UP  TO  THE  BATTLE  OF  BOUVINES.  Henderson,  Short  History,  92-93 ; 
Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  328-331 ;  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  314-325.  — 
(10)  PERSONALITY  OF  FREDERICK  II.  Freeman,  Essays,  First  Series; 
Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  207-209;  Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  358-360; 
Ogg,  Source  Book,  402-409.  —  (n)  SICILIAN  REFORMS  OF  FREDERICK  II. 
Tout,  Empire  and  Papacy,  360-364 ;  Bemont  and  Monod,  326-328 ;  Milman, 
Latin  Christianity,  Bk.  X,  end  of  ch.  iii. 

General  Reading.  —  In  addition  to  the  books  mentioned  in  previous  chap- 
ters, see  Balzani's  Popes  and  the  Hohenstaufens,  Butler's  Lombard  Communes, 
Testa's  War  of  Frederick  I  against  the  Communes  of  Italy,  Kington's  Frederick 
II  (2  vols.),  and  Freeman's  essay  on  Frederick  II  in  his  Historical  Essays. 
For  the  Catholic  view  of  Frederick  II,  and  other  topics  dealt  with  in  this 
chapter,  see  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 


ABOUT  THE  TIME  OE 
THE  FIRST  CRUSADE  (1097) 


Longitude 


130. 


131 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  CRUSADES 

A.   THE  CHRISTIAN  AND  MOHAMMEDAN  EAST 

FROM  the  close  of  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  (§  17) 
to  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  Greek,  or  Eastern, 
Greek  Empire  served  as  a  bulwark  against  the  onslaughts  of 
Empire  the  Mohammedans  and  eastern  barbarians.  The  terri- 
(565-1096)  tories  of  that  empire,  however,  became  much  diminished. 
In  the  seventh  century  the  Mohammedans  conquered  the  fertile 
provinces  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  northern  Africa  (§  18),  while 
hordes  of  Slavs  and  Bulgarians  from  beyond  the  Danube  poured 
across  the  northern  frontier  and  occupied  a  large  part  of  the 
Balkan  peninsula.  With  the  strong  Bulgarian  kingdom  thus 
erected  south  of  the  Danube  (679)  the  Eastern  Emperors 
waged  constant  warfare  throughout  the  next  three  centuries. 
Success  at  last  crowned  their  efforts;  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  eleventh  century,  by  conquest  of  the  Bulgarians,  the 
northern  frontier  was  again  pushed  back  to  the  Danube.  The 
Greek  Emperors  then  turned  to  face  a  new  enemy  which  was 
appearing  in  the  east. 

In  spite  of  constant  and  desperate  conflict,   the  prosperity 
of  the  Greek  Empire  was  real  and  substantial.      The  coinage 
141.  Its         was     sound,     taxation    just,     manufactures    flourishing, 
substantial     trade  widespread,  and  the  government,  though  absolute, 
was  not  oppressive.      The  orphan  asylums  and  hospitals, 
the  paved  and  lighted  streets,  the  parks  and  police  system 
of   Constantinople,  anticipated  much  that  we  regard  as  mod- 
ern.    In  the  Eastern  Empire  were  continued  the  Roman  tradi- 
tions in  literature,  learning,  and  art ;  and  attempts  were  made  to 
simplify  instruction  by  condensing  all   learning  into  vast  en- 

132 


THE   CHRISTIAN  AND   MOHAMMEDAN  EAST 


cyclopedias.  At  a  time  when  in  the  West  kings  and  princes 
gave  themselves  up  entirely  to  war  and  the  chase,  and  could 
scarcely  sign  their  names,  Emperors  in  the  East  often  held  first 
rank  among  scholars.  War  was  there  studied  as  an  art,  while 
in  the  West  it  remained  a  mere  matter  of  hard  fighting.  From 
the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  century  the  Greeks  alone  possessed 
the  secret  of  the  "  Greek  fire"  (composed  of  saltpeter,  sulphur, 
charcoal,  and  bitumen)  whose  fierce  flames,  black  smoke,  and 
loud  explosions  destroyed  hostile  fleets  and  carried  terror  to  the 
hearts  of  their  enemies.  An  elaborate  ceremonial  was  devised 
to  regulate  every  act  of  the  Emperor;  and  to  impress  foreign 
envoys  golden  lions  roared  and  lashed  their  tails  at  the  foot  of 
the  throne,  while  golden  birds  sang  in  a  golden  tree.  Despite 

such  follies,  it  is  not   Bayet  in 

tOO  much  to  say  that    Munro  and 

"in   the    history    of  gj£, 

medieval  civilization  Civilization, 
before   the    eleventh   223 
century,  Byzantium  [Con- 
stantinople] played  a  role 
analogous  to  that  of  Athens 
and  Rome  in  antiquity,  or 
Paris  in  modern  times.    Its 
influence  extended  over  the 
whole  world;    it  was  pre- 
eminently 'the  city.'" 

The    conquests    of    the 
Mohammedan  Arabs  have 
already  been  traced  in  an 
earlier  chapter  (§  1 8).    142.  The 
In  the  field  of  culture   *£™™- 
their      achievements    (736-1096) 
were  so  great  as  to  justify 
the  remark  that  "from  the 

eighth  to  the  twelfth  century,  the  ancient  world  knew  but 
two  civilizations,  that  of  Byzantium,  and  that  of  the  Arabs." 


DAMASCUS  :  FOUNTAIN  IN  THE  GRAND 
MOSQUE 

Present  condition 


134 


THE   CRUSADES 


Mohammedan  civilization  displayed  much  the  greater  expan- 
sive force,  spreading  over  large  parts  of  Asia,  northern  Africa, 
Wahl,  in         and  southwestern  Europe.     ''From  the  river  Indus   to 
Lavisse  and     fae  pinars  of  Hercules  the  same  religion  was  professed, 
Histoire  Gt-     the  same  tongue  spoken,  the  same  laws  obeyed."     Its 
nerale,  1, 773   four  chief  centers  were  Damascus,  in  Syria ;  Bagdad,  on 
the  river  Tigris;  Cairo,  on  the  lower  Nile;  and  Cordova,  in 
Spain.     Greek,  Persian,  Syrian,  Egyptian,  Spanish,  and  Hindu 
elements  entered  into 
this  civilization.     But 
the    Arabic    was    the 
master    element,     for 
Arabian   genius    com- 
bined all  into  one  liv- 
ing   creation    bearing 
the  stamp  of  its  own 
nature. 

In      agriculture, 
manufactures,   com- 
merce, science,  and  art 
the      Mohammedan 
world  compared  favor- 
ably    with     Christian 
143-  Mo-       Europe.     Agri- 
hammedan      culture    was   not 
industries         j        •      i 

despised,  as  it 
was  among  the  feudal 
nobles  of  Europe,  and 
rich  Mohammedans 
reveled  in  gardens  of 

roses     jessamines     and    Present  confh'tion.     Built  by  Mohammedans  in  the 

eighth  and  tenth  centuries 

camellias.      Irrigation 

was  extensively  practiced,  and  tree-grafting  became  a  science. 
Among  new  plants  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Arabs  were 
rice,  suga.  cane,  hemp,  artichokes,  asparagus,  the  mulberry, 
orange,  lemon,  and  apricot. 


INTERIOR  OF  MOSQUE  OF  CORDOVA,  SPAIN 


THE  CHRISTIAN  AND  MOHAMMEDAN  EAST 


135 


In  manufactures  Mohammedans  excelled.   The  sword  blades 
of  Toledo  and  Damascus  were  world-renowned.     Equal  skill 
was  shown  in  the  manufacture  of  coats  of  mail  at  once  supple 
and  strong ;  of  vases,  lamps,  and  like  articles  of  copper,  bronze, 
and  silver ;  of  carpets  and  rugs  which  are  still  unsurpassed ;  and 
of  vessels  of  fine  glass  and  pottery.     Sugars,  sirups,  sweetmeats, 
essences,   and   perfumes  were  of  Moham- 
medan production.     Paper,  without  which 
the  invention  of  printing  would  have  been 
valueless,  came  to  Europe  through  the  Mo- 
hammedans.   Cordova  was  long  famous  for 
its  manufactures  of  skins  and  fine  leather. 

Commerce  was  widely  followed,  and  no 
one  looked  down  upon  this  occupation,  to 
which  Mohammed  had  been  bred.  In  each 
city  was  a  "bazaar,"  or  merchant's  quarter. 
The  Arab  sailors  ruled  the  Mediterranean, 
the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Caravans  threaded  their  way  from  oasis  to 
oasis  to  the  heart  of  Africa,  and  across  the 
wilds  of  Asia  to  China  and  India.  The 
magnetic  needle,  first  discovered  by  the 
Chinese,  was  known  to  the  Arabs  long  before  its  introduction 
in  the  form  of  the  compass  into  Europe. 

In  literature    (especially  poetry)  and  in  science    the  Arabs 
attained  a  high  degree  of  development.     The  University  of  Cairo 
at  one  time  had  12,000  students.     In  Spain,  in  the  tenth   144-  Ara 
century,  a  library  of  400,000  manuscript  volumes   (each   a^e^ 
probably  a  mere  part  of  a  complete  work)  is  said  to  have   science 
been  gathered.     The  Arabian  philosophers  were  well  versed  in 
the  writings  of  Aristotle  (ar'is-tot- '!)  and  the  Christian  philoso- 
phers of  Alexandria,  whose  works  they  read  in  Arabic  transla- 
tions.    In  mathematics  Mohammedan  scholars  led  the  world. 
Algebra  was  practically  their  creation,  though  its  elements  were 
derived  from  the  Greeks  and  Hindus.     The  so-called  "Arabic" 
system  of  notation  was  introduced  by  them,  and  displaced  the 


OLD  ARABIAN  MONEY 


136  THE   CRUSADES 

clumsy  Roman  numerals  which  before  were  universally  em- 
ployed. The  chief  novelties  of  the  new  system  were  the  use  of 
the  cipher,  and  the  idea  of  "  value  of  position."  In  optics  and 
astronomy  the  Arabs  made  considerable  advance.  In  chemistry 
many  of  our  common  terms,  such  as  "elixir,"  "  alcohol,"  "alkali," 
are  of  Arabic  derivation  and  record  our  indebtedness  to  Arab 
researches.  In  medicine  the  Arabs  were  skilled  practitioners, 
far  in  advance  of  Christian  Europe;  they  seem  even  to  have 
known  something  of  anaesthetics.  Pharmacy  was  practically 
created  by  them,  and  many  of  their  preparations  are  still  in  use. 
In  the  eleventh  century  the  religious  and  political  unity  of  the 
Mohammedan  world  was  broken.  The  real  power  had  passed 
Rise  of  *rom  tne  ^an<^s  °f  t^ie  Arabs  into  those  of  their  mercenary 
the  Seijuk-  soldiers,  the  Seljukian  (sel-jook'i-an)  Turks,  —  so  called 
ian  Turks  from  the  chief  (seljuk)  who  first  united  them.  They 
were  of  Asiatic  stock,  like  the  Huns,  Magyars,  and  Bulgarians ; 
but  unlike  the  Magyars  and  Bulgarians,  they  embraced  Moham- 
medanism instead  of  Christianity.  In  1058  the  leader  of  these 
Turks  occupied  Bagdad,  with  the  title  "Sultan  of  the  East  and 
West."  Thenceforth,  the  "caliph"  (§  18)  was  merely  the  re- 
ligious head  of  the  Mohammedan  state.  The  Turkish  princes 
—  of  whom,  at  the  end  of  the  century,  there  were  a  number, 
rival  and  independent  —  were  the  veritable  sovereigns.  The 
military  prowess  of  the  Turks  spread  Mohammedanism  over 
new  areas.  They  cared  little,  however,  for  Arabian  art  and 
learning ;  for  they  were  far  below  the  Arabs  both  in  the  culture 
which  they  possessed,  and  in  their  capacity  for  civilization. 

This  was  the  condition  of  the  Mediterranean  East  when  a  new 
element  was  added  to  the  age-long  strife  between  Asia  and 
Europe  through  the  calling  of  the  First  Crusade. 

B.   THE  FIRST  CRUSADE 

Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  the  terror  of  the  hereafter 
weighed  with  more  awful  force  upon  mankind  than  it  does  to- 
day. Ignorance  of  natural  science  led  men  to  see  supernatural 


THE   FIRST   CRUSADE 


137 


agencies  in  such  exceptional  occurrences  as  floods,  droughts, 

tempests,  and  the  appearance  of  comets;    and  the  writ-   146.  Pil- 

ings of  these  times  are  full  of  encounters  with  devils  and 

demons.     With  this  temper  of  mind  went  a  belief  in  the  Land 

power  of  penitential  acts  to  avert   God's  wrath,  and  in  the 

miracle-working  power  of  relics  of  the  saints,  —  especially  ob- 

jects connected  with  the  life   and  death  of 

Christ.       Very   early   in   the   history   of   the 

church,   pilgrims   began   to  visit  spots  made 

holy  by  their  connection  with  the  Christian 

religion.     Some  of  these  pilgrim  resorts  were 

in  Europe,  such  as  the  tomb  of  Saint  Thomas 

Becket,    at    Canterbury  (England)  ;    or    that 

of  Saint  James  of  Compostella,  in  Spain  ;  or 

those  of  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul,  at  Rome. 

The  most  important  centers  of  pilgrimage,  how- 

ever, were  the  holy  places  of  Palestine,  which 

were  connected  with  the  life  and  death  of  Jesus 

Christ. 

The  motives  which  sent  men,  and  sometimes 
women,  on  pilgrimages  were  various.  Such 
visits  made  more  real  the  lives  and  teachings 
of  Christ  and  the  saints.  People  also  believed  that  their 
prayers  would  more  certainly  be  heard  when  they  were  ut- 
tered in  a  place  made  sacred  by  the  life  of  some  holy  man, 
and  that  their  bodies  would  thus  be  healed  from  disease  and 
their  souls  cleansed  from  sin.  Love  of  adventure,  a  restless 
spirit,  and  a  desire  to  see  new  lands,  also  impelled  men  to  pil- 
grimages. After  the  religious  revival  in  the  eleventh  century, 
which  was  described  in  dealing  with  the  Investiture  Conflict, 
there  came  a  great  outburst  of  zeal  for  pilgrimages  to  Palestine. 
The  route  followed  from  northern  and  western  Europe  was 
either  overland,  down  the  valley  of  the  Danube,  or  else  to  some 
Mediterranean  port  (such  as  Marseilles  in  France,  or  Venice  in 
Italy)  and  thence  by  small  sailing  vessels  to  the  Syrian  coast. 
On  land  the  pilgrims  usually  traveled  on  foot,  though  nobles 


° 


From    a    thirteenth 
century  MS. 


THE  CRUSADES 


147.  Causes 
of  the 
crusades ; 
Desire  to 
recover  the 
Holy  Sep- 
ulcher 


went  on  horseback.  The  greatest  single  company  which  went 
to  the  Holy  Land,  before  the  crusades,  set  out  from  Germany 
in  the  year  1064,  and  numbered  7000  persons.  The  danger 
which  attended  such  expeditions  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  out 
of  this  number  only  2000  ever  returned  to  their  homes.  The 
others  perished  on  the  way,  —  from  sickness,  hardship,  accident, 
and  conflicts  with  hostile  peoples. 

Just  at  the  time  when  pilgrimages  were  at  their  height,  the 
Turkish  conquests  in  Syria  erected  a  new  barrier  to  their  prog- 
ress.       West- 
ern Christendom 
was    soon   filled 
with  tales  of  out- 
rages committed 
upon  Christians 
and  their  shrines.   The 
result  was  an  outburst 
of  indignation  that  the 
Sepulcher  of  Christ 
should  be  in  the  hands 
of   the   infidel.     Men 
became   ready   to   do 
all  and  sacrifice  all  to 
rescue  the  Holy  Land 
from  the  hands  of  the 
unbelievers.     This  ex- 
alted  state   of   mind, 
and  the  desire  to  re- 
cover the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher from  Mohamme- 
dan hands,  must  be  reckoned  the  chief  cause  of  those  armed 
pilgrimages  which  we  call  the  crusades. 

148.  Spirit         A  second  cause  of  the   crusades  lay  in  the  fact  that 
the  time  had   now  come  when  the  knights  of  western 
Europe  might  look  about  for  wider  fields  of  adventure. 
The  Hungarian    and    Northman    raids    were   over.      Europe 


CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  SEPULCHER 
Present  condition 


of  adven- 
ture 


THE  FIRST  CRUSADE  139 

was  settling  down  to  comparative  peace  and  quiet  under 
its  feudal  governments.  The  modern  nations,  with  their  prob- 
lems, had  not  yet  arisen.  Commerce  and  city  life  were  still  in 
their  infancy.  Thus  there  was  no  sufficient  outlet  at  home  for 
the  spirit  of  adventure,  which  in  the  Middle  Ages  always  ran 
high. 

The  East,  too,  was  regarded  as  a  land  of  fabulous  riches,  where 
not  only  fame  but  fortune  might  be  won.     The  hope  of  gain  — 
of  winning   lands,   principalities,    and   booty  —  was   un-   149.  Hope 
doubtedly  a  factor  in  causing  the  crusades.     In  this  respect  of  s*"1 
the  crusades  resembled  the  movement  of  expansion  which  caused 
the  Norman  conquests  of  southern  Italy  and  England,  and  the 
German  advance  eastward  beyond  the  Elbe.     Under  the  in- 
fluence of  a  hope  of  gain,  "a  stream  of  emigration  set  towards 
the  East,  such  as  would  in  modern  times  flow  towards  a  newly 
discovered  gold-field  —  a  stream  carrying  in  its  turbid  waters 
much  refuse,  tramps  and  bankrupts,  camp-followers  and  huck- 
sters, fugitive  monks  and  escaped  villeins,  and  marked  by  the 
same  motley  grouping,  the  same  fever  of  life,  the  same  alterna- 
tions of  affluence  and  beggary,  which  mark  the  rush  for  a  gold- 
field  to-day." 

Another  powerful  incentive  was  the  hope  of  gaining  spir- 
itual rewards,  —  the  earthly  as  well  as  heavenly  forgiveness  for 
their  misdeeds.     A  complete  remission  of  all  sins  was  prom-   150-  Prom- 
ised to  those  who   took   part   in   these  holy   wars.     By  g^jj^j 
going  upon  a  crusade  a  man   earned  an   " indulgence"  rewards 
which  wiped  out  all  accumulations  of  penances  (ecclesiastical 
penalties)  which  the  church  had    imposed  upon  him  for  his 
sins.     He  also  gained  protection  in  this  world;   for   from  the 
moment  that  a  man  "took  the  cross"  the  church  took  him  under 
its  protection,  and  forbade  all  attacks,  even  by  way  of  legal  pro- 
ceedings, upon  his  person  or  his  property.     Men  conscious  of 
their  sins  and  wishing  to  make  their  peace  with  heaven,  equally 
with  wrongdoers  who  sought  immunity  from  the  consequences 
of  their  crimes,  were  thus  appealed  to  by  these  rewards. 

Though  the  chief  object  of  the  crusades  was  the  rescue  of 


140 


THE   CRUSADES 


Jerusalem  from  the  hands  of  the  infidels,  the  first  call  grew  out 
of  the  danger  which  threatened  the  Eastern  Empire.     In  1071, 
151   Ad-        tne  Turks  defeated  the  forces  of  the  Eastern  Emperor  in  a 
vance  of        great  battle,  which  caused  almost  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor 
the  Turks      ^Q  pasg  ^Q  fa^  hancis      Qne  of  their  chieftains  estab- 
lished himself  at  Nicaea,  almost  within  sight  of  Constantinople, 
and  took  the  title  "  Sultan  of  Roum  (room), " — that  is,  of  Rome. 
Several  years  passed  before  the  Emperor  Alexius  Comne'nus 
found  himself  free  to  give  Asia  his  attention.     He  then  sent  an 
embassy'  to  the  Pope,  as  the  head  of  Latin  Christendom,  and 
sought  to  enlist  western  knights  for  the  Turkish  war.     The  re- 
sult was  the  calling  of  the  First  Crusade. 

Pope  Urban  II  met  the  clergy  and  nobles  of  France  in  a  great 
council  at  Clermont,  in  France,  in  1095.     He  presented  to  this 
152.  Coun-     meeting  the  request  of  the  Eastern  Emperor  for  aid.     Him- 
ciermont       se^  a  Frenchman,  he  addressed  his  hearers  with  burning 
(1095)  eloquence  in  their  own  tongue.     "Christ  Himself,"  he 

cried,  "will  be  your  leader  when  you  fight  for  Jerusalem.  Let 
not  love  of  any  earthly  possession  detain  you.  You  dwell  in  a 
land  narrow  and  unfertile.  Your  numbers  overflow,  and  hence 
you  devour  one  another  in  wars.  Let  these  home  discords 
cease.  Start  upon  the  way  to  the  Holy  Sepulcher;  wrest  the 
land  from  the  accursed  race,  and  subdue  it  to  yourselves !  Thus 
shall  you  spoil  your  foes  of  their  wealth,  and  return  home  vic- 
torious ;  or  else,  purpled  with  your  own  blood,  you  shall  receive 
an  everlasting  reward." 

To  this  appeal  his  hearers  made  answer:  "It  is  the  will  of 
God !  It  is  the  will  of  God  ! "  Those  who  pledged  them- 
selves to  the  work  received  a  cross  of  red  cloth,  to  be  worn  on 
the  breast  going  and  on  the  back  returning.  The  crusader 
(from  Latin  crux,  a  cross)  was  thus  given  the  protection 
granted  to  pilgrims.  On  their  part  the  crusaders  were  con- 
sidered to  have  taken  a  vow  to  fight  the  infidels,  and  not  to 
return  until  they  had  beheld  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 

Many  of  the  common  people,  inflamed  by  popular  preachers, 
undertook  the  crusade  before  the  time  set  by  the  council,  and 


THE   FIRST  CRUSADE 


141 


without  adequate  preparation.  Their  chief  leaders  were  a  monk 
called  Peter  the  Hermit,  and  a  knight  named  Walter  the  Pen- 
niless. Multitudes  153-  The 
perished  miserably 
on  the  route  down  (1096) 
the  Danube  River,  or  left 
their  bones  to  whiten  the 
plains  of  Asia  Minor.  Only 
a  few,  more  fortunate,  es- 
caped to  await  the  coming 
of  the  main  crusade. 

In  the  summer  and  fall  of 
1096  the  lords  and  knights 
set  out.  They  were  pro- 
vided with  sums  of  money, 
often  obtained  by  the  sale 
of  their  belongings  at  154-  The 
ruinous  prices;  and  £^ge  of 
they  were  accom-  (1096-1097) 
panied  by  attendants  on 
foot  and  by  carts  laden 
with  provisions.  The  Pope 
had  been  asked  to  lead  the 
crusade  in  person.  He  de- 
clined the  request  but  com- 
missioned a  bishop  as  his 
legate.  There  was  no  gen- 
eral leadership,  each  cru- 
sader going  at  his  own  cost,  and  obeying  his  own  will.  Nat- 
urally, however,  individual  crusaders  grouped  themselves  about 
the  better  known  nobles,  —  such  as  Raymond,  count  of  Tou- 
louse (too-looz') ;  Bo'hemond,  son  of  Robert  Guiscard ;  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon  (boo-yoN') ;  and  Robert  of  Normandy,  the  son  of 
William  the  Conqueror. 

The  crusaders  assembled  at  different  places,  and  departed  as 
they  were  ready.     There  were  four  main  companies.    The  Ger- 


CRUSADER 
From  a  thirteenth  century  MS. 


142  THE  CRUSADES 

mans  and  those  from  the  north  of  France  followed  the  valley 
of  the  Danube.  Others  traversed  Italy,  crossed  the  Adriatic, 

155.  Cru-       and  proceeded  thence  by  land  to  Constantinople.     The 

saders  at       stateliness.  and  beauty  of  that  capital,  in  contrast  with 
Constanti- 
nople the  poverty  and  bareness  of  western  cities,  filled  the  cru- 
saders with  awe  and  admiration.     "How  great  a  city  it  is; 
how  noble  and  comely  !"   wrote  one  of  their  number.     "What 
wondrously   wrought    monasteries    and   palaces   are    therein ! 
Archer  and      What  marvels  everywhere  in  street  and  square  !     Tedious 
Kingsford,       would  it  be  to  recite  its  wealth  in  all  precious  things,  in 
Crusades,  50    gold  and  silverj   and   ^  saintly  relics."     The  Emperor 

Alexius  had  expected  a  few  thousand  men  in  response  to  his 
call,  whereas  scores  of  thousands  came.  "Some  of  the  crusad- 
ers," wrote  the  Emperor's  daughter,  "were  guileless  men  and 
women  marching  in  all  simplicity  to  worship  at  the  tomb  of 
Christ.  But  there  were  others  of  a  more  wicked  kind.  Such 
men  had  but  one  object,  and  this  was  to  get  possession  of  the 
Emperor's  capital."  Mutual  hatreds  quickly  sprang  up ;  and 
the  Emperor  was  glad,  in  the  spring  of  1097,  to  speed  the 
"Franks  "  (as  the  crusaders  were  called)  across  into  Asia  Minor. 

After  several  weeks'  siege,  the  city  of  Nicaea  surrendered ;  it 
passed,  however,  not  to  the  crusaders,  but  to  the  Greeks.  Suf- 
fering from  thirst  and  attacked  by  the  Turks,  the  crusaders 
then  made  their  way  through  Asia  Minor,  with  the  loss  of  most 
of  their  horses.  To  add  to  the  difficulties  of  their  situation, 
quarrels  arose  among  rival  leaders.  In  front  of  Antioch 
(an'ti-ok),  which  they  reached  in  October,  1097,  they  were 
checked  for  more  than  a  year  by  its  strong  walls  and  their  lack 
of  skill  in  the  construction  and  operation  of  siege  engines. 

The  events  of  this  period,  and  the  sentiments  of  the  crusaders, 

156.  Letter     are  indicated  in  the  following  letter.     It  was  written  by 
ofacru-        Stephen  of  Blois  (blwa),  a  powerful  French  noble,  from 

I098)   before  Antioch,  in  March,  1098 :  - 

"Count  Stephen  to  A  dele,  his  sweetest  and  most  amiable  wife,  to  his 
dear  children,  and  to  all  his  vassals  of  all  ranks,  —  his  greeting  and 
blessing :  — 


THE   FIRST   CRUSADE  143 

"You  may  be  very  sure,  dearest,  that  the  messenger  whom  I  send 
left  me  before  Antioch  safe  and  unharmed,  and  through  God's  grace 
in  the  greatest  prosperity.     Already  at  that  time  we  had  been   University 
continuously  advancing  for  twenty- three  weeks  toward   the   of  Pennsyl- 

home  of  our  Lord  Jesus.     You  may  know  for  certain,  my  be-   yania>    rans~ 

latwns,  I, 

loved,  that  of  gold,  silver,  and  many  other  kinds  of  riches  I   NO.  4  (con- 
now  have  twice  as  much  as  your  love  had  assigned  to  me  when   densed) 
I  left  you. 

"You  have  certainly  heard  that,  after  the  capture  of  the  city  of 
Nicaea,  we  fought  a  great  battle  with  the  perfidious  Turks,  and  by 
God's  aid  conquered  them.  Next  we  conquered  for  the  Lord  the  sul- 
tanate of  Roum,  and  afterwards  Cappadocia.  Thence,  continually 
following  the  wicked  Turks,  we  drove  them  through  Armenia,  as  far 
as  the  great  river  Euphrates.  Having  left  all  their  baggage  and  beasts 
of  burden  on  the  bank,  they  fled  across  the  river  into  Arabia. 

"The  bolder  of  the  Turkish  soldiers,  indeed,  entering  Syria,  has- 
tened by  forced  marches,  night  and  day,  in  order  to  be  able  to  enter 
the  royal  city  of  Antioch  before  our  approach.     The  whole   Ig7>  -p^g 
army  of  God,  learning  this,  gave  due  praise  and  thanks  to  the   siege  of 
omnipotent  Lord.     Hastening  with  great  joy  to  Antioch,  we   Antioch 
besieged  it,  and  very  often  had  many  conflicts  with  the  Turks,  and 
seven  times  with  the  citizens  of  Antioch,  and  with  the  innumerable 
troops  coming  to  its  aid.     In  all  these  seven  battles,  by  the  aid  of  the 
Lord  God,  we  conquered,  and  most  assuredly  killed  an  innumerable 
host  of  them.     Many  of  our  brethren  and  followers  were  killed  also, 
and  their  souls  were  borne  to  the  joys  of  Paradise. 

"By  God's  grace  we  here  endured  many  sufferings  and  innumerable 
evils  up  to  the  present  time.     Many  have  already  exhausted  all  their 
resources  in  this  very  holy  passion.     Before  the  city  of  Antioch,    15%t  Suffer- 
throughout  the  whole  winter,  we  suffered  for  our  Lord  Christ   ings  of  the 
from  excessive  cold  and  from  enormous  torrents  of  rain.     What    crusaders 
some  say  about  the  impossibility  of  bearing  the  heat  of  the  sun 
throughout  Syria  is  untrue,  for  the  winter  there  is  very  similar  to  our 
winter  in  the  West. 

"When  the  emir  of  Antioch  —  that  is,  prince  and  lord  —  perceived 
that  he  was  hard  pressed  by  us,  he  sent  his  son  to  the  prince  who  holds 
Jerusalem,  and  to  the  prince  of  Damascus,  and  to  three  other    1S9>  yic- 
princes.     These  five  emirs,  with  12,000  picked  Turkish  horse-   tories  over 
men,  suddenly  came  to  aid  the  inhabitants  of  Antioch.     We,   the  Turks 


144 


THE    CRUSADES 


ignorant  of  all  this,  had  sent  many  of  our  soldiers  away  to  the  cities 
and  fortresses;  for  there  are  165  cities  and  fortresses  throughout 
Syria  which  are  in  our  power.  But  a  little  before  they  reached  the 
city,  we  attacked  them  at  three  leagues'  distance  with  700  soldiers. 
God  fought  for  us,  His  faithful,  against  them.  On  that  day  we  con- 
quered them  and  killed  an  innumerable  multitude ;  and  we  carried 
back  to  the  army  more  than  two  hundred  of  their  heads,  in  order  that 
the  people  might  rejoice  on  that  account. 

"These  which  I  write  you  are  only  a  few  things,  dearest,  of  the  many 
which  we  have  done.  And  because  I  am  not  able  to  tell  you,  dearest, 
what  is  in  my  mind,  I  charge  you  to  do  right,  to  carefully  watch  over 
your  land,  to  do  your  duty  as  you  ought  to  your  children  and  your 
vassals.  You  will  certainly  see  me  just  as  soon  as  I  can  possibly  re- 
turn to  you.  Farewell." 

Antioch  fell  in  June,  1098,  betrayed  to  the  crusaders  by  one 
of  its  inhabitants.     Three  days  later  an  immense  army  sent  by 
160  Ad-        the  Seljukian  sultan  arrived  for  its  relief,  and  the  crusaders 
vance  to         themselves  were  forced  to  stand  siege.     Through  the  aid 
Jerusalem      Q£  &  v{s{on  thrice  repeated,  the  Holy  Lance  which  pierced 
the  side  of  Christ  was  discovered  buried  in  the  soil.     Many  dis- 
believed, but  others  were  fired  to  prodigies  of  valor  by  the  sacred 
relic.     The  Turks  were  at  length  beaten  off,  and  the  crusaders 
proceeded  southward  along  the  coast. 

Owing  to  quarrels  and  delays  on  the  road,  it  was  June,  1099, 

before  they  came  in  sight  of  Jerusalem.     A  few  months  before, 

161.  Cap-       tne  canPn  °f  Egypt  had  wrested  the  city  from  the  Turks ; 

ture  of  the      and  he  now  offered  free  access  to  the  Holy  Sepulcher  for 

city  (1099)      unarmed  pilgrims  in  small  numbers.     These  terms  were 

refused.     After  several  weeks  of  fighting,  an  attack  was  made  on 

the  city  from  two  sides.     The  Mohammedans  were  beaten  back 

from  the  walls  by  showers  of  stones  from  the  hurling  machines, 

and  blazing  arrows  carried  fire  to  the  roofs  of  the  buildings. 

Battering  rams  broke  openings  in  the  solid  walls,  and  by  means 

of  scaling  ladders  the  Christians  swarmed  upon  the  ramparts. 

Thus  the  city  fell  (July  15,  1099). 

Then  followed  scenes  which  showed  how  little  the  teachings 
of  Christ  had  sunk  into  the  crusaders'  hearts,  and  that  in  spite 


THE   CONQUESTS   ORGANIZED 


145 


of  flashes  of  lofty  idealism,  the  crusader  in  Palestine  was  little 
different  from  the  rude,  superstitious,  selfish  baron  at  home. 

"When  our  Archerand 
men  had  Kingsford, 
taken  the  Crusades'  9I 
city,  with  its  walls 
and  towers,"  says 
an  eyewitness, 
"  there  were  things 
wondrous  to  be 
seen.  For  some 
of  the  enemy  were 
reft  of  their  heads, 
while  others,  riddled  through  with  arrows,  were  forced  to 
leap  down  from  the  towers;  others,  after  long  torture,  were 
burned  in  the  flames  In  all  the  streets  and  squares  there  were 
to  be  seen  piles  of  heads,  and  hands,  and  feet;  and  along  the 
public  ways,  foot  and  horse  alike  made  passage  over  the  bodies 
of  the  dead." 

The  vow  of  the  crusaders  was  fulfilled.  But  at  what  a  cost 
of  lives,  both  Christian  and  Mohammedan ;  of  agonies  of  battle 
and  sufferings  on  the  way ;  of  women  made  widows,  and  chil- 
dren left  fatherless ! 


HURLING  MACHINE 

The  force  was  supplied  by  the  twisted  ropes  about  the 
crossbar  tc  which  the  hurling  arm  was  attached. 


C.   THE  CONQUESTS  ORGANIZED 

The  next  task  for  the  crusaders  was  to  organize  and  safe- 
guard their  conquests.     They  were  familiar  with  only  one  form 
of  government,  that  of  the  feudal  system.     Consequently,   162.  Feudal 
as  the  land  was  gradually  conquered  it  was  divided  into  j^^**1 
a  number  of  fiefs,  each  of  which  was  given  to  a  crusading  Palestine 
leader.     Jerusalem,  with  the  country  about  it,  was  formed  into 
"the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem"  and  was  given  to  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon.     The  rest  was  formed  into  three  principalities,  — 
Antioch,  Edes'sa,  and  Tripoli, — each  with  its  own  feudal  head, 
and  with  many  vassal  lords.     The  peasants  —  who  were  al- 


146 


THE  CRUSADES 


m 


ready,  for  the  most  part,  Christians  of  various  Eastern  faiths  — 
kept  their  lands,  paying  tribute  to  their  Latin  masters,  as  they 

formerly  had  done  to  the  Mo- 
hammedans. 

Most  of  the  crusaders  now  re- 
turned to  their  homes  in  Europe, 
only  those  who  had  secured 
feudal  lordships  in  Palestine  re- 
maining behind.  If  the  Mo- 
hammedans had  been  united 
they  might  easily  have  driven 
the  Christians  into  the  sea ;  but 
they  were  quarreling  among 
themselves,  and  besides  had 
learned  to  fear  the  mail-clad 
"  Franks."  The  Christians  were 
thus  given  time  to  prepare  their 
defenses.  Huge  castles  were 
everywhere  built.  New  com- 
panies of  crusaders  also  began  to 
arrive;  and  Italian  merchants 
—  from  Venice,  Genoa,  and 
Pisa  (pe'sa)  especially  —  came 
in  large  numbers  for  the  pur- 
CRUSADERS'  STATES  IN  SYRIA  AFTER  pose  of  trade. 

THE  FIRST  CRUSADE  Besides    the   constant    rein- 

forcements from  the  West,  the 

Franks  depended  for  the  defense  of  the  Holy  Land  on  three 
l6  The  special  orders  of  knighthood  which  now  arose:  (i)  the 
three  mill-  Knights  Hos'pitalers  of  Saint  John,  formed  originally  to 
tary  orders  care  for  sick  pjigrims .  (2)  tne  Knights  Templars,  so  called 

from  their  headquarters  in  the  inclosure  of  the  ancient  temple  of 
Jerusalem ;  and  (3)  the  Order  of  Teutonic  Knights,  which  was 
composed  of  Germans,  whereas  the  members  of  the  others  were 
mostly  French.  The  Hospitalers  wore  a  white  cross  on  a  black 
mantle,  the  Templars  a  red  one  on  white,  and  the  Teutonic 


;  Km.  of  Jerusalen 
1229. 

SCALE  OF  MILES 
0 25     50     75    100 


THE    CONQUESTS  ORGANIZED 


147 


Knights  a  black  cross  on  a  white  ground.  The  members  of 
these  orders  were  monks,  vowed  to  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedi- 
ence, and  living  under  a  rule ;  but  they  were  also  knights,  trained 
to  arms  and  bound  to  perpetual  warfare  against  the  infidel. 
They  constituted  a  permanent  force  of  military  monks,  resident 
in  the  Holy  Land,  with 
their  own  grand-mas- 
ters, fortresses,  do- 
mains, and  treasuries. 
In  course  of  time  the 
military  orders  ac- 
quired immense  pos- 
sessions in  Europe  also. 
After  the  end  of  the 
crusading  epoch,  the  j 
Templars  were  forcibly  / 
dissolved  and  their 
goods  confiscated. 
The  Teutonic  Knights 
transferred  themselves 
to  the  shores  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  and  there  continued  to  wage  war  against  the  heathen. 
The  Knights  Hospitalers,  taking  refuge  in  Cyprus,  in  Rhodes, 
and  finally  in  Malta,  preserved  an  independent  existence  until 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

The  Christian  states  founded  by  the  crusaders  extended  north 
and  south  about  525  miles,  but  their  breadth  (except  in  the 
north)  was  only  about  50  miles.  They  were  surrounded  ^4.  Rela- 

on  nearly  all  sides  by  Mohammedan  territory,  so  that  bor-  tions  of 

/  .  •/     r         i-  Christians 

der  warfare  was  almost  incessant.     In  spite  of  such  con-  an(j  MO_ 

flicts,  there  was  much  intercourse  of  a  friendly  nature  hammedans 
between  the  resident  Franks  and  the  Mohammedans,  both 
without  and  within  the  borders  of  the  Christian  states.  Some- 
times Prankish  lords  and  Mohammedan  princes  formed  alliances 
against  mutual  foes,  and  at  times  these  alliances  were  cemented 
by  intermarriages.  The  crusaders,  being  comparatively  but 


KNIGHT  TEMPLAR 
From  a  thirteenth  century  MS. 


148 


THE   CRUSADES 


a  handful  of  soldiers  and  traders,  were  compelled  to  rely  largely 
upon  the  peoples  of  the  East,  both  Christian  and  Mohammedan, 
for  service  and  subsistence.  Native  Syrians  tilled  their  lands; 


A  FORTRESS  OF  THE  KNIGHTS  HOSPITALERS  IN  SYRIA  (Restoration) 

Greek  and  Arab  architects  built  and  adorned  their  houses  and 
churches ;  Greek  engineers  taught  them  the  art  of  fortification ; 
and  Jewish  or  Arab  physicians  cared  for  them  in  time  of  sickness. 
Thus  in  innumerable  ways  the  Westerners  profited  by  the  more 
advanced  civilization  of  the  East ;  and  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  returning  crusaders,  more  enlightened  ideas,  together 
with  new  products,  slowly  spread  through  western  Europe. 


D.  THE  LATER  CRUSADES 

The  crusades  continued  throughout  the  twelfth  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  thirteenth  centuries.  It  is  customary  to 
describe  them  as  "First,"  "Second,"  and  so  on;  but  this  ob- 
scures the  fact  that  there  was  a  constant  movement  of  crusader? 


THE   LATER   CRUSADES  149 

to  and  from  the  Holy  Land.     At  times  some  exceptional  oc- 
currence produced  an  increase  of  zeal,  and  it  is  to  these  excep- 
tional expeditions  that  the  numbers  apply,  though  other   165.  Con- 
movements  of  equal  importance  are  passed  by  without   Jh^cru-  ' 
notice.     Thus,  forty-five  years  after  the  First  Crusade  the  sades 
conquest  of  Edessa  by  the  Mohammedans  produced  the  Second 
Crusade  (1147-1149).     This  was  led  by  two  kings,  Louis  VII  of 
France,  and  Conrad  III  of  Germany.     It  was  miserably  mis- 
managed, and  failed  lamentably. 

After  another  forty  years,  rumors  began  to  reach  Europe  of  a 
great  Mohammedan  leader  who  had  arisen  in  Egypt  and  was 
threatening  Palestine.  This  was  Sal'adin,  one  of  the  155.  Rise  of 
greatest  rulers  the  Mohammedans  ever  had.  He  was  wise  Saladin 
in  counsel,  brave  in  battle,  and  as  chivalrous  in  conduct  and 
sincere  in  his  faith  as  the  best  of  his  Christian  foes.  In  July, 
1187,  Saladin  captured  in  battle  the  king  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
grand  master  of  the  Templars.  Three  months  later  Jerusalem 
itself  fell  into  his  hands.  The  humanity  with  which  the  Chris- 
tian inhabitants  were  then  treated  was  in  marked  contrast 
to  the  fearful  slaughter  which  had  attended  the  crusaders' 
capture  of  the  city  ninety  years  before.  The  Christian  states 
thereafter  were  reduced  to  a  few  strongly  fortified  towns  near 
the  coast. 

The  loss  of  Jerusalem  caused  another  outburst  of  crusading 
zeal.  The  three  greatest  kings  of  western  Europe — Richard 
I,  the  Lion-Hearted,  of  England ;  Philip  II,  surnamed  Au-  167.  Third 
gustus,  of  France  ;  and  Frederick  Barbarossa,  of  Germany  0^^Zgj 
—  now  took  the  cross,  and  assumed  the  lead  of  the  Third  (1189) 
Crusade.  The  Emperor  Frederick,  who  had  gone  in  his  youth 
on  the  Second  Crusade,  was  the  first  to  start  on  the  Third 
Crusade.  Thorough  organization  and  strict  discipline  enabled 
him  to  lead  his  army  by  the  Danube  route  without  the  custom- 
ary losses.  But  while  crossing  a  mountain  torrent  in  Asia  Minor 
the  old  Emperor  was  drowned  (June,  1190),  and  thereupon  the 
German  expedition  went  to  pieces. 

The  preparations  of  Richard  and  Philip  were  delayed  by  their 


THE    CRUSADES 


ard  the 
Lion- 
Hearted 
and  Philip 
Augustus 


mutual  hostilities,   and  it  was  not  until  after  the   death  of 
Frederick  that  they  actually  started,   both  expeditions  going 
168  Rich-      by  .water.     At  Messina  (mes-see'na),  in  Sicily,  the  two  ex- 
peditions met  and  spent  the  winter.     Here  the  two  kings 
wrangled,  and  Richard  fought  with  the  citizens.     Philip 
at  last  departed  without  Richard,  reaching  Syria  in  April, 
1191.     The  English,  following  later,  again  turned  aside 
—  this  time  to  conquer  Cyprus,  whose  king  had  permitted  the 
plunder  of  pilgrim  vessels  on  his  coast. 

In  June,  Richard  joined  Philip  before  Acre  (a'ker),  the  siege 

of  which  had  dragged  on  for  more  than  twenty  months.     "The 

Archer  and      Lord  is  not  in  the  camp,"  wrote  one  of  the  besiegers  about 

Kingsford,       this  date ;    "  there  is  none  that  doeth  good.     The  leaders 

Crusades,  323   strive  ^^  one  another,  while  the  lesser  folk  starve  and 

have  none  to  help.     The  Turks  are  persistent  in  attack,  while 

our  knights  skulk  within  their  tents."     The  arrival  of  Richard 


PRESENT  VIEW  OF  ACRE 


infused  new  energy  into  the  operations.  He  was  an  undutiful 
son,  an  oppressive  king,  and  (in  spite  of  his  superficial  chivalry 
and  courtesy)  a  violent  and  cruel  man.  But  he  was  a  warrior 
of  splendid  strength  and  skill,  and  one  of  the  best  military 
engineers  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  July,  Acre  surrendered. 


THE  LATER    CRUSADES 


When  the  ransom  agreed  upon  was  not  forthcoming,  Richard 
massacred  2000  hostages  left  in  his  hands. 

After  the  fall  of  Acre,  Philip,  who  was  only  half-hearted  in 
the  crusade,  returned  to  France.  In  January,  1192,  Richard 
advanced  almost  to 
within  sight  of  Jerusa- 
lem, but  this  was  the 
limit  of  his  successes. 
In  October  news  of  a 
rebellion  at  home, 
which  was  aided  by 
Philip,  forced  him  to 
return.  He  landed  al- 
most alone  at  the  head 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and 
sought  to  make  his  way 
in  disguise  through 
Germany.  He  was  rec- 
ognized near  Vienna, 
and  was  thrown  into 
prison  by  the  duke  of 
Austria,  whom  he  had 
grievously  offended  on 
the  crusade.  He  had 
made  an  enemy  of  the 
Emperor  also  by  allying 
himself  with  German 
rebels.  The  result  was 
that  Richard  obtained 
his  liberty  only  after 

two  years  of  captivity,  and  on  the  payment  of  a  ruinous  ran- 
som. The  remainder  of  his  life  (he  died  in  1199)  was  spent  in 
warfare  with  Philip  of  France.  Saladin,  who  had  done  so  much 
to  revive  the  Mohammedan  power,  died  in  1193. 

The  enthusiasm  which  produced  the    crusades    was  slowly 
dying  out,  but  the  exhortations  of  the  papacy  could  still  call  it 


MOVABLE  TOWER 
Such  as  was  used  by  Richard  I  against  Acre 


THE   CRUSADES 


forth  to  momentary  activity.     Pope  Innocent  III  (§  130)  ap- 
pealed to  the  princes  of  Europe,  as  vassals  of  Christ,  to  con- 
169  Fourth    tinue  the  attemPt  to  recover  the  Holy  Land.     No  king 
Crusade         responded  to  this  call,  but  a  number  of  knights  and  nobles 
(1201-1204)    (mostiy  French)  gathered  at  Venice  in  1201  for  the  Fourth 
Crusade.     The  Venetians,  who  had  commercial  interests  to  fur- 
ther, induced  them  to  turn  their  arms  against  Constantinople.    A 


Boundary  of  Saladin's 
Empire,  1171 

iHB  Possessions  of  Venice 
l^j^j  Latin  Empire 

( 1  Remainder  of  the 

L:-:-J  Eastern  Empire 


SALADIN'S  EMPIRE,  AND  THE  RESULTS  OF  THE  FOURTH  CRUSADE 

revolution  there  furnished  them  with  a  pretext,  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  the  Pope,  for  attacking  that  Christian  city. 

Constantinople  fell  in  1204,  and  was  mercilessly  sacked.  In 
three  great  fires  the  most  populous  parts  of  the  city  were  de- 
stroyed. Violence  and  indignity  were  the  lot  of  the  survivors ; 
Pope  Innocent  accused  the  crusaders  of  respecting  neither  age, 
nor  sex,  nor  religious  profession.  The  city  was  systematically 
pillaged.  Even  the  churches  were  profaned  and  stripped  of 
their  rich  hangings  and  their  gold  and  silver  vessels.  Precious 
works  of  art  —  the  accumulation  of  a  thousand  years  —  were 
destroyed ;  and  statues  of  brass  and  bronze  were  broken  up  and 
melted  for.  the  metal  which  they  contained.  The  Venetians  at 


THE   LATER   CRUSADES  153 

this  time  carried  off  to  Venice  the  four  bronze  horses  which  still 
adorn  the  front  of  Saint  Mark's  church.     The  more  pious  gave 


ST.  MARK'S  CHURCH,  VENICE 

A  notable  example  of  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture.    Facade  remodeled  in 
fifteenth  century 

i 

themselves  to  the  search  for  holy  relics, — a  venerable  and  profit- 
able booty.  As  a  result  of  this  sack,  Constantinople  lost  forever 
that  unique  splendor  which  it  possessed  at  the  beginning  of 
the  crusades. 

In  the  division  of  the  conquered  territory  the  Venetians  got 
the  lion's  share.     They  received  practically  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  together  with  the  possession   i70.  Latin 
of  most  of  the  islands  and  coast  lands  of  the  Aegean  and  JmPire  of 

.    Constanti- 

loman  seas.     These  conquests  and  privileges  they  retained  nopie 
for  several  centuries.     The  remainder  of  the  empire  (so    (1204-1261) 
far  as  it  came  into  the  crusaders'  possession)  was  divided  among 
their  chiefs,  and  a  feudal  state  was  erected,  the  "  Latin  Empire 
of  Constantinople."    In  1261  the  Greeks  reconquered  Constant!- 


154  THE    CRUSADES 

nople  and  restored  the  former  empire.  But  it  never  regained 
its  former  strength.  Its  downfall  before  the  assaults  of  the 
Turks,  two  centuries  later  (1453),  was  largely  a  result  of  the 
weakening  of  its  resources  by  the  Latin  Christians  at  the  time 
of  the  Fourth  Crusade. 

A  Children's  Crusade,  in  1212,  illustrated  at  once  the  folly 
and  the  religious  zeal  which  existed  alongside  of  the  self-seeking 

171.  The        of  princes  and  traders.     A  French  shepherd  boy  named 
Crusade'8      Stephen  claimed  that  he  was  commanded  by  Christ  to 
(12 12)  lead  an  army  of  children  to  rescue  the  Holy  Sepulcher. 

He  induced  thousands  of  boys  and  girls  to  follow  him  to  Mar- 
seilles, in  the  belief  that  the  sea  would  open  up  to  give  them  pas- 
sage dry-shod  to  Palestine.  Many  perished  miserably  on  the 
way ;  the  rest,  still  more  miserable,  were  kidnaped  and  sold  into 
slavery.  In  Germany  a  lad  named  Nicholas  gathered  a  similar 
following  of  children,  to  the  number,  it  is  said,  of  20,000.  They 
succeeded  in  reaching  Rome,  where  they  were  persuaded  by 
the  Pope  to  return  home. 

Throughout  the  thirteenth  century  there  was  much  talk  of 
crusades,  and  Europe  was  often  taxed  for  them;  but  little  was 

172.  The       accomplished.     When  the  Emperor  Frederick  II  (§  135) 

la'des™'  at  last  went  to  the  Holy  Land  (1228-1229),  he  succeeded 
(1228-1291)  in  restoring  Jerusalem  for  a  time  to  the  Christians.  This, 
however,  was  due  to  wars  among  the  Mohammedans,  and  Fred- 
erick's skillful  diplomacy,  and  not  to  his  victories.  In  1244 
Jerusalem  was  again  lost  to  the  Turks,  —  this  time  finally. 
No  great  outburst  of  crusading  zeal  followed  this  calamity. 
However,  in  1248,  King  Louis  IX  of  France  ("Saint  Louis") 
set  out  with  a  French  army  for  Egypt,  which  since  the  beginning 
of  the  century  had  been  recognized  as  the  key  to  the  Mohamme- 
dan power.  He  was  successful  for  a  time,  but  eventually  was 
captured  and  forced  to  ransom  himself  by  giving  up  his  conquests 
and  paying  a  large  sum  of  money.  In  1270  King  Louis  again 
undertook  a  crusade,  this  time  to  Tunis,  where  he  died  of  the 
plague.  Finally  Acre  —  the  last  Christian  post  in  Syria  — 
fell  in  1291. 


RESULTS  OF  THE   CRUSADES  155 

The  reason  »that  the  crusades  ceased,  without  having  accom- 
plished their  object,  must  be  sought  in  the  changed  circumstances 
and  attitude  of  Europe.  The  two  centuries  which  had  I?3 
elapsed  since  their  beginning  had  seen  the  following  im-  the  crusades 
portant  movements :  the  great  struggle  between  the  papacy 
and  the  empire ;  the  rise  of  commerce  and  of  the  towns  (ch.  ix) ; 
the  origin  and  development  of  the  universities  and  scholastic 
philosophy,  the  revived  study  of  Roman  law,  and  the  rise  of 
a  lawyer  class  (ch.  x) ;  the  decline  of  feudalism  and  the  rise  of 
monarchical  states.  The  Europe  of  1300  thus  differed  greatly 
from  the  Europe  of  noo.  The  simple,  uncalculating,  religious 
enthusiasm  for  the  recovery  of  the  Sepulcher  of  Christ  had  given 
place  to  preoccupation  with  weighty  problems  nearer  home. 
Men  still  talked  of  going  on  crusades,  but  they  rendered  only  lip 
service  to  the  cause.  Perhaps  they  had  begun  to  ask  themselves 
what  real  difference  it  made  whether  Jerusalem  was  ruled  by 
Christian  or  infidel,  provided  Christ  ruled  in  their  lives  and 
hearts.  Within  another  half  century,  Mohammedan  power  had 
passed  from  the  Seljukian  to  the  yet  more  formidable  Ottoman 
Turks.  Soon  afterwards  (1357)  the  Turks  established  them- 
selves on  the  European  side  of  the  Bosporus,  and  began  that 
piecemeal  conquest  of  the  home  provinces  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
which  was  completed  a  century  later  by  the  taking  of  Constan- 
tinople (§317).  In  the  face  of  this  new  and  formidable  danger 
the  resources  of  Europe  were  taxed  to  the  utmost.  Further 
expeditions  to  the  Holy  Land  thenceforth  were  scarcely  thought 
of.  The  age  of  the  crusades  was  at  an  end. 

E.   RESULTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES 

The  tendency  has  been  to  exaggerate  the  influence  of  the 
crusades,  and  to  lessen  the  importance  of  other  factors  in  chang- 
ing the  institutions  and  life  of  Europe.     Nevertheless,          Re_ 
the  migration  year  by  year  of  thousands  of  persons  to  suits  often 
and  from  the  Mohammedan  East,  during  a  period  of  exasserate< 
nearly  two  centuries,  could  not  but  have  important  results  for 


156 


THE   CRUSADES 


the '  Christian  West.     The  most  important  of  these  were  as 
follows:  — 

(1)  In  respect  to  military  usages,  Europe  owed  to  the  cru- 
sades the  drum,  trumpet,  tents,  quilted  armor  for  the  protection 

175.  Mili-      of  the  common  soldier,  the 
tary  usages    surcoat    worn    over    the 

knightly  coat  of  mail,  the  whole 
system  of  armorial  "bearings" 
(heraldic  devices  on  shields, 
etc.)  by  which  knights  pro- 
claimed, their  family  and  line- 
age, and  many  improvements 
in  the  art  of  building  and  tak- 
ing fortified  places.  "  The  siege 
Oman,  His-  of  great  fenced  cities  like 

A?tofWar,     Nicaea>  Antioch,  or  Jeru- 

s?6  salem, "  says  a  writer  on 

the  art  of  war,  "was  almost  an 
education  in  itself  to  the  en- 
gineers of  the  West." 

(2)  On  the  development  of  commerce  and  city  life,  the  cru- 
sades exerted  a  powerful  influence.     Italian  cities  such  as  Venice, 

176.  Com-      Pisa>  and  Genoa  grew  rich  through  the  transportation  of 

pilgrims  and  crusaders  and  their  supplies,  and  through 
the  importation  of  eastern  products  into  Europe.  In  the 
North,  Rat'isbon,  Augsburg,  Nu'remberg,  and  the  market  towns 
of  northern  France  developed  as  distributing  centers  for  the 
importations  of  Italy,  and  regular  routes  of  inland  commerce 
were  established.  Money  became  increasingly  necessary ;  banks 
Prutz,  in  were  established,  and  means  of  exchange  devised.  "It 
was  not  simply  during  the  crusades,"  says  a  German  his- 
torian, "but  as  a  result  of  them,  and  of  the  commerce 
which  they  had  called  into  being,  that  money  became  a  power,  — 
we  might  almost  say,  a  world  power." 

(3)  A  multitude  of  new  natural  products  and  manufactures 
—  such  as  sugar  cane,  buckwheat,  rice,  garlic,  hemp;  the  orange, 


SHIELD  or  RICHARD  I 

The  "lions"  of  this  shield  became  the 
arms  of 


merce  and 


268 


RESULTS  OF  THE  CRUSADES  157 

watermelon,  lemon,  lime,  and  apricot;  new  dyestuffs,  cottons, 
muslins,  damask,  satin,  and  velvet  —  were  introduced  from  the 
East  in  the  Middle  Ages.     It  is  difficult,  however,  to  say  177.  New 
which  of  these  came  as  a  result  of  the  crusades,  and  which  pr°, l 

3.11(1  m.3.nu- 

from  peaceful  intercourse  with  Constantinople,  Syria,  factures 
northern  Africa,  and  Spain.  In  this  connection  may  be  men- 
tioned certain  changes  in  habits,  such  as  the  increased  use  of 
baths,  an  exaggerated  taste  for  pepper  and  spices  in  foods,  and 
the  wearing  of  the  beard.  The  introduction  of  windmills  into 
Europe  seems  also  to  have  been  a  result  of  the  crusades. 

(4)  The  political  and  social  organization  of  Europe  was  al- 
ready  undergoing   profound   modification,    and    the   crusades 
helped  on  the  change.     Crusaders  often  freed  their  serfs  J78.  Politi- 
to  get  money,  or  for  the  good  of  their  souls.     The  wealth  social 
gained  by  townsmen  in  commerce  enabled  them  to  buy  results 

or  wrest  important  rights  of  self-government  from  their  lords. 
The  feudal  nobles,  especially  of  France,  were  greatly  weakened 
by  the  enormous  waste  of  their  numbers  and  resources  in  the 
East ;  and  the  lower  classes  and  the  crown  were  correspondingly 
strengthened.  In  Germany,  where  as  a  class  the  nobles  had 
little  to  do  with  the  crusades,  they  were  neither  impoverished 
nor  reduced  in  numbers,  nor  was  their  military  and  political 
importance  diminished.  For  this  reason,  among  others,  Ger- 
many was  later  than  France  in  entering  upon  the  path  of  social 
progress,  industrial  development,  and  real  national  unity. 

(5)  The  most  important  influence  of  all  was  in  the  world  of 
thought.     The  hundreds  of  thousands  who  made  the  journey 

to  the  East  had  their  minds  stimulated  and  their  mental   I?9  Influ_ 
horizons  broadened  by  beholding  new  lands,  new  peoples,   ences  on 
and  new  customs.     "They  came  from  their  castles  and 
their  villages,"  says  a  French  writer,   "having  seen  nothing, 
more   ignorant   than   our  peasants.     They  found  them-  Seignobos,in 
selves  suddenly  in  great  cities,  in  the  midst  of  new  coun-  Lavisse  an(1 

*  Rambaud, 

tnes,  in  the  presence  of  unfamiliar  usages.       European   mstoire  ac- 
knowledge of  geography  —  especially  of  nearer  and  even  nfrale,  II,  246 
of  farther  Asia  —  was  greatly  enlarged.     Men  who  had  "  walked 


158  THE   CRUSADES 

in  new  ways  and  seen  new  things  and  listened  to  new 
thoughts"  experienced  an  inevitable  broadening  of  view,  and 
lost  something  of  the  narrow  one-sidedness  which  was  a  mark 
of  medieval  culture.  Thus  the  way  was  paved  for  the 
subtle  change  in  intellectual  atmosphere,  beginning  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  which  we  style  the  Renaissance.  This  we 
may  reckon  the  greatest  though  the  most  indefinite  result 
of  the  whole  crusading  movement.  But  other  factors,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten,  were  already  working  in  the  same 
direction. 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

1096-1099.  The  First  Crusade ;  capture  of  Jerusalem. 

1187.  Recapture  of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin. 

1189-1192.  The  Third  Crusade:  Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  and  Philip 

Augustus. 

1204.  The  Fourth  Crusade  captures  Constantinople. 
1229.  Frederick  II  recovers  Jerusalem  by  treaty;  lost  again,  1244. 
1248  and  1270.  Crusades  of  Louis  IX  of  France  to  Egypt  and  Tunis. 
1291.  Fall  of  Acre;  end  of  the  crusading  movement. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Make  a  list  of  the  points  in  which  Byzantine 
civilization  was  ahead  of  Western  civilization.  (2)  Make  a  similar  com- 
parison of  Arabian  civilization  with  that  of  western  Europe.  (3)  Compare 
the  coming  of  the  Turks  into  the  East  with  that  of  the  Germans  into  the 
West.  (4)  Were  the  causes  of  the  crusades  more  in  external  events  or 
in  the  prevalence  of  a  particular  state  of  mind  ?  (5)  What  motives  besides 
the  religious  one  led  Stephen  of  Blois  to  go  on  the  crusade  ?  (6)  Why  did 
the  crusaders  slay  the  Mohammedans  at  Jerusalem?  (7)  Compare  the 
organization  and  leadership  of  the  Third  Crusade  with  that  of  the  First. 
Why  did  it  accomplish  less?  (8)  Was  the  Fourth  Crusade  more  of  a 
religious  or  a  political  war?  (9)  Why  were  the  later  crusades  directed 
against  Egypt?  (10)  Did  the  crusades  on  the  whole  do  more  good  or 
harm? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE  BEFORE  THE  CRUSADES. 
Munro,  Middle  Ages,  ch.  x;  Bemont  and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  ch.  xxii; 
Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  212-224;  Robinson,  Readings, 
I>  340-343-  —  (2)  SARACEN  CIVILIZATION.  Munro,  ch.  ix;  Thatcher  and 
Schwill,  Europe  in  the  Middle  Age,  357-360.  —  (3)  MEDIEVAL  PILGRIMAGES. 


TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES  159 

Jusserand,  English  Wayfaring  Life,  338-403 ;  Archer  and  Kingsford,  Cru- 
sades, 15-17;  Mombert,  Short  History  of  the  Crusades,  ch.  i;  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  "Pilgrimage."  —  (4)  COUNCIL  OF  CLERMONT.  Archer  and 
Kingsford,  28-33  I  Ogg>  Source  Book,  282-288;  Robinson,  Readings,  I,  312- 
316;  Thatcher  and  McNeal,  Source  Book,  513-522.  —  (5)  MOTIVES  OF 
CRUSADERS.  Adams,  Civilization,  263-267 ;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European 
History,  I,  312-340;  Pennsylvania  Reprints,  I,  Nos.  2,  2-8,  12-19;  Thatcher 
and  McNeal,  512-523.  —  (6)  PETER  THE  HERMIT  IN  MYTH  AND  IN  HISTORY. 
Thatcher  and  Schwill,  363-365 ;  Thatcher  and  McNeal,  Source  Book,  523- 
526;  Report  of  American  Historical  Association,  1900,  I,  501-504.  —  (7) 
RELATIONS  OF  CRUSADERS  WITH  THE  EASTERN  EMPEROR.  Archer  and 
Kingsford,  51-54;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  368-370;  Essays  on  the  Crusades, 
Pt.  Ill  (Diehl,  "The  Byzantine  Empire  and  the  Crusades ").  — (8)  THE 
CRUSADERS  AT  NICAEA  AND  ANTIOCH.  Archer  and  Kingsford,  Crusades,  54- 
76;  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  371-379.  —  (9)  CAPTURE  OF  JERUSALEM.  Archer 
and  Kingsford,  84-92;  Duncalf  and  Krey,  Parallel  Source  Problems,  95- 
133.  —  (10)  TEMPLARS  AND  HOSPITALERS.  Archer  and  Kingsford,  ch.  xi; 
Wishart,  Monks  and  Monasteries,  197-204;  Cutts,  Scenes  and  Characters  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  ch.  iv.  —  (n)  CHRISTIANS  AND  MOHAMMEDANS  IN  PALES- 
TINE. Archer  and  Kingsford,  Crusades,  291-294;  Essays  on  the  Crusades 
(Munro,  "Christian  and  Infidel  in  the  Holy  Land  ") ;  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Reprints,  I,  No.  4  ("Letters  of  the  Crusaders  written  from  the 
Holy  Land").  —  (12)  REGULATIONS  FOR  THE  THIRD  CRUSADE.  Archer, 
Crusade  of  Richard  /,  8-10,  37-39. —  (13)  RICHARD  THE  LION-HEARTED 
IN  PALESTINE.  Archer  and  Kingsford,  ch.  xxii ;  Oman,  Art  of  War,  303-317 ; 
Lane-Poole,  Saladin,  279-299;  Archer,  Crusade  of  Richard  /  (sources). — 
(14)  SALADIN.  Lane-Poole,  Saladin;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  "Saladin." 
—  (15)  CHILDREN'S  CRUSADE.  Gray,  The  Children's  Crusade;  Cox,  Cru- 
sades, 222-223  >  Thatcher  and  Schwill,  424-425  ;  Mombert,  Short  History  of 
the  Crusades,  234-236.  — (16)  CRUSADES  OF  ST.  Louis.  Archer  and  Kings- 
ford,  390-451;  Perry,  St.  Louis,  154-195,  284-296;  Thatcher  and  Schwill, 
427-429. 

General  Reading.  —  The  best  histories  in  English  are  by  Archer  and 
Kingsford,  Cox,  and  Mombert  (the  last-named  somewhat  uncritical). 
Sybel's  History  and  Literature  of  the  Crusades  is  still  an  excellent  brief  guide. 
Prutz,  Munro,  and  Diehl,  Essays  on  the  Crusades  (republished  from  the 
International  Monthly)  possesses  great  value.  In  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania Translations  and  Reprints  (Vol.  I,  Nos.  2  and  4,  and  Vol.  Ill,  No. 
i)  are  interesting  documents ;  while  Archer's  Crusade  of  Richard  /  is  made 
up  entirely  of  selections  from  the  sources.  Michaud's  History  of  the 
Crusades  (3  vols.)  should  be  used  with  caution. 


CHAPTER  IX 

LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

A.  LIFE  OP  THE  NOBLES 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  most  defensible  hilltops  of  western 

Europe  were  occupied  by  the  frowning  castles  of  the  feudal 

180.  The        lords.     To-day  one  sees  their  ivy-crowned  ruins  on  every 

feudal  castle  hand     The  castie  of  fae  earuer  Middle  Ages  consisted 

merely  of  an  inclosure  of  stakes  or  palisades  set  in  the  ground, 
with  a  ditch  around  it  and  a  sort  of  blockhouse  in  the  center. 
In  the  eleventh  century  men  began  to  build  stone  castles; 
and  soon  the  engineering  skill  of  the  Normans,  together  with  the 
experience  gained  in  the  crusades,  made  these  structures  in- 
tricate and  complex. 

The  castle  of  Arques  (ark),  built  in  Normandy  (about  1040)  by 
the  uncle  of  William  the  Conqueror,  is  a  type  of  the  early  stone 
castle.  It  was  built  upon  a  hilltop,  and  was  defended  by  a  pali- 
sade, ditch,  and  two  drawbridges,  with  their  outer  works.  It 
was  surrounded  by  a  thick  " bailey"  wall  with  battlements 
along  the  top,  which  was  strengthened  by  towers  placed  at  in- 
tervals of  a  bowshot.  Entrance  was  gained  through  a  narrow 
vaulted  gateway,  placed  between  two  towers ;  this  was  defended 
by  heavy  doors,  and  by  "portcullises"  (iron  gratings  descending 
from  above).  The  inclosure  within  the  wall  was  divided  into 
an  "outer  ward"  and  an  "inner  ward."  It  contained  separate 
buildings  for  stables,  kitchen,  and  the  like;  and  was  large 
enough  to  shelter  the  surrounding  population  in  time  of  war. 
At  the  extremity  of  the  inner  ward  stood  a  strong  tower  called 
the  "keep,"  which  was  the  most  important  part  of  every  castle. 
In  early  times  the  lord  of  the  castle,  with  his  family,  lived  in 
the  keep;  but  its  gloom  and  cold  usually  led  to  the  erection 

1 60 


LIFE  OF   THE    NOBLES 


161 


of  a  separate  "hall"  within  the  inclosure  for  residence  in  time 
of  peace.  The  keep  of  the  castle  of  Arques  was  a  triumph  of 
complicated  defenses. 
Its  walls  were  eight 
to  ten  feet  thick,  with 
winding  passageways 
and  stairs  concealed  in 
them,  and  with  cun- 
ningly devised  pitfalls 
to  trap  the  unwary. 
Here  the  last  stand 
against  an  enemy  was 
made.  A  postern  gate 
in  the  outer  wall,  near 
the  keep,  gave  a  means 
of  escape  in  case  of  de- 
feat. 

Of  more  elaborate 
type  than  the  castle 
of  Arques  was  the 
Chateau  Gaillard  (sha- 
to'  ga-yar' ;  "  Saucy 
Castle"),  erected  on 
the  borders  of  Nor- 
mandy by  Richard  the 
Lion-Hearted  as  a  de- 
fense against  Philip 
Augustus  of  France. 
The  construction  of  this 
great  work  was  completed  in  a  single  year.  To  Philip's  boast 
that  he  would  take  it  "  though  its  walls  were  of  iron,"  Richard 
defiantly  answered  that  he  "  would  hold  the  castle  though  its 
walls  were  of  butter."  And  Richard  proved  the  truer  prophet. 

Hurling  engines,  movable  towers,  and  battering  rams  were 
of  little  avail  against  such  formidable  castles.  Until  the  in- 
troduction of  gunpowder,  they  were  usually  taken  only  by 


CASTLE  OF  ARQUES 
Restoration  of  Viollet-le-Duc 


CHATEAU  GAILLAITD.     Restoration  of  Viollet-le-Duc 

At  A  is  shown  a  row  of  piles  in  the  river  Seine  to  prevent  the  passage  of  boats : 
B  is  a  bridge ;  C  is  the  little  town  near  which  the  castle  stood. 


162 


LIFE   OF  THE   NOBLES  163 

treachery,  surprise,  starvation,  or  by  undermining  the  walls.  As 
the  power  of  the  kings  increased,  especially  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, the  right  of  the  nobles  to  erect  castles  was  rigidly  restricted. 
Luxury,  too,  came  in,  and  gradually  the  castle  lost  its  character 
of  a  fortress,  and  became  merely  a  lordly  dwelling  place. 

The  training  of  the  feudal  noble,  like  his  habitation,  was  all 
for  war.  The  church  gave  to  this  training  a  religious  consecra- 
tion, and  chivalry,  or  the  ideals  and  usages  of  knighthood,  lgl  Train. 
was  the  result.  In  his  earlier  years  the  young  noble  was  ing  for 
left  to  the  care  of  his  mother.  At  about  the  age  of  seven  knishthood 
he  was  sent  to  the  castle  of  his  father's  lord,  or  to  that  of  some 
other  knight,  and  his  training  for  knighthood  began.  With 
other  lads  he  served  his  lord  and  mistress  as  page,  waited  at 
table,  and  attended  them  when  they  rode  forth  to  the  chase. 
From  his  lord  and  mistress  he  learned  lessons  of  honor  and 
bravery,  of  love  and  courtesy ;  above  all,  he  learned  how  to  ride 
and  to  handle  a  horse.  When  he  was  a  well-grown  lad  of  four- 
teen or  fifteen,  he  became  a  squire.  He  then  looked  after  the 
grooming  and  shoeing  of  his  lord's  horses,  and  saw  that  his 
lord's  arms  were  kept  bright  and  free  from  rust.  In  war  the 
squire  accompanied  his  lord.  He  carried  his  lord's  shield  and 
lance,  assisted  in  arming  him  for  battle,  and  stayed  watchfully 
at  hand  to  aid  him  in  case  of  need. 

When  the  squire  reached  the  age  of  twenty  or  twenty-one, 
and  had  proved  his  courage  and  military  skill,  he  was  made  a 
knight.  The  ceremony  was  often  elaborate.  First  came  a  bath, 
-  the  mark  of  purification.  Then  the  candidate  put  on  gar- 
ments of  red,  white,  and  black,  —  red  for  the  blood  he  must 
shed  in  defense  of  the  church,  white  to  image  the  purity  of  his 
mind,  and  black  as  a  reminder  of  death.  All  night  with  fasting 
and  prayer  he  watched  his  arms,  before  the  altar  of  the  church. 
With  the  morning  came  confession,  the  holy  mass,  and  a  sermon 
on  the  proud  duties  of  a  knight.  Th6  actual  knighting  usually 
took  place  in  the  courtyard  of  the  castle,  in  the  presence  of  a 
numerous  company  of  knights  and  ladies.  The  armor  and  sword 
were  fastened  on  by  friends  and  relatives.  Then  the  lord  gave 


164  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE    AGES 

the  "accolade,"  with  a  blow  of  his  fist  upon  the  young  man's 
neck,  or  by  touching  him  with  the  flat  of  his  sword  on  the  shoul- 
der, saying :  "In  the  name  of  God,  and  Saint  Michael,  and  Saint 
George,  I  dub  thee  knight !  Be  brave  and  loyal ! "  Exhibitions 
of  skill  by  the  new-made  knight  followed,  with  feasting  and 
the  giving  of  presents.  The  details  of  the  ceremony  varied 
in  different  times  and  places.  Frequently,  after  a  battle,  a 
squire  who  had  shown  distinguished  bravery  was  knighted  upon 
the  battlefield,  with  nothing  more  than  the  accolade. 

The  command  "Be  brave  and  loyal,"  summed  up  the  qualities 

expected  of  the  knight  in  the  early  Middle  Ages.     In  the  course 

182.  ideals     of  time  the  ideals  of  knighthood  came  to  include  much 

of  chivalry      mOre  than  courage  and  loyalty  to  one's  lord.     Knighthood 

was  then   regarded  as  membership  in   an  informal  order  or 

brotherhood,  which  had  definite  rules  of  conduct  binding  upon 

its  members.     The  knight  must  be  faithful  to  one  ladylove,  to 

his  companions  in  arms,  to  his  lord,  his  king,  his  country,  and 

his  God.     He  must  defend  the  weak,  particularly  women  and 

priests.     He  must  be  courteous,   magnanimous   to  foes,  true 

Green  ^°  ^s  plighted  word,   and  generous  to  the  needy.     In 

Short  His-       practice    this    ideal    was    rarely    attained.      Too   often 

t0EnlLfe        chivalry  was  only  a  "  picturesque  mimicry  of  high  sen- 

People,  ch.       timent,  of  heroism,  of  love  and  courtesy,  before  which  all 

iv,  §  3  depth  and  reality  of  nobleness  disappeared  to  make  room 

for  the  coarsest  profligacy,  the  narrowest  caste  spirit,  and  a 

brutal  indifference  to  human  suffering." 

The  military  superiority  of  the  knight  over  the  common  man 

was  due  almost   entirely   to  his   equipment.      Down   to   the 

183  Arms      eleventh  century,  the  knight's  armor  consisted  of  a  leather 

and  armor      or  cloth  tunic  covered  with  metal  scales  or  rings  (such  as 

^f*1*  is  shown  in  the  picture  of  the  battle  of  Hastings  on  p.  72), 

with  an  iron  cap  to  protect  the  head.     From  the  beginning  of 

the  twelfth  century,  the '"hauberk"  was  usually  worn.     This 

was  a  coat  of  link-  or  chain-mail,  often  reaching  to  the  feet, 

and  possessing  a  hood  to  protect  the  neck  and  head.     Plate 

armor  —  weighing   fifty   pounds   or    more  —  and   the    visored 


LIFE   OF  THE   NOBLES  165 

helmet  appear  in  the  fourteenth  century.  A  shield  or  buckler 
of  wood  and  leather,  bound  with  iron  and  emblazoned  with 
the  knight's  coat  of  arms,  was  carried  on  the  left  arm.  The 
weapons  were  chiefly  the  lance,  the  iron  mace,  and  the  straight 
sword.  The  weight  of  the  armor  made  necessary  a  strong, 
heavy  horse  (the  dextra'rius)  to  carry  the  warrior  in  battle. 
When  on  a  journey  he  rode  a  lighter  horse  (the  "palfrey"), 
while  a  squire  or  valet  led  the  heavy  horse,  laden  with  the 
knight's  armor.  No  number  of  foot  soldiers  of  the  ordinary 
sort  could  stand  before  mounted  warriors  thus  equipped.  It  is 
in  this  military  preeminence  of  the  knight  that  we  find  one  of 
1  the  chief  reasons  for  the  long  continuance  of  the  feudal  power. 

As  war  was  the  chief  business  of  the  noble,  so  the  tournament 
—  a  sort  of  mimic  battle  —  was  his  favorite  amusement.  The 
tournaments  became  elaborate  entertainments,  held  lg 
especially  on  such  occasions  as  the  knighting  of  a  king's  Knightly 
son  or  the  marriage  of  a  great  lord's  daughter.  Knights  tournaments 
came  from  far  and  near  to  these  contests,  in  order  to  display 
their  prowess,  or  to  recoup  their  fortunes  from  the  spoil  of  de- 
feated opponents.  At  times  the  combat  was  between  a  single 
pair  of  horsemen ;  at  other  times  whole  companies  engaged  on 
each  side.  Sometimes  the  conflict  was  with  blunted  swords 
and  lances  without  heads ;  at  other  times  it  was  with  ordinary 
weapons.  The  tournament  was  usually  fought  in  "lists,"  or 
level  spaces  marked  off  by  a  rope  or  railing,  and  surrounded  with 
places  for  the  spectators.  The  knights  wore  the  scarfs  or  colors 
of  their  ladies  upon  their  helmets,  and  fought  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  their  eyes.  The  vanquished  in  the  contest  forfeited 
his  horse  and  armor  to  the  victor,  and  had  to  ransom  his 
person  or  remain  captive.  Fortunes  were  often  lost  and  won 
at  these  tournaments.  The  sport  was  a  bloody  one,  though 
usually  more  horses  were  slain  than  men.  In  spite  of  occasional 
prohibitions  by  kings  and  Popes,  the  tournament  continued  to 
be  one  of  the  chief  amusements  of  the  knightly  classes  until  chiv- 
alry itself  declined  with  the  passing  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  thick  walls  and  narrow  windows  of  the  feudal  castle  made 


1 66 


LIFE  IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 


life  of  the 
nobles 


its  apartments  cold  and  dark  in  winter,  and  close  in  summer. 
The  life  of  the  nobles,  therefore,  was  spent  as  much  as  possi- 
185.  Daily      ^le  in  the  open  air.     After  war  and  tournaments,  the  chase 
was  their  chief  outdoor  amusement.     It  afforded  training 
in  the  management  of  horse  and  weapons,  and  also  served 
the  very  useful  purpose  of  supplying  the  castle  larder  with  game. 
Falconry  —  the  flying  of  trained  hawks  at  small  game  —  be- 
came   a   complicated 
science     with     many 
technical   terms,  and 
was    practiced    with 
zest    by    ladies    and 
lords   alike;  but   the 
chase  with  hounds  of 
deer,  wild  boars,  and 
bears,  .was  the  more 
exciting     sport. 
Within   doors  the 
chief    amusements 
were  chess,  >  checkers, 
backgammon,    and 
similar    games.     The 
great    hall    was    the 
center    of    this    life. 
About  its  large  fire- 
place,    master,    mis- 
tress,   children,    and 
dependents   gathered 
to    play     games,     to 

listen  to  tales  of  travel  and  adventure  from  chance  visitors, 
and  to  carry  on  household  occupations.  While  the  boys  were 
trained  to  be  knights,  the  girls  learned  to  spin,  sew,  and  em- 
broider, to  care  for  wounds,  and  to  direct  a  household.  Like 
their  brothers,  they  were  often  sent  away  from  home  for  a  time, 
to  receive  the  finishing  touches  of  their  education  as  maids  of 
honor  to  some  noble  lady. 


FALCONRY 

From  a  German  manuscript  of  the  isth  century  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris 


LIFE   OF  THE  NOBLES 


167 


The  furniture  of   the   castles  was   substantial   but   scanty. 
Embroidered  tapestries  hung  amid  the  weapons  on  the  walls, 
and  skins  were  placed  underfoot  for  the  sake  of  warmth.    Ig6  purni 
Chairs  and  benches,  tables,  chests,  and  wardrobes  stood  ture  and 
about  the  hall.     Perhaps  the  great  corded  bedstead  of  costume 
the  master  and  mistress  —  with    its    canopy,    curtains,    and 
feather  bed  —  was  also  placed  here;  but  more  often  this  oc- 
cupied a  separate  chamber.     The  men  servants   and  attend- 
ants slept  on  the  floor  of  the  great  hall,  or  in  the  towers  along 
the  bailey  wall. 

Costumes  varied  with  time  and  place,  as  did  the  armor. 
Long  pointed  shoes  were  invented  by  a  count  of  Anjou  to  hide 
the  deformity  of  his  feet,  and  within  a 
short  time  the  style  spread  over  Europe. 
Dress  of  the  close-fitting  Carolingian  pat- 
tern was  used  until  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century,  when  it  was  displaced  by  long 
garments  in  imitation  of  those  worn  by  the 
Byzantines.  These  were  abandoned  in  the 
thirteenth  century  for  other  fashions.  The 
headdresses  of  the  ladies,  especially  in  the 
later  Middle  Ages,  were  often  as  extraor- 
dinary as  the  pointed  shoes  which  cov- 
ered the  feet  of  the  men. 

The  secrets  of  dyeing  were  long  in  the 
hands  of  the  Jews.     In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  Italians  learned  the  art,  and  the 
dyers  then  formed  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant guilds  in  Florence  and  other  cities. 
Many  dyestuffs  were  introduced  into  the 
West  at  the  time  of  the  crusades.       Cochineal,  which  gives  a 
brilliant  red,  was  not  known  until  the  discovery  of  Mexico ;  and 
the  aniline  dyes,  which  now  are  largely  used,  date  only  from  the 
nineteenth  century.     It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  most 

1  The  points  of  the  fashionable  long-pointed  shoes  were  often  fastened  by  cords  or 
small  chains  to  the  garters,  to  facilitate  walking. 


FRENCH  NOBLE,  I4TH 
CENTURY 1 


1 68  LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

brilliantly  tinted  garments  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  poor  and  dull 
in  hue  compared  with  those  now  within  reach  of  the  poorest 
person. 

The  meals  were  served  in  the  hall,  on  easily  removable  trestle 
tables.     Noble  visitors  were  always  welcome,  and  all  except 
187.  Food      those  actively  engaged  at  the  time  took  their  places  at 
of  the  the  board  according  to  rank.      The  viands  were  brought 

in  covered  dishes  across  the  court  from  the  kitchen,  which 
was  a  separate  building.  Jugs  and  vessels  of  curious  shapes, 
often  in  imitation  of  animals,  were  scattered  about  the  table. 
Before  each  person  was  placed  a  knife  and  spoon,  and  a  drink- 
ing cup,  often  of  wood  or  horn.  Forks  were  unknown  until  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  food  was  eaten  from  a  common 
dish  with  the  fingers.  Before  and  after  each  meal,  pages  brought 
basins  of  water  and  towels  for  washing  the  hands.  There  were 
no  napkins ;  pieces  of  bread  were  used  for  cleansing  the  fingers 
during  the  meal,  and  then  thrown  under  the  table  to  the  dogs. 
Dinner,  served  at  midday,  was  announced  by  the  blowing  of 
horns.  It  was  a  long  and  substantial  repast,  consisting  often 
of  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  courses,  mostly  meats  and  game. 
Dressed  deer,  pigs,  and  other  animals  were  roasted  whole  on 
spits  before  an  open  fire.  Roast  swans,  peacocks,  and  boars' 
heads  are  frequently  mentioned  in  medieval  writings.  Pasties 
of  venison  and  other  game  were  common.  On  festal  occasions 
live  birds  were  sometimes  placed  in  a  pie,  to  be  released  "  when 
the  pie  was  opened"  and  hunted  down  with  falcons  in  the  hall 
at  the  close  of  the  feast.  Wine  was  drunk  in  great  quantities. 
Pepper,  cloves,  ginger,  and  other  spices  were  used  by  the  wealthy 
in  both  food  and  drink,  even  the  wines  being  peppered  and 
honeyed.  Coffee,  tea,  and  all  the  native  products  of  America 
(tobacco,  Indian  corn,  potatoes,  etc.)  were  of  course  unknown. 
The  lavish  waste  of  such  a  mode  of  life  as  here  described  kept 
the  nobles  in  financial  straits.  It  was  one  of  the  many  causes 
of  the  decay  of  the  feudal  nobility,  as  compared  with  the 
growing  power  of  the  commercial  classes  who  dwelt  in  the 
towns. 


LIFE  OF  THE  PEASANTS  169 

B.  LITE  OF  THE  PEASANTS 

Writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  said  that  God  had  created  three 
classes:  knights  to  defend  society,  churchmen  to  pray,  and 
peasants  whose  duty  it  was  to  till  the  soil  and  support  igg.  serfs 
by  their  labor  the  other  classes.  The  peasants  were  and  vUleins 
divided  into  serfs  and  villeins,  (i)  The  serfs  were  personally 
unfree,  i.e.  they  were  "bound  to  the  soil,"  and  owed  many 
special  obligations  to  their  lord.  Unlike  slaves,  however, 
they  possessed  plots  of  land  which  they  tilled,  and  usually 
could  not  be  sold  off  the  estate.  (2)  The  villeins  were  per- 
sonally free  and  were  exempt  from  the  grievous  burdens  of  the 
serfs.  Equally  with  the  serfs  they  owed  their  lord  many  menial 
services  and  dues  for  the  land  which  they  held  of  him.  The 
dues  took  the  form  of  money  payments,  and  gifts  of  eggs, 
poultry,  and  part  of  the  young  of  their  flocks.  The  grinding 
of  the  peasants'  meal,  baking  of  their  bread,  pressing  of  their 
wine,  oil,  and  cider,  all  had  to  be  done  with  the  lord's  mill,  oven, 
and  press ;  and  heavy  fees  were  charged  for  the  use  of  these. 
The  services  which  the  peasants  owed  consisted  chiefly  in  culti- 
vating the  "  demesne,"  or  that  part  of  the  estate  which  was  kept 
in  the  lord's  own  hand,  and  from  which  he  drew  the  profits. 
Two  or  three  days'  work  a  week,  with  extra  work  at  harvest 
and  other  times  of  need,  was  the  usual  amount  exacted. 

During  the  later  Middle  Ages  serfs  were  gradually  raised  to 
the  rank  of  villeins;    and  villein  services  were  precisely  fixed, 
and  finally  commuted  for  the  payment  of  small  money   189.  Grad- 
rents.     This  emancipation  of  the  peasants  came  much  £fente^er~ 
later  in  some  countries  than  in  others.     In  France  it  was,  their  lot 
for  the  most  part,   accomplished  before  the  opening  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War  (1337).     There  still  existed  some  serfs 
in  France,  however,  when  the   French  Revolution  began,  in 
1789.     In  England,  as  we  shall  see,  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs 
began  later  than  in  France,  but  was  practically  completed  by 
the  time  of  the  Reformation.     Germany  was  more  backward, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  serfs  were 


170  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

freed  in   Prussia.     Poland  and   Russia   were   more  backward 
still. 

The  peasants  dwelt  in  villages,  often  situated  at  the  foot  of 
the  hill  on  which  stood  the  lord's  manor  house  or  castle.     Near 
ioo  Houses  kv  was  *ke  parish  church,  with  an  open  space  in  front  and 
and  furni-      a  graveyard  attached.      The   peasants'    houses  usually 
consisted  of  but  one  room.     They  were  flimsy  structures,  of 
wood  or  of  wattled  sticks  plastered  with  mud,  and  were  thatched 
with  straw.       There   were  few  windows,   no   floors,    and   no 
chimneys.     The  door  was  often  made  in  two  parts,  so  that  the 
upper  portion  could  be  opened  to  permit  the  smoke  to  escape. 
The  cattle  were  housed  under  the  same  roof  with  the  family, 
as  is  still  the  case  in  some  parts  of  rural  Switzerland  and  Ger- 
many.    The  streets  were  unpaved,  and  were  often  impassable 
with  filth.     About  each  house  usually  lay  a  small,  ill-tended 
garden. 

Within  the  houses  there  was  very  little  furniture.  Here  is 
a  list  of  the  things  which  one  well-to-do  peasant  family  in  France 
owned  in  the  year  1345  :  — 

2  feather  beds,  15  linen  sheets,  and  4  striped  yellow  counterpanes. 

1  hand-mill  for  grinding  meal,  a  pestle  and  mortar  for  pounding  grain, 

2  grain  chests,  a  kneading  trough,  and  2  ovens  over  which  coals 
could  be  heaped  for  baking. 

2  iron  tripods  on  which  to  hang  kettles  over  the  fire ;    2  metal  pots 
and  i  large  kettle. 

1  metal  bowl,  2  brass  water  jugs,  4  bottles,  a  copper  box,  a  tin  wash- 
tub,  a  metal  warming-pan,  2  large  chests,  a  box,  a  cupboard,  4 
tables  on  trestles,  a  large  table,  and  a  bench. 

2  axes,  4  lances,  a  crossbow,  a  scythe,  and  some  other  tools. 

The  lands  from  which  the  villagers  drew  their  living  lay  about 

the  village  in  several  great  unfenced  or  "open"  fields,  normally 

191.  Me-       three.     Besides  these  fields,  there  were  "common"  lands 

dieval  agri-     to  which  each  villager  sent  a  certain  number  of  cattle 

or  sheep  for  pasturage;    and  the  woodland  and  waste, 

to  which  the  peasants  went  for  fuel,  and  in  which  they  might 

turn  a  limited  number  of  pigs  to  feed  on  the  acorns  and  nuts. 


LIFE  OF  THE   PEASANTS 


171 


The  rights  of  hunting  and  fishing  belonged  exclusively  to  the 
lord  and  were  jealously  guarded. 

The  time  not  taken  up  with  labors  on  the  lord's  demesne  was 
used  by  the  peasant  in  tilling  his  own  small  holding  in  the  open 
fields.  A  full  villein 
holding  usually  con- 
sisted of  about  thirty 
acres,  scattered  in  long 
narrow  strips  in  the 
different  fields,  and  in- 
termixed with  the 
holdings  of  other  ten- 
ants. The  origin  of 
this  curious  system  of 
intermixed  holdings  in 
open  fields  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained ;  but  it  existed 
over  the  greater  part 
of  western  Europe  and 
lasted  far  down  into 
modern  times.  The 
different  strips  were 
separated  from  one 
another  by  "  balks  "of 
unplowed  turf.  The 
plows  were  clumsy 
wooden  affairs,  which 
penetrated  little  below 
the  surface.  They 
were  drawn  by  teams 
of  from  four  to  eight 
oxen;  but  the  cattle 
of  the  Middle  Ages  were  smaller  than  those  produced  by 
scientific  breeding  to-day. 

A  rude  rotation  of  crops  was  practiced  to  avoid  exhausting 


PLAN  OF  A  VILLAGE  WITH  OPEN  FIELDS 

From  a  plan  of  the  Common  Field  of  Burton-Agnes, 
Yorkshire,  England.  The  shaded  strips,  about 
one  tenth  of  the  whole,  were  the  parson's  share, 
or  glebe.  The  lord's  demesne  usually  consisted 
of  strips  similarly  distributed. 


172 


LIFE   IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


PLOWING 


BREAKING  CLODS 


HARROWING 


REAPING 


LIFE  OF  THE   PEASANTS  173 

the  soil.  All  the  strips  in  a  given  field  were  planted  with  a  win- 
ter grain  (wheat)  one  year,  the  next  year  with  a  spring  grain 
(oats),  and  the  third  year  were  plowed  and  lay  fallow.  Thus 
one  third  of  the  land  was  always  resting.  Under  this  primitive 
system  of  agriculture  the  yield  was  far  less  than  now.  In  Eng- 
land, at  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  wheat  yielded  as 
low  as  six  bushels  an  acre,  and  nine  or  ten  bushels  was  probably 
a  full  average  crop. 

Bee-keeping  was  more  usual  in  the   Middle   Ages   than  in 
modern  times.     The  honey  was  used  instead  of  sugar  for  almost 
all  purposes  of  sweetening,  and  the  wax  was  needed  to          Each 
make  the  tall  candles  in  the  churches,  and  also  the  seals  manor  self- 
used    on    official    documents.       Every    great    estate    or  s 
"manor"    was    self-supporting    to    a    surprising    extent.      Ale 
was  home-brewed ;  wool  was  spun  and  cloth  woven  in  the  house- 
hold ;   and  the  village  blacksmith  and  carpenter  performed  the 
services  beyond  the  powers  of  the  household  circle.     For  salt, 
and  the  rare  articles  that  the  village  did  not  itself  produce,  the 
people  of  the  manor  resorted  to  periodical  markets  and  fairs 
in  neighboring  towns. 

Except  in  time  of  war  and  famine,  the  condition  of  the  peasant 
in  the  thirteenth  century  was  not  so  bad  as  it  became  in  later 
times.     He  was  assured  of  a  rude  plenty,  for  his  posses-   193.  Gen- 
sion  of  land  saved  him  from  the  grinding  poverty  which  ^  ^ ^e~ 
to-day  is  the  lot  of  the  unemployed.     But  his  labor  was  peasants 
incessant,  and  his  food,  clothing,  and  habitation  were  of  the 
rudest  and  poorest.     He  was  ignorant  and  superstitious,  and 
oppression  made  him  sullen.     He  was  a  butt  for  the  wit  of  the 
noble  classes  and  the  courtly  poets,  and  the  name  "villain" 
(villein)  has  been  handed  down  to  us  as  the  synonym  for  all  that 
is  base.    In  a  poem  —  which  was  doubtless  written  to  please  LC  Despit 
the  nobles —  the  writer  scolds  at  the  villein  because  he  was  ^Viiain, 
too  well  fed,  and  (as  he  says)  "made  faces"  at  the  clergy,   mstoiredes ' 
"Ought  he  to  eat  fish?"  the  poet  asks.     "Let  him  eat  Paysam.^8 
thistles,  briars,  thorns,  and  straw,  on  Sunday  for  fodder ;  and  pea- 
husks  during  the  week !    Let  him  keep  watch  all  his  days,  and 


LIFE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

have  trouble.  Thus  ought  villeins  to  live.  Ought  he  to  eat 
meats  ?  He  ought  to  go  naked  on  all  fours,  and  crop  herbs 
with  the  horned  cattle  in  the  fields!"  With  such  sentiments 
animating  the  masters,  it  is  not  surprising  that,  as  time  went  on, 
many  and  terrible  uprisings  of  the  peasants  broke  out  against 
their  feudal  lords. 

C.   MEDIEVAL  CITIES  AND  COMMERCE 

The  economic  life  of  the  medieval  monasteries  and  manors 
was  almost  entirely  agricultural.  City  life,  which  had  declined 
104  Revi-  w^k  tne  Germanic  invasions,  began  to  revive  in  the 
val  of  city  eleventh  century,  and  then  a  slow  transformation  set  in 
which  made  the  life  of  the  time  more  complex.  Manu- 
factures and  commerce  arose  again ;  and  the  industrial  isola- 
tion and  self-sufficiency  of  the  earlier  period  gave  place  to  an 
interdependence  of  communities  and  classes.  Alongside  the 
armored  knight  and  the  tonsured  "clerk,"  there  now  appeared 
the  sturdy  figure  of  the  "burgher,"  or  townsman.  To  the  two 
upper  classes,  or  "estates,"  of  society  (the  nobility  and  the 
clergy),  there  was  added  the  Third  Estate,  composed  of  the 
citizens  of  the  towns.  The  burghers  grew  rich  and  powerful,  and 
in  time  came  to  look  down  on  the  masses  of  unskilled  laborers 
and  peasants  below  them  with  almost  as  much  contempt  as 
that  with  which  they  themselves  were  regarded  by  the  nobles 
and  higher  clergy.  The  twelfth  and  the  thirteenth  centuries 
were  the  time  of  the  most  rapid  growth  of  this  new  power. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  Hohenstaufen  Empire  brief  mention 
has  been  made  of  the  revival  of  city  life  in  Italy  (§  120).  The 
movement  came  earlier  there  than  elsewhere  largely  because 
the  location  of  Italy  encouraged  Mediterranean  trade ;  and  this 
same  factor  influenced  the  growth  of  the  towns  of  southern 
France  as  well,  where  they  began  to  develop  at  about  the  same 
time  as  those  in  Italy.  The  movement  spread  also  to  northern 
France,  and  along  the  trade  routes  over  the  Alps  to  the  Danube 
and  Rhine  valleys,  whence  it  passed  to  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic 


MEDIEVAL   CITIES  AND    COMMERCE  175 

Sea.  In  England  the  towns  developed  later  than  on  the  Con- 
tinent, and  in  that  land  they  never  gained  so  much  political 
power  and  independence  as  elsewhere  in  Europe. 

The  towns  of  the  Middle  Ages  arose  in  various  ways.  Many 
of  them  occupied  the  sites  of  ancient  Roman  cities.  Although 
Roman  municipal  governments  had  perished  everywhere  -  origin 
in  western  Europe  at  the  time  of  the  Germanic  invasions,  of  the 
the  survival  of  the  material  features  of  the  Roman  cities,  owns 
—  such  as  their  walls,  streets,  and  buildings,  —  and  the  favor- 
able location  for  commerce  which  they  occupied,  aided  the  re- 
vival and  growth  of  city  life.  Cities  also  arose  in  course  of 
time  about  many  centers  where  towns  had  not  previously 
existed.  In  some  places  the  center  of  such  growth  was  a 
monastery  which  offered  employment  and  protection  to  artisans 
and  peasants.  In  other  places  the  center  was  some  strong  castle, 
placed  perhaps  at  the  ford  of  a  river  or  other  location  favorable 
for  commerce.  In  many  cases  the  growth  of  the  town  was  the 
result  of  a  right  to  hold  a  fair  or  periodical  market  at  the  place 
in  question.  Kings  and  lords  frequently  granted  to  a  village 
or  a  group  of  merchants  such  rights,  and  the  natural  result  was 
a  concentration  of  industry  and  commerce,  and  the  slow  rise 
of  a  city  organization. 

The  inhabitants  of  these  centers  of  population  were  at  first 
mere  serfs  and  villeins,  under  the  feudal  lordship  of  the  neigh- 
boring monastery,   bishop,  or  lord.     As  commerce  and   196.  Free- 
wealth  increased,  a  desire  for  freedom  and  self-government  S2£^_ 
grew,  but  their  attainment  came  only  gradually  and  was  eminent 
the  result  of  the  cooperation  of  several  factors.     Union  among 
the  inhabitants  was  perhaps  first  fostered  by  the  necessity  of 
erecting  or  repairing  the  city  walls  and  of  protecting  their  rights 
of  trade ;  but  organizations  for  religious  purposes  also  helped  to 
bind  them  together.     In  course  of  time  organizations  called 
guilds  arose  (§  200)  and  proved  a  powerful  aid  in  uniting  and 
strengthening  the  townsmen;  for  it  was  discovered  that  it  was 
easier  for  them,  when  organized  in  such  bodies,  to  obtain  con- 
cessions from  the  lord  than  for  single  individuals  to  do  so. 


176  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

The  crusades  favored  the  growth  of  towns,  alike  by  stimulat- 
ing commerce,  by  weakening  the  powers  of  resistance  of  the 
feudal  nobles,  and  by  creating  a  need  for  money  which  the  towns- 
men were  willing  to  furnish  in  return  for  grants  of  privileges. 
Sometimes  the  townsmen  bought  their  freedom  from  their 
lords;  sometimes  they  won  it  after  long  struggles  and  much 
fighting.  Sometimes  the  nobles  and  the  clergy  were  wise  enough 
to  join  with  the  townsmen,  and  share  in  the  benefits  which 
the  town  brought ;  sometimes  they  fought  them  foolishly  and 
bitterly.  In  Italy  the  feudal  nobles  were  forced  to  throw  in 
their  lot  with  the  towns,  and  to  take  up  their  residence  for 


A  MEDIEVAL  ITALIAN  TOWN  (SIENA) 
Showing  the  battlemented  towers  of  rival  families 

part  of  every  year  within  the  city  walls.  Danger  from  without 
was  thus  reduced,  but  another  danger  followed.  Every  Italian 
city  soon  bristled  with  tall,  battlemented  towers,  the  strongholds 
of  rival  clans  ;  and  family,  factional,  and  regional  fights,  the 
expression  of  hereditary  hatreds,  became  alarmingly  frequent. 
In  Germany  and  in  Italy,  the  power  of  the  king  was  not  great 
enough  to  make  much  difference  one  way  or  the  other.  In 
France,  the  kings  favored  the  towns  against  their  lords,  and 
used  them  to  break  down  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles.  Then, 
when  the  kings'  power  had  become  so  strong  that  they  no  longer 
feared  the  nobles,  they  checked  the  power  of  the  towns,  lest  they 
in  turn  might  become  powerful  and  independent. 


MEDIEVAL   CITIES   AND    COMMERCE  177 

The  rights  won  by  the  townsmen  were  embodied  in  written 
charters,  which  were  carefully  preserved  in  the  great  archive 
chests  of  their  town  halls.     The  privileges  granted  ranged   Ip7  Char_ 
from  (i)  mere  safeguards  against  oppression  at  the  hands  ters  of  the 
of  the  lord's  officials,  who  still  composed  the  only  municipal  to^rns 
government,  to  (2)  grants  of  complete  administrative  and  judicial 
independence,  with  a  government  chosen  by  the  citizens. 

Towns  which  secured  the  right  to  elect  their  own  officers  and 
govern  themselves  were  called  "communes."  They  had  greater 
unity  and  greater  legal  privileges  than  towns  which  were  198.  Towns 
not  communes.1  Often  they  entered  into  the  feudal  struc-  ^^^ 
ture,  both  as  vassals  and  as  suzerains.  They  were  government 
ruled  either  (as  in  northern  France)  by  a  mayor  and  aldermen,  or 
(in  southern  France  and  Italy)  by  a  board  of  "consuls"  without 
a  mayor.  The  outward  signs  of  a  commune  were  (i)  the 
possession  of  a  corporate  seal,  (2)  of  a  belfry,  which  served  as 
watch  tower,  depot  of  archives,  and  magazine  of  arms,  and  (3)  of 
stocks  and  pillory  for  the  punishment  of  offenders.  The  charter 
of  a  commune  was  usually  the  outcome  of  a  long  series  of  dis- 
agreements, usurpations,  and  bloody  insurrections ;  and  frequent 
payments  to  lord  and  overlord  were  necessary  to  preserve  its 
hard-won  liberties.  The  commune  governments  were  free 
in  the  sense  that  they  were  practically  exempt  from  external 

1  The  charter  granted  the  little  town  of  Lorris-is  an  example  of  the  grants  to  towns 
which  were  not  communes.  It  contains  the  following  provisions :  (i)  No  townsman 
shall  pay  more  than  a  small  quitrent  for  his  house  and  each  acre  of  land.  (2)  He  shall 
pay  no  toll  on  grain  and  wine  of  his  own  production,  nor  on  his  purchases  at  the 
Wednesday  market.  (3)  He  shall  not  be  obliged  to  go  to  war  for  his  lord  unless 
he  can  return  the  same  day.  (4)  He  shall  not  be  forced  to  go  outside  the  town 
for  the  trial  of  his  lawsuits,  and  various  specific  abuses  connected  with  the  courts 
shall  be  reformed.  (5)  No  one  shall  be  required  to  work  for  the  lord,  except  to 
bring  wood  to  his  kitchen,  and  to  take  his  wine  twice  a  year  to  Orleans,  and  then 
only  those  who  have  horses  and  carts,  and  after  due  notice.  (6)  No  charge  shall 
be  made  for  the  use  of  the  oven,  nor  for  the  public  crier  at  marriages ;  and  the  dead 
wood  in  the  forest  may  be  taken  by  the  men  of  Lorris  for  their  own  use.  (7)  Who- 
ever wishes  may  sell  his  property  and  freely  depart ;  and  any  stranger  who  remains 
a  year  and  a  day,  without  being  claimed  by  his  lord,  shall  be  free. 

This  charter  proved  so  popular  that  it  was  copied,  in  whole  or  in  part,  by  eighty- 
three  other  towns  of  France.  It  was  profitable  alike  to  the  little  towns  that  received 
it  and  to  the  lords  who  granted  it. 


i78 


LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 


199.  Daily 
life  in  the 
towns 


control.  Their  citizens,  however,  were  often  far  from  enjoying 
individual  liberty,  for  the  member  of  a  commune  was  bound  to 
his  town  as  closely  as 
a  serf  to  the  soil.  He 
belonged  all  his  life  to 
a  certain  class,  to  a 
trade,  to  a  guild,  to  a 
parish,  to  a  ward.  The 
city  government  reg- 
ulated his  private  life 
as  minutely  as  his 
guild  did  the  carrying 
on  of  his  business.  The 
number  of  trees  he 
might  plant  in  his  or- 
chard, the  number  of 
priests  and  candles  he 
might  employ  at  fu- 
nerals, were  often  pre- 
cisely regulated. 

The  medieval  towns 
were  crowded  within 
walls,  which  (like  the 
castles)  were  defended 
by  battlements  and 
towers.  Outside  lay 
the  settlements 
(called  in  France 
faubourgs)  of  the 
unprivileged  inhabit- 


BELFRY  OF  BRUGES 
Built  from  1291  to  about  1300 ;  352  feet  high 


ants.  In  the  belfry, 
watch  was  kept  day 
and  night.  Its  warn- 
ing bell  announced  the  approach  of  enemies ;  it  sounded  the 
alarm  of  fire,  the  summons  to  court  and  to  council,  and  the 
hours  for  beginning  and  quitting  work;  it  also  rang  the 


MEDIEVAL   CITIES  AND    COMMERCE  179 

"curfew"  (couvre  feu)  at  night,  which  was  the  signal  to 
extinguish  lights  and  cover  fires.  The  streets  were  narrow, 
unpaved,  and  full  of  mudholes ;  and  hogs  and  other  animals 
roamed  them  at  pleasure.  Extensive  gardens  belonging  to 
convents  and  hospitals  caused  the  streets  to  twist  and  turn,  and 
presented  rare  glimpses  of  green  amid  the  wilderness  of  high 
pointed  roofs. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  wealthier  citizens  began  to  erect 
comfortable  houses.  The  ground-floor  front  was  usually  taken 
up  by  an  arched  window-opening  in  which  the  merchant  dis- 
played his  wares.  In  the  rear  was  carried  on  the  manufacture 
of  the  articles  sold  in  the  shop.  The  shopkeepers  were 
grouped  by  trades.  Here  was  the  street  of  the  tanners,  there 
that  of  the  goldsmiths;  elsewhere  were  the  drapers,  armor 
makers,  parchment  makers,  and  money  changers.  Churches,  of 
which  great  numbers  were  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  rose 
amid  the  shops  and  houses,  which  pressed  up  to  their  very 
walls.  In  towns  which  were  the  seats  of  bishops,  giant  cathe- 
drals towered  above  everything  else.  The  business  quarters,  with 
their  open  booths  and  stalls  placed  in  the  streets,  resembled 
bazaars,  through  which  pedestrians  could  with  difficulty  thread 
their  way.  Horses  and  carts  were  obliged  to  seek  less  crowded 
thoroughfares.  At  meal  time,  business  ceased  and  booths  were 
closed.  When  curfew  sounded  at  the  close  of  day,  the  streets 
became  silent  and  deserted,  —  save  for  the  watch,  making 
their  appointed  rounds,  and  the  adventurous  few  whom  ne- 
cessity or  pleasure  led  to  brave  the  dangers  of  the  unlighted 
streets. 

In  the  twelfth  century  the  chief  occupation  of  the  citizens 
was   still   agriculture;    but  under  the  protection  afforded  by 
town  walls  and  charters,  and  by  the  growing  power  of  the  200  jn(ius_ 
king,  industry  and  commerce  developed  rapidly.     Manu-  try  and  the 
facturing  was  carried  on  entirely  by  hand  labor,  and  the  *" 
tools  were  those  which  had  been  employed  by  workmen  from 
times  immemorial.     Each  trade  was  organized  into  a  guild, 
which  laid  down  rules  for  carrying  it  on  and  had  the  power  to 


Longitude 


MEDIEVAL   COMMERCE 


TEXTILE   INDUSTRIES 

13TH  TO  15TH  CENTURY 


Linen 
Wool 
Silk 

Land  Routes 

Sea  Routes 

Sea  Routes  of  Venice 


Sea  Routes  of  Genoa 

Hanse  Towns 
Hanse  Settlements 


from  30  Greenwich 


182  LIFE   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 

inspect  goods  and  to  confiscate  inferior  products.  The  guilds- 
men  were  divided  into  three  classes :  (i)  the  apprentices,  who 
served  from  three  to  thirteen  years,  and  paid  considerable  sums 
for  their  instruction ;  (2)  the  workmen  ("journeymen"),  who 
had  finished  their  apprenticeship  and  received  wages;  and 
(3)  the  masters,  who  had  risen  in  the  trade  and  had  become 
employers. 

Apprentices  and  workmen  were  lodged  and  fed  with  the 
master's  family  above  the  shop.  It  was  usually  easy  for  a  frugal 
workman  to  save  enough  to  set  up  as  a  master  in  his  turn. 
Under  these  conditions  antagonism  between  capital  and  labor 
did  not  exist.  The  guilds  had  religious,  benevolent,  and  social 
features,  in  addition  to  their  industrial  functions.  Each  guild 
maintained  a  common  fund,  made  up  largely  of  fines  assessed 
upon  members  for  breaches  of  the  guild  regulations.  This  was 
used  for  feasting,  for  masses,  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  for  the 
burial  of  dead  members.  Guilds  formed  of  members  pursuing 
the  same  trade,  such  as  weaving  or  dyeing,  were  called  craft 
guilds.  Older,  richer,  and  more  influential  in  developing  the 
liberties  of  the  towns,  were  the  merchant  guilds,  the  members 
of  which  engaged  in  more  distant  commerce. 

After  the  Germanic  invasions,  commerce  had  for  a  time  almost 
ceased.     There  was  little  demand  for  foreign  wares  or  costly 
201.  Me-       articles  of  luxury,  and  the  roads  were  too  insecure  to  make 
dieval  com-    the  transportation  of  goods  profitable.     Under  the  early 
feudal  regime,  where  downright  robbery  was  not  practiced, 
the  lords  exacted  ruinous  tolls  at  every  bridge,  market,  and  high- 
way.    It  was  only  after  the  crusades  had  stimulated  enterprise 
and  created  new  tastes   that  commerce  played  a  chief  part 
in  medieval  life. 

The  Italian  towns,  because  of  their  central  position  in  the 
Mediterranean,  were  the  first  to  feel  this  quickening  impulse,  and 
Amalfi  (a-mal'fe),  Pisa,  Genoa,  and  Venice  early  became  impor- 
tant commercial  centers .  The  trade  of  Venice  was  originally  con- 
fined to  salt  and  fish,  the  products  of  its  waters.  In  the  time  of 
the  crusades  it  developed  a  vast  commerce  in  spices,  perfumes, 


MEDIEVAL   CITIES   AND   COMMERCE 


sugar,  silks,  and  other  goods,  which  came  from  the  East  by  way 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  or  the  Red  Sea.  In  the  fourteenth  century 
Venice  possessed  a  merchant 
marine  of  three  thousand  ves- 
sels, and  each  year  sent  large 
fleets  through  the  Strait  of  Gi- 
braltar to  Flanders  and  the  Eng- 
lish seaports.  Land  routes  led 
from  Venice  over  the  Brenner 
and  Julier  (zhii-lya/)  passes  of 
the  Alps  to  the  upper  Danube 
and  the  Rhine,  where  they 
joined  the  route  from  Constan- 
tinople and  the  Black  Sea.  Ve- 
netian trade  enriched  Augsburg, 
Ratisbon,  Ulm,  Nuremberg,  and 
a  host  of  towns  on  the  Rhine 
River.  From  Genoa  a  much- 
traveled  route  (until  blocked  by 
the  Hundred  Years'  War,  ch. 
xiii)  led  through  France  by  way 
of  the  river  Rhone.  The  great  northern  market  for  all  this 
commerce  was  Bruges  (briizh),  where  products  of  the  South  and 
East  were  exchanged  for  the  furs,  amber,  fish,  and  woolen  cloths 
of  the  North.  Merchants  from  seventeen  kingdoms  had  set- 
tled homes  in  Bruges,  and  strangers  journeyed  thither  from 
all  parts  of  the  known  world.  In  the  fifteenth  century  Antwerp 
wrested  from  Bruges  this  preeminence,  largely  as  a  result  of  the 
untrammeled  freedom  of  trade  which  it  granted. 

Great  fairs  were  held  periodically  in  certain  cities,  under  the 
license  of  the  king  or  of  some  great  lord  who  profited  by  the  fees 
paid  to  him.    Such  fairs  were  a  necessity  in  a  time  when  or-  202   Com_ 
dinary  villages  were  entirely  without  shops,  and  merchants,   mercial  or- 
even  in  cities  and  towns,  carried  only  a  limited  variety  8amzatl( 
and  quantity  of  goods.      Examples  were  the  fairs  in  England 
held  at  Smithfield  (just  outside  of  London)  and  at  Stourbridge ; 


VENETIAN  SHIPS 

From  a   painting  by   Carpaccio  in 
Venice 


184 


LIFE   IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


in  France  at  Beaucaire  (bo-car')  and  Troyes  (trwa) ;  and  in  Ge*  • 
many  at  Leipzig  (llp'sik)  and  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  To  these 
cities,  during  the  time  that  the  fair  was  held,  came  merchants 
and  traders  from  all  over  Europe ;  and  thither,  too,  came  the 


A  MEDIEVAL  FAIR.    Depicted  by  Parmentier  in  Album  Historique 

people  for  miles  around  to  lay  in  their  yearly  stock  of  neces- 
saries or  to  sell  the  products  of  their  industry. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  merchants  seldom  traded  as  individuals, 
nor  did  they  look  to  the  state  to  protect  their  interests  abroad,  as 
is  to-day  the  case.  They  traded  rather  as  members  (i)  of  the 
merchant  guild  of  their  town,  which  often  secured  special  rights 
and  exclusive  privileges  in  other  towns  and  countries ;  or  (2)  of 
some  commercial  company,  such  as  that  of  the  Medici  of  Florence 
(§  331);  or  (3)  of  some  great  confederacy  of  towns,  such  as  the 
Hanseatic  (han-se-at'ic)  League  of  northern  Germany. 

The  Hanseatic  League  gradually  arose  from  a  union  of 
German  merchants  abroad  and  German  towns  at  home.  Its 
objects  were  common  defense,  security  of  traffic  by  land  and 
sea,  settlement  of  disputes  between  members,  and  the  acquiring 


MEDIEVAL  CITIES  AND   COMMERCE  185 

and  maintaining  of  special  privileges  in  foreign  countries.  A 
chief  article  of  its  commerce  was  herring  and  other  salt  fish, 
which  were  consumed  in  enormous  quantities  all  over  203.  Han- 
Europe,  owing  to  the  rules  of  the  church  which  forbade  League 
the  eating  of  meat  on  Fridays  and  for  the  forty  days  during  (1200-1450) 
Lent.  Other  articles  of  trade  were  timber,  pitch,  furs,  amber, 
and  grain.  The  league  was  completely  formed  by  the  thirteenth 
century.  At  its  greatest  extent,  it  included  more  than  ninety 
cities  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  regions,  both  seaports  and 
inland  towns.  Lii'beck  (on  the  Baltic)  was  its  capital,  and  there 
its  congresses  were  held  and  its  records  kept.  Hamburg,  Brem'en, 
Cologne  (co-Ion'),  Danzig  (dan'tsiK),  and  Wisby  (on  the  island 
of  Gothland)  were  important  members  of  the  league.  Ware- 
houses and  trading  stations  were  maintained  at  Nov'gorod  in 
Russia,  Bergen  (ber'gen)  in  Norway,  Bruges  in  Flanders,  and 
London  in  England. 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Hanseatic  League  was  drawn 
into  a  series  of  wars  with  Denmark.  Their  cause  was  the 
attempt  of  Denmark  to  levy  tolls  on  vessels  entering  or  leaving 
the  Baltic  Sea,  and  on  those  fishing  in  Danish  waters.  The 
league  now  became  a  great  political  confederation,  with  fre- 
quent assemblies,  a  federal  tax,  and  a  federal  navy  and  military 
forces.  After  1450  came  a  period  of  decay.  This  was  due  to 
the  rise  of  foreign  competition  'in  trade,  to  the  revival  of  Den- 
mark, to  the  consolidation  of  the  power  of  the  German  princes, 
and  to  an  unexplained  shifting  of  the  herring  "  schools  "  from 
the  Baltic  to  more  distant  feeding  grounds.  The  final  downfall 
of  the  Hanseatic  League,  however,  did  not  come  until  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  The  part 
which  this  civic  league  played  in  promoting  trade,  suppressing 
piracy  and  robbery,  training  the  people  to  orderly  life  arid 
liberty,  and  spreading  comforts  and  conveniences  in  half-bar- 
barous lands,  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  It  was  the  great 
agency  in  advancing,  in  northern  Germany  and  neighboring 
lands,  that  civilization  and  enlightenment  which  it  was  the  work 
of  the  towns  in  general  to  promote  throughout  Europe. 


186  LIFE  IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 


TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Point  out  in  the  pictures  the  different  parts  of  a 
castle.  (2)  What  were  the  good  features  of  chivalry?  Its  defects?  (3) 
Find  different  types  of  armor  in  the  illustrations  of  this  book.  (4)  Mention 
any  spectacles  or  amusements  to-day  which  take  the  place  of  tourna- 
ments. (5)  What  part  of  your  training  was  almost  wholly  omitted  in  the 
case  of  medieval  boys  and  girls  ?  (6)  Make  a  list  of  some  of  the  necessaries 
of  modern  life  which  were  lacking  in  the  Middle  Ages.  (7)  Compare  the  life 
of  tlie  farmer  to-day  with  that  of  the  medieval  peasant.  (8)  Compare  the 
position  of  the  workingman  of  to-day  with  that  of  the  guild  artisan.  (9)  What 
advantages  did  the  towns  gain  from  their  charters?  (10)  What  differences 
would  you  note  between  a  medieval  commune  and  a  modern  city  ?  (ji)  Com- 
pare the  commerce  of  the  Middle  Ages  with  that  of  to-day  in  respect  to  its  ex- 
tent, organization,  commodities  dealt  in,  and  means  of  transport,  (i  2)  Why 
do  we  not  have  to-day  such  organizations  as  the  Hanseatic  League  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  CHIVALRY.  Gautier,  Chivalry,  ch.  i ;  Cornish,  Chiv- 
alry, ch.  xvi;  Cutts,  Scenes  and  Characters,  353-368,  406-438;  Henderson, 
Short  History  of  Germany,  112-121 ;  Munro,  Middle  Ages,  240-247 ;  Bemont 
and  Monod,  Medieval  Europe,  257-262;  Seignobos,  Feudal  Regime,  32-34, 
64-65 ;  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages,  276-277.  —  (2)  DESCRIP- 
TIONS OF  TYPICAL  MANORS.  Seebohm,  English  Village  Community, 
1-13,  22-32;  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Reprints,  III,  No.  5,  1-24,  31-32; 
Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  399-406 ;  Cheyney,  Readings  in 
English  History,  212-217.  —  (3)  MEDIEVAL  METHODS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
Cheyney,  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England,  33-39;  Cunningham, 
Outlines  of  English  Industrial  History,  166-175;  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(nth  ed.),  I,  389-390.  —  (4)  ORIGIN  OF  MEDIEVAL  TOWNS.  Giry  and 
Reville,  Emancipation  of  the  Medieval  Towns,  ch.  i.  —  (5)  How  THE  TOWNS 
OBTAINED  THEIR  LIBERTIES.  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  528-538;  Giry 
and  Reville,  Emancipation  of  the  Medieval  Towns.  —  (6)  OUTWARD  APPEAR- 
ANCE OF  A  MEDIEVAL  TOWN.  Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization, 
35^-365;  Munro,  Middle  Ages,  154-155;  Seignobos,  Medieval  and  Modern 
Civilization,  171-172. —  (7)  THE  MERCHANT  GUILD.  Cheyney,  Social  and 
Industrial  History  of  England,  59-64;  Cunningham,  Outlines  of  English 
Industrial  History,  54-56.  —  (8)  THE  CRAFT  GUILDS.  Cheyney,  Social 
and  Industrial  History  of  England,  64-71 ;  Seignobos,  Medieval  and  Modern 
Civilization,  165-167;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  409-412; 
Cheyney,  Readings,  209-211.  —  (9)  MARKETS  AND  FAIRS.  Cheyney, 
Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England,  75-79 ;  Cutts,  Scenes  and  Charac- 
ters, 506-508;  Gibbins,  History  of  Commerce,  77-82  ;  Traill,  Social  England, 
I,  460-470.  —  (10)  TRAVEL  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Jusserand,  English 
Wayfaring  Life,  Pt.  I.  —  (n)  COMMERCE  OF  VENICE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


TOPICS  AND    REFERENCES  187 

Weil,  Navy  of  Venice,  314-32?:  Hazlitt,  Venetian  Republic,  IV,  ch.  xxv. — 
(12)  HAXSEATIC  LEAGUE.  Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany,  181-202 ; 
Gibbins,  History  of  Commerce,  ch.  iv;  Seignobos,  Medieval  and  Modern 
Civilization,  168-170;  Zimmern,  The  Hansa  Towns.  —  (13)  THE  JEWS  IN  THE 
MIDDLE  AGES.  Jacobs,  The  Jews  of  Angevin  England  (Introduction) ; 
Cunningham,  Growth  of  English  Industry  and  Commerce,  §  70  and  §  93 ; 
Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  426-428;  Cheyney,  Readings, 
227-231;  Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany,  153-156.  —  (14)  A  MEDIEVAL 
TOURNAMENT.  Gautier,  Chivalry,  456-469 ;  Cornish,  Chivalry,  ch.  v :  Cutts, 
Scenes  and  Characters,  41 2-418.  —  (15)  FALCONRY  AND  THE  CHASE.  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  "Falconry";  Indewick,  Forests  and  Forest  Courts. — 
(16)  DRESS.  Lacroix,  Manners,  Customs,  and  Dress  during  the  Middle  Ages; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  VII,  237-239. 

General  Reading.  —  The  profusely  illustrated  works  by  Lacroix  are  the 
best  single  source  for  the  life  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Gautier ;s  Chivalry  (illus- 
trated) sketches  the  life  of  the  nobles  as  depicted  in  medieval  French  literature. 
Viollet-le-Duc's  Dictionnaire  de  V Architecture  Franqaise  ("Chateau,"  "Don- 
jon," etc.)  gives  the  best  account  of  the  medieval  castle ;  see  also  Oman, 
Art  of  War,  Bk.  VI,  ch.  vii,  and  an  article  in  The  History  Teacher's  Magazine 
for  November,  1912.  For  the  peasants  and  medieval  agriculture  see  works  by 
Seebohm,  Ashley,  and  Vinogradoff,  together  with  Seignobos,  The  Feudal 
Regime.  Luchaire's  Manuel  des  Institutions  Franqaises  is  the  best  account 
for  France.  Giry  and  Reville's  Emancipation  of  the  Medieval  Towns 
(translated  from  Lavisse  and  Rambaud,  Histoire  Generale},  is  the  best  brief 
account  in  English  of  the  medieval  towns.  Additional  references  of  value 
are  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  VI,  784-790;  and  the  Annual 
Report  of  the  American  Historical  Association,  1898,  415-425. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  CULTURE   OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 
A.   UNIVERSITIES  AND  LEARNING 

EXCEPT  for  the  "Dark  Age"  comprised  in  the  period  of  the 
Germanic  invasions,  the  Middle  Ages  were  far  from  being  a  time 

204.  Intel-     of  intellectual  and  artistic  stagnation.     From  the  tenth 
ofthe*  ^         century  to  the  close  of  the  medieval  period  there  was  an 
Middle  Ages  active  and  vigorous  intellectual  life,   which  manifested 

itself  in  many  ways.  It  may  be  seen  in  the  schools  and  universi- 
ties of  the  period,  in  the  highly  developed  scholastic  philosophy 
with  which  the  universities  were  largely  concerned,  and  in  the 
study  of  the  civil  and  canon  law.  The  methods  of  thought 
and  the  subject  matter  of  this  intellectual  life  were  different  in 
many  ways  from  those  of  to-day,  but  the  reality  and  activity 
of  it  cannot  be  questioned . 

The  universities  of  to-day,  which  throughout  the  world  are 
the  chief  agencies  in  promoting  higher  education  and  advancing 

205.  Mo-       knowledge,  are  largely  an  inheritance  from  the  Middle 
cathedral       Ages.     They  first  arose  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  earlier 
schools          monastic  and  cathedral  schools,  maintained  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  clergy.      In  these  schools  were  taught  the  "  seven 
liberal  arts"  bequeathed  to  the  Middle  Ages  by  dying  Greece 
and  Rome.     The  liberal  arts  included  Latin  grammar,  rhetoric, 
and  dialectics  (the  art  of  formal  reasoning),  which  formed  the 
triv'ium;  and  the  four  sciences  of  arithmetic,  geometry,  astron- 
omy, and  music,  constituting  the  quadriv'ium.     The  sum  of  the 
instruction  given  in  any  one  of  these  subjects  was  very  small, 
and  it  was  based  almost  entirely  on  scanty  textbooks  made  in 
the  sixth  century.     "In  arithmetic  the  students  were  taught  to 

188 


UNIVERSITIES  AND   LEARNING  189 

keep  simple  accounts;  in  music,  what  was  necessary  for  the 
church  services;  in  geometry,  a  few  problems;  in  as-  Munro 
tronomy,  enough  to  calculate  the  date  of  Easter."  The  Middle 
method  of  instruction  was  for  the  teacher  to  dictate  dry  Ages>  l62 
summaries  in  Latin,  which  his  students  copied  word  for  word. 
There  was  no  inquiry  or  investigation,  and  little  criticism.  In 
spite  of  Charlemagne's  efforts  to  improve  education,  little 
advance  was  made  until  the  eleventh  century.  With  the 
settling  down  of  Europe  after  the  period  of  the  invasions  there 
then  came  a  dawn  of  better  things.  From  the  Arabian  schools 
of  Spain  and  Alexandria,  and  from  the  Greek  schools  of  Constan- 
tinople, new  influences  made  themselves  felt.  Here  and  there 
teachers  began  to  give  instruction  in  new  subjects, — in  philoso- 
phy, theology,  medicine,  and  law.  There  followed  what  has 
sometimes  been  called  the  "twelfth-century  Renaissance." 
It  manifested  itself  especially  in  the  rise  of  the  universities,  and 
in  the  formation  of  the  scholastic  philosophy. 

A   teacher   whose   work   contributed   very  largely  to  these 
two  developments  was  Peter  Ab'elard.     He  was  born  of  a  noble 
family  in  Brittany,  shortly  before  the  First  Crusade;  he   2o6  Peter 
died  in  1 142 ,  just  before  the  Second  Crusade.    Abelard  early    Abeiard 
showed  a  preference  for  learning  over  the  life  of  a  knight, 
and  attended  the  lectures  given  by  a  master  of  the  cathedral 
school  of  Paris.      He  soon  surpassed  his  teacher  in  eloquence  and 
reasoning,  and  was  acknowledged  by  him  to  be  his  superior. 
At  the  early  age  of  twenty-two,  Abelard  himself  began  to  give 
lectures,  and  was  soon  renowned  as  the  foremost  scholar  of  his 
time.     Students  flocked  in  thousands  to  his  lectures  at  Paris, 
and  his  writings  were  read  by  all  learned  men.     But  his  success 
brought  him  enemies ;  his  life  was  saddened  by  a  romantic  love 
affair  which  had  a  most  unhappy  ending ;     and  his  teachings 
encountered  bitter  opposition. 

The  earlier  scholars  of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  were 
ready  to  accept  as  true  almost  everything  which  was  written. 
Abelard  departed  from  this  practice  and  insisted  upon  question- 
ing the  correctness  of  the  information  handed  down  by  earlier 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

writers.  In  a  famous  work  called  Sic  et  Non  (Yes  and  No)  he 
showed  that  the  early  church  fathers  often  gave  contradictory 
reports  of  historical  facts  and  of  theological  teachings.  The  whole 
tendency  of  his  life  and  work  was  to  teach  that  nothing  was  to 
be  accepted  as  true  which  could  not  be  proved  to  be  so.  He 
showed  a  spirit  of  freedom  of  thought  which  after  ages  were 
long  in  obtaining.  This  at  last  brought  about  his  own  downfall. 
Saint  Bernard,  the  great  abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Clairvaux 
(clar-vo') ,  bitterly  opposed  Abelard.  "  He  stood  for  the  principle 
of  authority ;  to  the  doubts  of  reason,  which  seeks  truth,  he  op- 
posed faith,  which  solves  all  difficulties  in  the  name  of  authority." 
In  the  end  Bernard  triumphed;  and  Abelard  was  condemned  for 
heresy  by  a  church  council.  He  retired  broken  in  health  to 
the  monastery  of  Cluny,  where  he  died  soon  afterwards. 

As  a  result  of  the  fame  of  Abelard's  teaching,  Paris  became  the 
chief  center  of  learning  in  Europe.     But  the  masters  and  students 
207.  Rise  of  who  flocked  thither  were  strangers  in  the  city,  and  were 
versity^f       often  subjected  to  mistreatment  and  extortion.     It  became 
Paris  necessary  for  them  to  organize  in  defense  of  their  rights, 

and  the  model  which  they  naturally  chose  was  that  of  the  guilds. 
The  masters  (or  university  professors)  corresponded  to  the  master 
workmen  of  the  guilds  ;  the  bachelors  of  arts,  who  were  licensed 
to  teach  the  elementary  subjects,  may  be  compared  to  the 
journeymen  workmen ;  the  students  took  the  place  of  the  appren- 
tices. The  organization  of  the  university  was  at  first  purely 
voluntary,  without  authorization  from  either  church  or  state. 
Quarrels  were  frequent  between  the  students  and  the  townsmen, 
often  on  frivolous  grounds,  and  at  times  resulted  in  bloodshed. 
In  1 200,  in  such  a  quarrel,  the  townspeople  supported  by 
the  city  officers  killed  five  of  the  students.  The  masters 
supported  the  students,  and  threatened  to  suspend  their  lectures 
and  to  remove  from  Paris.  To  appease  them,  King  Philip 
Augustus  ordered  that  the  university  should  thenceforth  be  a 
corporation,  and  that  its  students,  in  criminal  cases,  should 
be  tried  only  by  the  university  itself,  and  not  by  the  city  officers. 
This  may  be  taken  as  the  date  of  the  legal  recognition  of  the  Uni- 


UNIVERSITIES   AND   LEARNING 


191 


versity  of  Paris.     By  subsequent  grants  from  Pope  and  king 
alike  it  gained  larger  and  larger  privileges. 

At  various  points  in  western  Europe,  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth   centuries,   other   universities   arose.     Usually   they 
grew  in  ways  similar  to  those  which  produced  the  univer-   2o8.  Other 
sity  at  Paris.     As  a  rule  they  began  first  by  an  informal   universities 
grouping  together  of  masters  and  students.     Conflicts  between 
townsmen  and  students  are  everywhere  met  with.     Then,  to 


N  D1 


CHIEF  UNIVERSITIES  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

define  and  regulate  the  rights  of  students  and  masters,  charters 
were  obtained  from  the  king  or  Pope  giving  to  the  university  a 
legal  organization.  At  a  later  date  enlightened  rulers  founded 
universities  outright,  just  as  they  founded  new  towns.  The 
accompanying  map  shows  the  spread  of  the  movement  and  the 
chief  places  at  which  universities  sprang  up. 
The  University  of  Paris  was  the  most  renowned  school  for 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


209.  Life  of 
the  univer- 
sities 


philosophy  and  theology.  The  University  of  Bologna  be- 
came the  chief  center  for  the  study  of  law.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Salerno,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  was 
renowned  as  the  chief  center  of  instruction  in  medicine.  This 
university  was  in  existence  as  early  as  the  ninth  century,  and 
hence  ranks  as  the  oldest  university  in  Europe.  Its  rise  at  so 
early  a  date  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the  persistence  of  Greek  in- 
fluence in  southern  Italy.  In  all  the  universities  the  "arts" 
course,  based  on  the  ancient  trimum  and  quadrivium,  was  re- 
quired before  students  could  take  up  the  higher  subjects,  and 
the  great  majority  of  students  never  advanced  beyond  this 
elementary  course. 

Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  books,  which  at  that  time  were  all 
hand-written,  the  instruction  was  almost  entirely  by  means  of 

lectures.     The 

master    had    his 

chair,  and  lec- 
tured from  a  desk. 
The  students  sat  or 
squatted  on  the  straw 
or  rushes  with  which 
the  floor  was  strewn. 
The  language  used  was 
naturally  Latin,  since 
that  was  the  official 
language  of  the 
church.  From  about  the  sixth  century,  the  knowledge  of 
the  Greek  tongue  had  practically  disappeared  from  western 
Europe.  The  universal  use  of  Latin  had  one  advantage,  for  it 
made  it  easy  for  students  to  pass  from  the  universities  of  one 
country  to  those  of  another.  The  extent  to  which  the  students 
wandered  about,  seeking  instruction  now  from  one  noted  teacher 
and  now  from  another,  was  remarkable.  Having  no  books 
and  few  possessions,  and  living  often  by  begging,  they  were  free 
to  come  and  go  at  will. 
The  universities  often  possessed  no  buildings  of  their  own. 


A  SCHOOL  OF  THE  ELEVENTH  CENTURY 
From  a  contemporary  MS. 


UNIVERSITIES   AND    LEARNING 


The  masters  gave  instruction  in  their  own  hired  quarters,  and 
were  paid  by  the  fees  which  they  collected  from  their  hearers. 
There  were  hardly  any  university  libraries ;  and  of  course 
there  were  no  laboratories  for  the  study  of  natural  science,  for 
this  subject  was  scarcely  taught  at  all.  Not  merely  the  students, 
but  the  universities  as  a  whole  were  less  fixed  in  location  than 
to-day.  When  disputes  arose  with  civic  authorities,  it  was  easy 
for  students  and  masters  to  leave  in  a  body  for  some  locality 
where  they  would  be  more  favorably  treated.  A  number  of 
the  universities  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  either  arose  in  this 
way,  or  were  strengthened  by  migrations  of  students  and 
masters  from  an  older  university  as  the  result  of  a  local 
quarrel.  In  part  this  is  the  his- 
tory of  the  growth  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  (England).  Masters 
and  students  were  present  at  Oxford 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  II, 
in  the  twelfth  century ;  but  it  was 
only  after  a  great  secession  from 
the  University  of  Paris  (in  1229) 
that  Oxford  became  an  important 
university. 

The  universities  arose  under  the 
protection,  and  continued  to  be 
largely  under  the  control,  of  the 
church.  The  masters  were  usually 
clergymen,  and  the  students  pos- 
sessed some  of  the  privileges  of  the 

clerical  class.  Many  of  the  students  were  mere  boys  of  twelve, 
while  others  were  gray-bearded  men.  The  numbers  in  attend- 
ance at  the  most  famous  universities  were  often  very  large. 
Paris  and  Bologna  probably  had  6000  or  7000  students  at  the 
time  of  their  greatest  prosperity,  and  Oxford,  1500  to  3000. 
Eight  to  fourteen  years  were  often  spent  by  students  in  at- 
tendance at  different  universities.  The  students  were  usually 
a  disorderly  and  turbulent  class,  as  their  frequent  brawls  would 


SEAL  OF  OXFORD  UNIVERSITY 


IQ4      THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

indicate.  Many  of  their  songs,  written  in  rhymed  Latin  (and 
hence  totally  unlike  classical  Latin  verse),  have  come  down  to 
us.  These  often  breathe  a  most  unclerical  spirit.1 

The  most  characteristic  subject  of  instruction  in  the  medieval 
universities   was    scholastic   philosophy,    so    called    from   the 
210  Scho-     "  schoolmen  "  who  created  it.     Its  method  of  investigation 
lastic  phi-      was  by  the  formal  reasoning,  or  logic,  which  the  great  Greek 
losophy         philosopher  Aristotle  had  taught  the  world  in  the  fourth 
century  B.C.     Until  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  A.D., 
Aristotle's  Logic  was  the  only  one  of  his  works  which  the  Middle 
Ages  knew.     By  the  year  1200,  however,  translations  of  most 
of  the  other  works  of  Aristotle,  in  which  are  contained  so  much 
of  the  scientific  and  other  knowledge  of  the  ancients,  had  come 
into  Christian  Europe  from  Mohammedan  Spain.     These  trans- 
lations had  been  made  from  the  Greek  into  Arabic,  and  from 
Arabic  into  Latin,  and  were  full  of  errors.     Nevertheless  they 
gave  a  real  impetus  to  the  learning  of  the  time. 

After  the  defeat  of  Abelard  by  Saint  Bernard,  freedom  of 
thinking  was  largely  overthrown.  The  task  of  the  schoolmen 
thenceforth  was  not  to  test  the  teachings  of  the  church,  to  see 
whether  they  were  true  or  not.  Accepting  these  teachings 
through  faith  as  true,  they  sought  to  show  the  grounds  of  their 
truth,  and  how  they  were  true.  In  general  we  may  say  that  the 
schoolmen  showed  marvelous  vigor  and  subtlety  of  mind  in 
their  reasoning.  The  defect  of  their  method  was  that  they  "at- 
tempted to  extract  knowledge  from  consciousness,  by  formal  rea- 

1  A  few  stanzas  from  one  of  these  songs,  called  the  "Song  of  the  Open  Road," 
will  illustrate  the  character  of  this  literature  and  will  show  something  of  the  student 
life.  After  each  couplet  occurs  the  refrain  "Tara,  tantara,  teine!"  The  transla- 
tion is  by  John  Addington  Symonds,  in  his  little  volume  entitled  Wine,  Women,  and 
Song:  Medieval  Latin  Students'  Songs:  — 


'We  are  wandering, 
Blithesome  and  squandering. 

'  Eat  to  satiety, 
Drink  to  propriety. 

'  Laugh  till  our  sides  we  split, 
Rags  on  our  hides  we  fit. 


"Jesting  eternally,. 
Quaffing  infernally. 

"  When  we're  in  neediness, 
Thieve  we  with  greediness. 

"  Brother,  best  friend,  adieu  ! 
Now,  I  must  part  from  you. 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  LEARNING  195 

soning,  instead  of  by  investigation,  observation,  and  research."1 
Thomas  Aqui'nas  (died  1 2  74)  was  the  greatest  of  the  medieval 
schoolmen,  and  his  application  of  the  Aristotelian  logic  to  the 
problems  of  theology  profoundly  influenced  all  later  teaching. 
One  at  least  of  the  teachers  of  the  thirteenth  century  rebelled 
against  the  method  of  the  schoolmen,  and  sought  to  advance 
knowledge   by   scientific   experiments.     This  was  Roger  211.  Roger 
Bacon,2  an   English   Franciscan   friar   (died   1294).     He  experimen- 
was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  able  to  read  both  Arabic  tai  science 
and  Greek  books  in  their  original  tongues.     He  believed  that 
knowledge  could  be  more  certainly  and  rapidly  advanced  by 

1  A  great  English  writer  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  made  this 
criticism  of  scholasticism :  "This  kind  of  degenerate  learning  did  chiefly  reign  among 
the  schoolmen,  who,  —  having  sharp  and  strong  wits,  and  abundance  of  leisure,  and 
small  variety  of  reading,  but  their  wits  being  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a  few  authors 
(chiefly  Aristotle,  their  dictator),  as  their  persons  were  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  monas- 
teries and  colleges,  and  knowing  little  history,  whether  of  nature  or  time,  —  did,  out 
of  no  great  quantity  of  matter  and  infinite  agitation  of  wit,  spin  out  unto  us  those 
laborious  webs  of  learning  which  are  extant  in  their  books.      For  the  wit  and  mind 
of  man,  if  it  work  upon  matter,  which  is  the  contemplation  of  the  creatures  of  God, 
worketh  according  to  the  stuff  and  is  limited  thereby ;  but  if  it  work  upon  itself,  as 
the  spider  worketh  his  web,  then  it  is  endless,  and  brings  forth,  indeed,  cobwebs  of 
learning,  admirable  for  the  fineness  of  thread  and  work,  but  of  no  substance  or 
profit."  —  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  Advancement  of  Learning,  IV,  5. 

As  illustration  of  the  errors  into  which  men  of  keen  intellect  fell  through  blind  re- 
liance upon  authority  and  failure  to  use  their  powers  of  observation  and  research, 
we  have  the  teaching  of  a  schoolman  called  Albert  the  Great  that  a  diamond  can  be 
softened  in  the  blood  of  a  stag,  especially  if  the  animal  has  been  fed  on  wine  and 
parsley.  Experiment  would  immediately  have  proved  this  statement  to  be  false. 
Medieval  science  was  full  of  such  absurdities,  which  were  transmitted  from  one  writer 
to  another  without  any  effort  at  verification. 

But  many  questions  which  were  discussed  by  the  schoolmen  seem  absurd  to  us 
merely  because  their  significance  is  not  at  once  apparent.  Thus  the  question  raised 
by  Albert  the  Great,  "What  happens  if  a  mouse  eats  the  consecrated  host  [in  the 
Lord's  Supper]  ?  "  really  involves  the  nature  of  the  sacraments  and  their  mode  of 
operation.  The  following  questions  discussed  by  Thomas  Aquinas  involve  the  na- 
ture of  space  and  the  character  of  celestial  bodies:  "Whether  an  angel  can  be  in 
more  than  one  place  at  one  and  the  same  time;  whether  more  angels  than  one  can 
be  in  one  and  the  same  place  at  the  same  time ;  whether  angels  have  local  motion  ; 
and  whether,  if  they  have,  they  pass  through  intermediate  space."  — Thomas  Aqui- 
nas, Summa  Theologiae,  I,  quest.  52,  53.  For  further  examples  of  scholastic  method, 
see  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Translations  and  Reprints,  III,  No.  6. 

2  Roger  Bacon  must  not  be  confused  with  his  countryman  Sir  Francis  Bacon, 
who  lived  three  centuries  later. 


196      THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

experimenting  with  real  things,  than  by  poring  over  bad  trans- 
lations of  Aristotle.  As  a  result  of  his  sounder  methods,  he 
learned  so  much  about  explosives  that  many  persons  believe 
that  he  invented  gunpowder.  He  was  aware  of  the  help  which 
sailors  could  gain  from  the  magnetic  needle  in  steering  their 
vessels.  He  knew  the  properties  of  burning  glasses,  and  told 
how  to  construct  telescopes.  He  believed  in  the  sphericity  of 
the  earth,  and  discussed  the  possibility  of  reaching  Asia  by 
sailing  westward  into  the  Atlantic.  The  following  passage 
from  one  of  his  writings  shows  that  he  foresaw  some  inventions 
of  our  own  day:  " Instruments  for  navigation  can  be  made 
which  will  do  away  with  the  necessity  of  rowers,  so  that  great 
vessels  shall  be  borne  about  with  only  a  single  man  to  guide 
Robinson  them.  Carriages  can  be  constructed  to  move  without 
Readings  in  animals  to  draw  them,  and  with  incredible  speed.  Ma- 
^isiof™!  cmnes  f°r  flymg  can  be  made  in  which  a  man  sits  and  turns 
461  (con-  an  ingenious  device  by  which  skillfully  contrived  wings 
are  made  to  strike  the  air  in  the  manner  of  a  flying  bird. 
Arrangements  can  be  devised  for  raising  and  lowering  weights 
indefinitely  great,  and  bridges  can  be  constructed  ingeniously 
so  as  to  span  rivers  without  any  supports."  Bacon  vigorously 
attacked  the  scholars  and  learning  of  his  day,  and  for  fourteen 
years  he  was  imprisoned  by  the  head  of  the  Franciscan  order. 
He  found  few  or  no  followers,  and  'it  is  only  in  our  time  that 
his  true  greatness  has  been  appreciated. 

In  one  practical  field,  learning  made  great  advances  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.     This  was  in  the  field  of  law. 
212.  Re-        Until  the  twelfth  century  the  written  law  of  Rome,  as 
ofVRomany    c°dified  by  Justinian  (§  17),  continued  to  be  known,  al- 
law  though  it  was  imperfectly  understood.     Now  men  arrived 

at  a  better  understanding  of  it,  and  awoke  to  a  realization  that 
its  principles  were  especially  applicable  to  the  new  conditions 
produced  by  the  rise  of  city  life.  At  Bologna,  about  the  year 
1 1 10,  lectures  began  to  be  given  on  Justinian's  Code  and  Insti- 
tutes. Before  the  end  of  that  century  students  flocked  to  Bo- 
logna in  thousands  to  profit  by  this  new  and  remunerative  study. 


UNIVERSITIES   AND   LEARNING  197 

"Of  all  the  centuries,"  says  a  writer  on  the  history  of    law, 
"the  twelfth  is  the  most  legal.     In  no  age  since  the  classical 
days  of  Roman  law  has  so  large  a  part  of  the  sum  total   Pollock  and 
of  intellectual  endeavor  been  devoted  to   jurisprudence.   ^^h^Law 
From  every  corner  of  western  Europe  students  flocked  to  I,  m 
Italy.     It  was  as  if  a  new  gospel  had  been  revealed.     Before 
the  end  of  the  century  complaints  were  loud  that  theology  was 
neglected,  that  the  liberal  arts  were  despised,  that  men  would 
learn  law  and  nothing  but  law." 

A  powerful  class  of  trained  lawyers  resulted  from  this  study. 
One  of  the  principles  of  Roman  jurisprudence  (§  17)  was  that 
"the   will   of   the   prince   has   the   force  of  law."     The  institutes,  I, 
lawyers,  therefore,  became  valuable  allies   of   Emperors  "»  6 
and  kings  in  their  warfare  against  feudal  and  clerical  opponents. 
The  revived  study  of  Roman  law. thus  greatly  aided  .in  trans- 
forming the  feudal  sovereignties  of  the  Middle  Ages  into  the 
absolute  monarchies  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

About  the  same  time,  the  study  of  the  church  (or  canon)  law 
received  a  powerful  impetus.     In  part  this  was  due  to  such 
contests  as  that  over  investiture  (ch.  vi) ;  in  part  it  was   213.  Growth 
due  to  the  preparation  of  a  great  textbook  on  canon  law,  of  canon  law 
which   aided    the   study.     The  materials  for  this  study  were 
drawn  from  the  following  sources :  — 

1.  The  teachings  of  the  Scriptures,  —  that  is,   the   Old   and  New 

Testaments. 

2.  The  decrees  of  church  councils,  from  the  Council  of  Nicaea  on. 

3.  The  writings  of  the  Fathers,  or  great  writers  of  the  church,  from 

the  first  to  about  the  seventh  century.  Their  books  were  sup- 
posed to  contain  additional  teachings  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles, 
which  were  not  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  but  were  handed 
down  by  tradition  until  the  time  of  these  writers. 

4.  The  decretals  of  the  Popes,  including  the  False  Decretals  (§91). 

Canon  law  became  as  elaborate  and  comprehensive  a  system 
as  the  Roman  (civil)  law  and  as  great  a  subject  of  study ;  and 
canon  lawyers  in  their  turn  proved  as  zealous  upholders  of  the 
papal  claims  as  civil  lawyers  were  of  imperial  prerogatives. 


198  THE   CULTURE   OF  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

B.   HERESY  AND  ITS  SUPPRESSION 

Another  sign  of  intellectual  activity  in  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries  was  the  spread  of  certain  heresies  in  the  church. 

214.  Growth  Heresy,  as  we  have  seen,  consisted  in  the  maintaining  of 
of  heresy        anv  belief,  in  matters  of  faith  and  morals,  that  the  church 

pronounced  erroneous.  It  was  a  most  serious  offense  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  was  regarded  as  treason  to  the  church,  the 
institution  established  by  God  to  save  men's  souls  from  hell. 
To  teach  heresy  was  to  endanger  the  souls  of  others.  Heretics 
who  persisted  in  their  views,  therefore,  were  burned  to  death  at 
the  stake.  Until  long  after  the  Middle  Ages,  religious  tolera- 
tion —  that  is,  permitting  persons  peaceably  to  hold  views  not 
sanctioned  by  the  church  —  was  practically  unknown.  It  was 
by  every  one  acknowledged  that  duty  to  God  demanded  that 
persistent  heretics  should  be  put  to  death. 

Nevertheless,  in  the  twelfth  century,  there  came  a  great  in- 
crease in  heresy.  This  was  due  in  part  to  the  increased  intel- 
lectual activity  of  that  time,  and  the  difficulty  of  ascertaining 
just  what  the  church  had  decided  on  different  religious  points. 
In  part  it  was  due  to  the  influence  of  the  crusades,  which  by 
bringing  men  of  the  West  into  contact  with  men  of  other  re- 
ligions had  led  to  the  adoption  of  some  new  religious  ideas.  In 
part  also  it  was  the  result  of  a  reaction  against  the  growing  lux- 
ury, worldliness,  and  corruption  in  the  church.  It  manifested 
itself  especially  under  two  forms,  both  of  which,  although  met 
with  elsewhere,  were  particularly  widespread  in  southern 
France. 

The  first  of  these  heresies  was  that  held  by  the  Walden'ses. 
This  sect  was  founded  by  a  rich  merchant,  Peter  Waldo  of  Lyons, 

215.  The       who  about  1170  sold  his  goods  and  gave  the  proceeds  to  the 
Waidenses     pOorj  t]iat  he  m{gfa  devote  himself  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing and  preaching.     His  followers  were  called  "the  poor  men  of 
Lyons."     They  advocated  a  return  to  the  simple  worship  of  the 
Apostles'  time,  and  caused  the  Bible  to  be  translated  into  the 
language  of  the  people.     In  spite  of  many  attempts  to  suppress 


HERESY  AND   ITS   SUPPRESSION  199 

them  they  maintained  themselves  in  the  mountain  valleys  of 
Savoy'  until  they  were  absorbed  in  the  Protestant  Reformation. 

The  other  heresy,  that  of  the  Albigenses  (al-bi-jen'sez),  was 
of  a  more  far-reaching  character.     They  believed  in  two  coequal 
Gods,  —  one  good,  the   other   evil.     They   declared   the  216.  Aibi- 
material  universe  to  be  the  creation  of   the   evil   deity,   crusade 
and  rejected  the  existing  order  in  church  and  state.     The   (1209-1229) 
"  perfect "  members  of  the  sect  rejected  marriage,  and   were 
frankly  opposed  to  the  whole  social  organization.     Their  chief 
center   was   in   the   neighborhood   of   Toulouse    (in   southern 
France),  where  the  count  protected  the  heretics. 

After  a  papal  legate  had  been  murdered,  Pope  Innocent  III 
issued  a  call  for  an  armed  crusade  against  the  Albigenses. 
King  Philip  Augustus  pleaded  his  preoccupation  with  "two 
great  and  terrible  lions,"  —  the  kings  of  England  and 
Germany,  —  and  refused  to  take  part  in  it.  A  host  of 
lords  from  northern  France,  however,  gathered  for  the  crusade. 
The  war  was  waged  with  frightful  cruelty.  Twice  the  count 
of  Toulouse  made  abject  submission,  and  twice  he  again  took 
up  arms.  In  1229,  he  finally  submitted,  and  abandoned  the 
cause  of  the  heretics. 

The  increase  of  the  territory  of  the  French  crown  through  this 
crusade  will  be  discussed  in  chapter  xii.     Here  we  have  only 
to  deal  with  its  results  for  civilization  and  for  the  church.   2I7  Re_ 
Prior  to  this  crusade  southern  France  was  so  different  from  suits  of  the 
northern  France  in  language,  customs,  and  culture,  as  c 
almost  to  form  a  separate  nation.     The  south  was  far  less  feudal, 
and  far  more  Roman,  than  was  the  north.     Nowhere  else  in 
western  Europe  had  culture  and  luxury  made  such  progress. 
Commerce  flourished  there,  cities  prospered,  manners  were  re- 
fined, and  chivalry  and  a  poetic  literature  in  the  language  of  the 
people  grew  hand  in  hand.     The  success  of  the  Albigensian 
Crusade  meant  the  crushing  out,  to  a  large  extent,  of  this  en- 
lightened, tolerant,  and  easy-going  culture  of  southern  France. 

In  rooting  out  the  remnants  of  heresy  among  the  people  two 
new  agencies  in  the  church  were  active,  —  the  mendicant  friars 


20O  THE   CULTURE   OF   THE    MIDDLE   AGES 

and  .the  Inquisition.     The  founding  and  activity  of  the  mendi- 
cant friars  —  the  Franciscans  and  the  Dominicans  —  have  al- 
218  Th         ready  been  described  in  the  chapter  on   the    medieval 
mendicant      church  (ch.  v).     Here  we  need  only  note  that  the  efforts 
of  the  friars  to  reclaim  the  heretics  met  with  considerable 
success ;  and  that  by  their  labors  among  the  poor  and  wretched 
in  the  cities,  and  by  their  devotion  to  the  papacy,  they  became 
an  important  part  of  the  church  organization. 

More  important  in  rooting  out  heresy  was  the  relentless  work 
of  the  Inquisition,  a  court  established  for  this  very  puipose. 
210  The  The  °lder  tribunals  for  dealing  with  heresy  were  the  bishops' 
Inquisition  courts ;  but  these  were  limited  to  their  own  dioceses,  and 
were  hampered  by  preoccupation  with  other  business.  The 
court  of  the  Inquisition,  to  which  the  suppression  of  heresy  was 
now  confided,  was  not  limited  to  a  single  diocese;  it  was  also 
unhampered  by  other  cares,  and  its  heads  were  removable  by  the 
Pope  alone.  At  an  early  day  its  work  was  put  largely  in  charge 
of  the  Dominicans.  The  procedure  of  the  Inquisition  was  of 
a  kind  to  tempt  those  blinded  by  passion  and  self-seeking  to 
bring  accusations  on  slight  pretexts.  Names  of  accusers  and  of 
witnesses  were  concealed,  and  torture -(adopted  from  the  secular 
courts)  was  freely  used  to  elicit  confessions.  So  close  was  the 
connection  between  its  branches,  and  so  complete  its  records, 
that  neither  time  nor  flight  could  insure  immunity.  The  In- 
quisition stamped  out  the  last  embers  of  the  Albigensian  heresy, 
but  it  left  a  legacy  of  tyranny  and  oppression  from  which  the 
world  was  long  in  escaping. 

C.   LITERATURE  AND  ART 

The  culture  of  the  Middle  Ages  manifested  itself  not  only  in 

the  foregoing  activities,  but  also  in  the  fields  of  literature  and 

220.  Ver-       art-     I*1  tne  first  °f  these  the  chief  feature  is  the  begin- 

nacular          ning  of  a  development  of  vernacular  literatures,  —  that 

is,  of  writings  in  the  language  of  the  people.     The  lays  of 

the  troubadours  hold  an  important  place  in  this  development. 


LITERATURE  AND    ART  2OI 

The  troubadour  songs  were  peculiar  to  southern  France,  and 
were  written  in  the  Provencal'  or  south  French  tongue.  Their 
authors  were  knights,  noble  lords,  or  princes.  Their  themes  were 
chivalrous  love  and  the  devotion  of  the  knight  to  his  lady, 
rather  than  battles  and  feats  of  arms.  In  this  respect  the 
troubadour  lays  resemble  the  songs  of  the  Minnesingers  of  con- 
temporaneous Germany.  In  northern  France,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  trouveres  (troo-var')  sang  by  preference  of  deeds  of 
arms  and  battle,  and  celebrated  the  adventures  of  Charlemagne 
and  Roland,  or  of  King  Arthur  and  the  knights  of  the  Round 
Table.  Prose  romances,  like  the  delightful  tale  of  Aucassin  and 
Nicolette  (o-ka-saN';  ne-ko-let'),  were  included  in  the  latter  liter- 
ature. The  fabliaux  (fa-ble-o':  French  fables)  constituted  a 
middle-class  literature  corresponding  to  the  knightly  literature 
described  above.  These  fabliaux  were  satires  —  sometimes  moral 
but  more  often  irreverent  —  directed  against  nobles,  immoral 
priests,  and  deceived  husbands.  In  Germany,  in  addition  to 
the  knightly  lays  of  the  Minnesingers,  we  have  the  great 
Nibelungenlied  (ne'be-loong-en-let) ,  an  epic  poem  dealing  with 
legends  connected  with  the  early  history  of  the  Burgundians. 
In  almost  every  land  of  western  Europe,  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  intellectual  activity  manifested  itself  in  the 
production  of  poems  or  prose  works  in  the  language  of  the  people. 
More  important  than  medieval  literature  was  medieval  art. 
The  pictorial  art  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  of  less  importance  than 

that  of  the  Renaissance,  but  nevertheless  it  is  noteworthy.    221.  Me- 
TV  i  •  ,  •      f  ±1  i  dieval  paint- 

Its  most  characteristic  form  is  seen  in  the  marvelously  ing 

delicate  and  richly  colored  initials  and  miniature  pictures 
with  which  the  monks  "illuminated"  their  manuscript  books. 
An  example  of  such  an  initial,  containing  a  miniature  picture, 
is  shown  (without  the  colors)  on  page  81.  Besides  such  illu- 
minations, medieval  painting  also  produced  many  altar  pictures, 
—  of  Christ,  of  the  Madonna  (or  Virgin  Mary),  and  of  the 
saints.  But  the  figures  in  these  are  usually  represented  in  stiff 
and  conventional  attitudes,  and  the  artists  show  little  knowledge 
of  the  anatomy  of  the  human  body,  or  of  the  laws  of  perspective. 


2O2 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


In  architecture  the  Middle  Ages  created  works  of  art  which 
may  well  challenge  comparison  with  the  best  which  the  world 
F  has  ever  produced.     In  view  of  the  great  part  that  re- 

medieval        ligion  played  in  medieval  life  it  is  not  surprising  to  find 
architecture    ^at  the  greatest  architectural  works  were  the  churches. 
The  earliest  Christian  churches  were  modeled  on  the   Roman 
basilicas,  or  courts  of  justice,  which  were  oblong  buildings,  with 


SECTION  OF  OLD  ST.  PETER'S 
A  typical  Christian  Basilica.    Torn  down  in  the  sixteenth  century 

the  interior  divided  longitudinally  by  parallel  rows  of  pillars 
into  two  "aisles"  and  a  central  "nave."  Out  of  these  early 
churches  arose  what  is  called  the  Romanesque  type  of  architec- 
ture. This  was  characterized  by  the  use  of  the  round  arch,  and 
a  general  massiveness  of  effect.  Stone  soon  superseded  brick 
as  building  material,  and,  to  decrease  the  danger  of  fire,  arched 
stone  vaulting  replaced  the  timbered  roofs.  The  cathedral  of 
Pisa  (p.  290)  is  a  good  example  of  this  Romanesque  style  of 
building.  The  ground  plan  of  almost  all  medieval  cathedrals 
was  the  Latin  cross.  The  two  arms  of  the  cross  formed  the 
"transepts."  The  "choir"  of  the  cathedral  corresponded  to 


LITERATURE   AND   ART 


203 


the  short  upright  part,  and  the  "nave"  and  "aisles"  to  the 
lower  main  part  of  the  cross. 

The  final  and  most  splendid  form  assumed  by  medieval  archi- 
tecture was  the  so-called  Gothic  style.      This  originated  in  north- 

ern    France,   223.  Prin- 
about  the  middle   'iple. s  of 

Gothic  con- 

of  the  twelfth  struction 
century.  Its  essential 
feature  consists,  not  in 
its  ornamentation,  as 
is  sometimes  thought, 
but  in  its  constructive 
principle.  It  repre- 
sents an  absolutely 
new  engineering  idea 
applied  to  the  con- 
struction of  great  stone 
buildings.  Since  the 
introduction  of  stone 
vaulted  roofs,  the  main 
problem  of  construc- 
tion had  been  how  to 
carry  this  enormous 
weight,  and  to  sustain 
the  lateral  thrust,  or 
tendency  of  an  arch 
to  fall  apart.  In  the 
Romanesque  style  the 
problem  was  solved  by 
making  the  walls  so 
thick  and  solid  that 
they  would  of  themselves  perform  this  task.  But  this  con- 
struction left  the  interiors  of  the  buildings  dark  and  gloomy, 
for  builders  did  not  dare  to  weaken  their  walls  by  making 
many  or  large  window  openings. 

Gothic  construction  consisted  in  two  innovations  which  solved 


SECTION  AND  DETAIL  OF  CATHEDRAL  AT  AMIENS 
Showing  details  of  Gothic  construction 


CATHEDRAL  AT  AMIENS  (FRONT).    Erected  1220-1288 
204 


LITERATURE  AND    ART 


205 


GROTESQUE  ON  TOWER  OF 
NOTRE  DAME 


the  foregoing  problem,  while  permitting  of  as  many  and  as  large 
window  openings  as  were  desired.  In  the  first  place,  the  weight 
of  the  vaulted  roof,  instead  of  being  dis- 
tributed equally  along  the  length  of  the 
supporting  wall,  was  gathered  up  on  a 
number  of  arched  ribs,  which  rested  on 
piers  of  clustered  columns .  In  the  second 
place,  these  piers,  instead  of  being  left 
to  resist  the  enormous  lateral  thrust  of 
the  ribs  by  their  unassisted  mass,  were 
supported  externally  by  a  series  of  arched 
props,  called  "flying  buttresses,"  which 
relieved  them  of  all  stress  except  the 
vertical  pressure  of  the  roof.  (Study 
the  picture  on  page  203.) 

The  use  of  pointed  instead  of  round 
arches  was  a  mere  detail  growing  out  of  this  skeleton  construc- 
tion, although  it  later  came  to  be  considered  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  the  Gothic  style.  It  belongs  to  the  subject  of  224  G0thic 
Gothic  ornamentation,  which  should  carefully  be  distin-  omamenta- 
guished  from  its  construction  principle.  The  tall  pointed  * 
windows  are,  nevertheless,  an  important  feature  of  the  Gothic 
form  of  architecture.  The  window  openings  were  filled  with  pic- 
tures in  stained  glass,  whose  rich  and  varied 
colors  added  indescribably  to  the  splendor 
of  the  interior.  Everywhere,  within  and 
without,  the  sculptor's  art  scattered  figures 
of  men,  animals,  and  plants,  —  all  emblem- 
atical of  the  aspirations,  the  hopes,  and  the 
fears  of  medieval  religion.  Artists  and 
sculptors  vied  with  one  another  in  repre- 
senting the  history  of  humanity  and  of 
Christianity.  Along  with  scenes  from  the 
Bible,  figures  of  the  saints,  and  allegorical 
representations  of  the  virtues  and  vices, 
were  seen  fantastic  grinning  beasts  and  demons,  the  retinue 


GROTESQUE  ON  TOWER 
or  NOTRE  DAME 


206 


THE  CULTURE  OF  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 


of  the  devil.  Taken  as  a  whole,  such  scenes  "made  up  a  kind 
of  layman's  Bible  that  appealed  to  the  eye  and  was  understood 
by  all." 

The  construction  of  such  a  great  cathedral  as  that  of  Amiens 
(a-myaN'),  or  Notre  Dame  (no'tr'  dam')  of  Paris,  was  usually 
protracted  through  a  hundred  years  or  more.  The  choir  or 

nave  would  first  be 
built  and  used  for 
services.  Then  other 
parts  were  added, 
and  so  on,  until  we 
have  the  building  in 
its  present  form. 
Many  cathedrals  are 
still  incomplete,— 
that  is,  they  lack  the 
spires  or  some  other 
features  which  were 
part  of  the  original 
plan.  Cologne  cathe- 
dral (in  Germany) 
was  begun  in  1248; 
but  it  was  not  until 
1880,  after  centuries 
of  discontinuance  of 
building  operations, 
that  it  was  finished. 
So  well,  however,  were 
the  great  medieval 
cathedrals  built  that  they  still  stand  firm  and  secure  after  the 
lapse  of  centuries,  thus  attesting  the  soundness  of  their  struc- 
tural principles.  By  the  majesty  and  extent  of  their  interiors, 
by  the  awe-inspiring  lift  of  their  clustered  columns  and  vaulted 
roofs,  and  by  the  richness  and  infinite  variety  of  their  ornamen- 
tation, they  constitute  one  of  the  most  perfect  expressions  of 
human  genius,  and  are  the  wonder  and  admiration  of  later 


INTERIOR  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  AT  AMIENS 


GENERAL    CHARACTER  OF  THE   MIDDLE   AGES       207 

times.  They  are  a  fit  memorial  to  the  faith  and  spiritual 
aspiration,  and  to  the  civic  pride  and  resources,  of  the  energetic 
cities  which  produced  them. 

D.   GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

In  concluding  this  chapter  a  few  words  may  be  said  concerning 
the  general  character  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

In  the  first  place,  we  should  remember  that  in  some  of  its 
geographical  features  Europe  of  the  Middle  Ages  differed  greatly 
from  the  Europe  of  to-day.  In  many  regions  there  225.  Geo- 
was  nothing  but  forest,  swamp,  and  moor,  where  to-day  are  future  nd 
smiling  fields  and  populous  cities.  The  population  on  population 
the  whole  was  much  less  than  now.  England,  which  in  1911 
had  over  36,000,000  inhabitants,  had  in  1086  only  about  2,150,- 
ooo.  The  great  growth  of  population  in  modern  times,  how- 
ever, has  been  chiefly  in  towns  and  manufacturing  districts,  and 
not  in  the  open  country.  In  many  places  the  rural  districts 
were  probably  as  thickly  settled  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  to-day. 
Local  overpopulation,  indeed,  was  one  cause  of  frequent  famines. 
Then  weeds  and  the  bark  of  trees  were  gnawed  for  food,  and 
depraved  beings  sometimes  ate  human  flesh.  There  were  no 
great  accumulations  of  wealth  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Heavy 
goods  could  be  transported  only  short  distances  by  land,  on 
account  of  the  miserable  roads;  and  when  crops  failed,  the 
surplus  of  distant  provinces  could  not  be  brought  in  to  relieve 
distress. 

The  standard  of  comfort,  on  the  whole,  —  even  after  the  in- 
troduction of  some  luxuries  from  the  East,  —  was  surprisingly 
low.      Even  among  the  higher  classes  the  manner  of  living  226.  Stand- 
was  filthy   and   unsanitary.     Floors   were   covered  with  ard  of  living 
rushes,  among  which  bones  from  the  table  and  other  refuse  were 
dropped.     From  time  to  time  new  layers  of  rushes  were  spread 
upon  the  old,  and  only  after  long  intervals  was  the  decaying  mass 
cleaned  out.     The  death  rate,   especially  among   young  chil- 
dren, was  naturally  very  high.     In  spite  of  the   glamour  of 


208  THE    CULTURE   OF   THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

chivalry  and  romance,  the  Middle  Ages,  on  their  material  side, 

were  a  dreary  time  in  which  to  live. 

It  must  also  be  confessed  —  in  spite  of  all  that  has  been  said 

in  this  chapter  —  that  the  Middle  Ages  were  a  time  of  great 
227  Igno-  ignorance  and  superstition.  Comets  were  regarded  as 
ranee  and  signs  of  coming  disasters.  When  one  of  these  appeared 
superstition  «  regent,  with  a  hairy  crown,"  it  foretold  the  death  of  a 
Hoveden  kmg>  while  one  with  "long  locks  of  hair  [i.e.  a  tail],  which 
Chronicle,  as  it  scintilla tes  it  spreads  abroad,"  foretold  the  ruin  of  a 
nation.  "The  invisible  world,"  says  a  modern  writer, 

"with  its  mysterious  attraction  and  horrible  fascination  was 

ever  present  and   real   to   every  one.     Demons  were  always 
Lea,  Inqui-      around  [the  medieval  man],  to  smite  him  with  sickness, 

SMt°ddi°e} Ages    to  ruin  Ws  Pitiful  little  comneld  [*•«•  wheat  fieldL  or  vine- 
i,  60  yard,  or  to  lure  his  soul  to  perdition ;    while  angels  and 

saints  were  similarly  ready  to  help  him,  to  listen  to  his  invo- 
cations, and  to  intercede  for  him  at  the  throne  of  mercy,  which 
he  dared  not  address  directly." 

It  was  an  age  of  startling  contrasts.     The  sordidness  of  its 

daily  life  might  be  relieved  with  splendid  exhibitions  of  lofty 

228.  Con-      enthusiasm,  or  be  darkened  with  hideous  deeds  of  brutal- 

MMdteAges  ***'     On  the  one  hand>  il  was  "the  a§e  of  chivairy,  of 

Stubbs  ideal  heroism,  of  picturesque  castles  and  glorious  churches 

Constitutional  and  pageants,  camps  and  tournaments,  lovely  charity 

Engi°and°fm,   and  gallant  self-sacrifice."     On  the  other  hand,  it  was 

634  clouded  with  dark  shadows  of  "dynastic  faction,  bloody 

conquest,  grievous  misgovernance,  local  tyrannies,  plagues  and 

famines  unhelped  and  unaverted,  hollowness  of  pomp,  disease, 

and  desolation." 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

i no.  Study  of  Roman  law  revived  at  Bologna. 

1142.  Death  of  Abelard. 

1 200.  Legal  recognition  given  University  of  Paris. 

1209.  Crusade  against  Albigenses  begun. 

1220.  Cathedral  of  Chartres  begun. 

1229.  University  of  Oxford  becomes  important. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  209 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages  with 
modern  schools.  (2)  In  what  respects  is  the  high  school  graduate  of  to-day 
more  advanced  in  knowledge  than  the  university  graduate  of  the  Middle 
Ages?  (3)  Of  what  educational  value  was  the  study  of  scholastic  philos- 
ophy? (4)  Why  did  natural  science  make  so  little  progress  in  the  Middle 
Ages  ?  (5)  What  were  some  of  the  effects  of  the  study  of  Roman  law  and 
the  Canon  law?  (6)  What  connection  was  there  between  the  rise  of  the 
universities  and  the  spread  of  heresy  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  ? 

(7)  Why  was  the  crusade  directed  more  against  the  Albigenses  than  against 
the  Waldenses?     (8)  What  were  some  of  the  results  of  the  founding  of 
the  Inquisition?      (9)  How  did  the  "vernacular"  literatures  differ  from 
the  literature  of  the  earlier  Middle  Ages?     (10)  Are  there  any  buildings  in 
your  town  which  show  traces  of  Greek  or  Roman  influence  in  their  archi- 
tecture?    (n)  Are  there  any  which  show  Gothic  influence  either  in  their 
structure  or  ornamentation  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  MEDIEVAL  STUDENT  LIFE.  Ogg,  Source  Book, 
351-359;  Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  348-357;  American 
Historical  Review,  III,  203-229;  X,  16-27.  —  (2)  MEDIEVAL  "LATIN 
QUARTER"  IN  PARIS.  McCabe,  Abelard,  47-52.  —  (3)  PETER  ABELARD. 
McCabe,  Abelard,  chs.  ii,  iv,  vii;  Rashdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  I,  48-63;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  446- 
455.  —  (4)  MEDIEVAL  IDEAS  OP  SCIENCE.  Robinson,  Readings  in  European 
History,  I,  438-446,  455-461 ;  Munro  and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization, 
458-473.  —  (5)  TROUBLES  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PARIS  IN  1229.  Duncalf 
and  Krey,  Parallel  Source  Problems  in  Medieval  History,  137-174. — 
(6)  ROGER  BACON.  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  460-461 ; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  "Bacon,  Roger";  Taylor,  The  Medieval 
Mind,  II,  484-508.  —  (7)  RISE  OF  CANON  LAW.  Emerton,  Medieval  Europe, 
582-592;  Rashdall,  Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  128-143.  — 

(8)  REVIVED    STUDY   OF    ROMAN   LAW.     Adams,    Civilization   during   the 
Middle  Ages,  31-35,  300;    Emerton,  Medieval  Europe,  288-290;    Pollock 
and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law,  I,  21-24.  —  (9)  THE  WALDENSES. 
Lea,    Inquisition    of   the   Middle   Ages,   I,    76-88;    Walker,   Reformation, 
47-49;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  380-381.  —  (10)  THE 
ALBIGENSES.      Lea,    Inquisition,    ch.    iv;    Munro   and   Sellery,   Medieval 
Civilization,  432-457 ;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  381-383.  — 
(n)  TROUBADOURS     AND     MINSTRELS.     Rowbotham,     Troubadours     and 
Courts  of  Love,  chs.  vii,  x,  xi;    Smith,  Troubadours  at  Home,  II,  ch.  xxxi; 
Jusserand,  English    Wayfaring    Life    in    the    Middle    Ages,  188-218.  — 
(12)  THE     NIBELUNGENLIED.     Carlyle,     Miscellaneous     Writings     ("The 
Nibelungenlied ") ;    Forestier,   Echoes  from    Mist-Land,  pp.   ix-xvi,    1-14, 


210  THE   CULTURE  OF  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 

40-43,  76-84.  —  (13)  THE  BUILDING  OF  A  GOTHIC  CHURCH. — Harper's 
Magazine,  LXXIX,  766-776,  944-955.  —  (14)  A  DESCRIPTIVE  ACCOUNT 
or  SOME  GOTHIC  CATHEDRAL  (Amiens,  Notre  Dame  of  Paris,  Chartres, 
etc.  Illustrate  with  prints  or  photographs).  See  histories  of  art  and  guide 
books. 

General  Reading.  —  McCabe's  Abdard  is  an  excellent  book.  RashdalPs 
Universities  of  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages  (3  vols.)  is  the  standard  work  on 
its  subject.  Jessopp's  volume  of  essays  entitled  The  Coming  of  the  Friars 
deals  with  the  mendicant  orders  in  England  and  other  subjects.  Saintsr 
bury's  The  Flourishing  of  Romance  gives  a  scholarly  and  readable  account 
of  medieval  literature.  In  this  connection  the  charming  twelfth- century 
love  story  entitled  Aucassin  andNicolette  should  be  read  ;  it  may  be  obtained 
cheaply  in  translation  from  Mosher  (Portland,  Me.),  or  in  the  Everyman's 
Library.  Liibke's  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Art  (2  vols.)  is  one  of  the  best 
accounts  of  medieval  art  in  all  its  phases.  The  most  important  work  on 
Gothic  architecture  is  Moore's  Development  and  Character  of  Gothic  Archi-^ 
lecture. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ENGLAND  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 
A.  THE  NORMAN  AND  PLANTAGENET  KINGS 

FOUR  separate  peoples  contributed  to  make  up  England's 
population  as  we  find  it  in  the  later  Middle  Ages,     (i)  The  Celts 
inhabited  Britain  at  the  time  of  its  conquest  by  Rome,   229.  Racial 
and  were  left  in  possession  when  the  Romans  withdrew, 


(2)  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  the  English  (Angles  history 
and  Saxons)  were  added  to  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  the  island, 
and  very  generally  displaced  the  Celts  in  the  southern  and  east- 
ern parts.  Thus  the  blood,  speech,  and  institutions  of  England 
(though  not  of  Wales  and  Scotland)  became  mainly  Teutonic. 
There  was  some  admixture  of  Celts  among  the  English,  however, 
Which  was  not  without  importance  (3)  In  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries  came  a  large  influx  of  Danes  (Northmen).  They  were 
near  kindred  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  and  were  easily  absorbed 
into  the  English  nation.  (4)  The  conquest  of  England  by  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror  (§§  76-77)  added  the  last  important  racial 
element  to  the  English  nation,  —  that  of  the  Norman  French. 
The  immediate  changes  produced  by  this  event  have  already 
been  described.  We  have  now  to  trace  the  rise,  under  the 
Norman  and  Plantagehet  (plan-taj'e-net)  kings,  of  the  limited 
constitutional  monarchy  which  is  the  distinctive  mark  of  Eng- 
lish political  institutions. 

When  William  the  Conqueror  died,  in  1087,  primogeniture 
(the  right  of  the  eldest  son  to  succeed  his  father)  was  not  yet  an 
established  custom.     Robert,  William's  oldest  son,  secured          Nor_ 
Normandy,  but  England  passed  to  William  Rufus,  the  man  kings 
second  son.     On  the  death  of  this  king,  in  noo,  England   (Io87-IIS4) 
passed  to  the  third  son  of  the  Conqueror,  Henry  I  (1100-1135), 


212  ENGLAND  IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES 

who  wrested  Normandy  from  his  brother  Robert  and  reunited 
it  with  England.  Henry's  struggle  with  his  brother  forced  him 
to  conciliate  his  English  subjects  by  granting  them  a  charter 
of  liberties.1  The  title  "the  Lion  of  Justice"  shows  the  respect 
with  which  this  Norman  ruler  came  to  be  regarded  by  the 
English  people. 

The  just  government  established  by  Henry  I  died  with  him. 
His  nephew,  Stephen  of  Blois,  son  of  the  crusader  (§  156),  then 
secured  the  government ;    but  his  reign  was  weakened  by  the 
efforts  of  Henry's  daughter,  Matilda,  to  win  the  crown.     Civil 
war  and  anarchy  followed.      The  Norman  nobles  took  advan- 
tage of  the  weakness  of  the  government  to  build  great  castles, 
from  which  they  set  the  king  at  defiance  and  oppressed  the 
Anglo-Saxon    wretched   people.     "When    the    castles    were    finished," 
Chronicle,       says  the  chronicler,  "they  filled  them  with  devils  and 
evil  men.     Then  they  took  those  whom  they  suspected  to 
have  any  goods,  by  night  and  by  day,  seizing  both  men  and 
women,  and  they  put  them  in  prison  for  their  gold  and  silver, 
and  tortured  them  with  pains  unspeakable,  for  never  were  any 
martyrs  tormented  as  these  were." 

The  struggle  for  the  crown  ended  with  a  treaty  by  which 
Stephen   recognized   Matilda's   son,   Henry   of  Anjou,   as  his 
231.  Henry    successor-     In  1154  Henry  II,  the  first  of  the  An'gevin  or 
II  (1154-        Plantagenet 2  kings,  ascended  the  English  throne.     The 
extent  of   his  dominions   made   him   the  most  powerful 
monarch  in  Europe.     In  right  of  his  father,  Henry  was  count 
of  Anjou  (in  France) ;  in  right  of  his  mother,  he  received  Nor- 
mandy and  England;    by  marriage  with   Eleanor,  heiress  of 
Aquitaine,  he  added  that  broad  land  to  his  dominions.     His 

1  In  conferring  lands  and  privileges  upon  individuals,  monasteries,  or  towns,  it 
was  customary  for  kings  to  make  their  grants  in  documents  called  charters  (§  197). 
This  custom  was  now  expanded  to  cover  grants  of  rights  and  liberties  to  whole 
classes  and  even  to  the  nation.     Such  charters  really  resemble  constitutions  more 
than  they  do  the  earlier  feudal  grants  from  which  they  arose. 

2  Henry's  father,  Geoffrey   of  Anjou,  was  in  the  habit  of  wearing  a  sprig   of 
the  "broom"  plant  (planta  genesta)   in   his  cap;   hence  arose  the   family  name, 
Plantagenet. 


THE   NORMAN  AND   PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


2I3 


territories  in  France  were  greater  than  those  of  the  French  king 
himself,  and  almost  constant  warfare  with  his  suzerain  was  the 
result.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  those  wars  Henry  found  time 
thoroughly  to  reform  and  reorganize  his  English  kingdom. 

In  personal  appearance  Henry  was  a  striking  figure.  He  had 
broad  shoulders,  a  thick  neck,  a  large  round  head,  and  a  ruddy 
ccmplexion.  He  had  great 
physical  strength,  and  was  ac- 
customed to  long  and  hard  rid- 
ing. In  a  single  day  he  could 
make  a  journey  for  which  others 
took  twice  or  thrice  as  long. 
Henry  surprised  both  friends 
and  enemies  by  his  rapid  move- 
ments, and  was  tireless  in  the 
transaction  of  business.  In  ad- 
dition, he  had  an  orderly  mind 
and  a  masterful  will;  he  was 
thus  able  to  make  a  plan,  and  to 
follow  it  out  against  almost  all 
obstacles.  He  was  a  hard,  stern  man,  with  the  fierce  Angevin 
temper,  and  was  little  loved ;  but  the  value  of  his  work  makes 
him  one  of  the  greatest  of  England's  kings. 

On  coming  to  the  throne,  Henry  II  began  at  once  to  restore 
order.      He  destroyed  the  lawless  castles,  and  dismissed  the 
mercenary  soldiers  who  had  been  called  in  from  the  Con-  232-  Finan- 
tinent  during  the  civil  war.     He  then  set  on  foot  impor-  military 
tant  financial,  military,    and   judicial  reforms.     He  def-  reforms 
initely  organized  the   Exchequer,  or  financial    department  of 
the  government,  which  had  control  of  the  collection  and  expen- 
diture of  the  revenues  of  the  state.     He  improved  the  military 
system  in  two  ways.     The  old  English  militia  was  revived  by  a 
law  called  the  Assize  of  Arms,  which  required  every  man  to 
provide  himself  with  weapons  according  to  his  means.     The 
highest  class  of  common  freemen  were  each  to  have  a  helmet, 
a  coat  of  mail,  a  shield,  and  a  lance ;   and  all  subjects  had  to 


SEAL  OF  HENRY  II  (before  1154) 

!  Henry,  by  the  grace  of  God  Duke  of 
the  Normans,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  and 
Count  of  Anjou  " 


214  ENGLAND   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 

be  ready  to  serve  in  the  army  when  needed.  The  second  reform 
consisted  in  the  practice  of  excusing  feudal  tenants  from  military 
service  on  payment  of  a  sum  called  "scutage,"  or  shield  money. 
The  funds  thus  obtained  were  used  to  hire  professional  troops, 
who  were  better  trained  and  more  reliable  soldiers  than  the 
feudal  levies.  These  improvements  gave  the  king  a  stronger 
army,  and  made  him  more  independent  of  the  feudal  barons. 

Henry  also  wished  to  establish  one  law  for  all  parts  of  England, 
and  for  all  classes  of  people.  There  were  many  courts,  some 
233.  Henry's  ne^  ^y  tne  l°rds  on  their  manors,  and  some  held  by  the 
judicial  sheriffs  in  the  shires  or  counties.  There  was  little  con- 
nection among  them,  and  the  same  kind  of  offense  might 
be  punished  more  severely  in  one  court  than  in  another.  To 
remedy  this  evil,  Henry  appointed  learned  men,  called  "itinerant 
justices,"  whose  duty  it  was  to  travel  about  the  country  and 
preside  over  each  shire  court  at  certain  intervals.  This  system 
of  circuit  judges  helped  to  unify  the  law  of  the  whole  kingdom ; 
it  also  made  the  settlement  of  many  important  cases  easier, 
speedier,  and  more  certain.  Henry  also  changed  the  methods 
by  which  trials  were  conducted.  In  the  older  modes  of  trial  — 
by  oaths,  ordeal,  or  combat  (§  64)  — the  outcome  depended  largely 
upon  superstition,  accident,  or  force.  In  none  of  them  was  there 
any  attempt  to  find  out  the  facts  of  the  case  by  hearing  testi- 
mony and  weighing  evidence.  It  was  one  of  the  great  merits  of 
Henry  II  that  he  brought  into  general  use  a  reasonable  form  of 
trial,  —  that  of  trial  by  jury.  In  such  trials  the  decision  was 
given  in  the  name  of  the  community  by  those  who  had  the  best 
knowledge  of  the  facts.  This  procedure  was  first  applied 
to  cases  concerning  land.  Later  (after  1215),  when  the  church 
saw  the  folly  and  impiety  of  the  ordeal,  trial  by  jury  was  used 
in  criminal  cases  also.  Centuries  passed,  however,  before  jury 
trial  reached  the  developed  form  of  to-day. 

Another  innovation  of  Henry  II  grew  into  the  "grand  jury." 
This  is  a  body  of  sworn  citizens  who  inquire  into  crimes  and 
make  "indictments,"  or  accusations  against  the  criminals,  so 
that  they  may  be  brought  to  trial.  It  often  happened  before 


THE    NORMAN  AND   PLANTAGENET   KINGS  215 

this  time  that  an  offender  was  too  powerful  for  a  private  indi- 
vidual to  dare  accuse  him.  The  "jury  of  presentment,"  as 
the  new  body  was  called,  remedied  this  defect  by  bringing  the 
accusation  against  the  suspected  person  in  the  name  of  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole.  Thus  fewer  criminals  escaped  punishment. 

The  trial  and  presentment  juries  greatly  improved  the  id- 
ministration  of  justice,  but  their  indirect  influence  was  even  more 
important.  By  participating  in  the  administration  of  justice, 
Englishmen  were  trained  in  a  knowledge  of  the  law  and  in  the 
exercise  of  the  rights  of  self-government.  Jurors  acted  —  not 
merely  in  judicial  matters,  but  also  in  administrative  matters  — 
as  representatives  of  their  communities;  and  when  once  the 
principle  of  representation  was  firmly  fixed  in  local  government, 
it  became  easy  to  introduce  it  into  central  affairs.  Thus  the 
juries  introduced  by  Henry  II  became,  under  his  successors, 
the  taproot  of  representation  in  Parliament. 

In  his  attempt  to  bring  the  clergy  as  well  as  the  laity  under 
the   jurisdiction  of  the  civil  courts,  Henry  was  less  successful. 
This  was  largely  because  of  his  unfortunate  quarrel  with  234.  Quar- 
Thomas    Becket,    Archbishop    of    Canterbury.     In    the 
early  part  of  Henry's  reign,  Becket  had  been  his   chan-  Becket 
cellor  and  chief  minister.     Henry  had  lavished  riches  and  favors 
upon  him,  and  Becket  had  adopted  a  magnificent  style  of  life, 
rivaling  that  of  the  king.     What  was  more  natural  than  that 
Henry,    wishing    to   secure  control   over  the    church,    should 
appoint  his  able  and  worldly  minister  to  its  highest  office  ? 

A  remarkable  change,  however,  came  over  Becket  when  he 
became  archbishop.  He  gave  up  his  luxurious  life,  resigned 
his  chancellorship,  and  became  the  most  jealous  defender  of 
the  privileges  of  the  church.  Henry  wished  to  have  all  church- 
men who  were  accused  of  crimes  brought  into  the  state  courts 
and  punished  with  the  same  penalties  as  other  offenders.  As  it 
was,  a  churchman  —  and  we  must  remember  that  the  clergy 
included  not  only  monks,  priests/ and  bishops,  but  multitudes 
in  minor  orders  as  well  —  was  tried  in  a  church  court  by  canon 
law.  Often  churchmen  who  had  committed  serious  crimes 


216  ENGLAND   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 

escaped  with  very  light  punishments.  Becket  opposed  every 
effort  of  the  king  to  lessen  this  independence  of  the  church. 
Thus  a  quarrel  arose  which  bore  some  resemblance  to  the  struggle 
between  empire  and  papacy  which  was  then  being  waged  on 
the  Continent. 

After  years  of  conflict,  hasty  words  let  fall  by  Henry  led  four 
of  his  knights  to  murder  Archbishop  Becket  in  his  cathedral 
at  Canterbury  (1170).  This  deed  shocked  the  whole  of  Chris- 
tendom. The  people  looked  upon  Becket  as  a  martyr,  the 
Pope  declared  him  a  saint,  and  for  centuries  pilgrims  streamed 
to  Canterbury  to  visit  his  tomb.  Henry  was  compelled  to 
make  his  peace  with  the  injured  church,  by  giving  up  his  plans 
for  bringing  churchmen  into  the  state  courts.  "Benefit  of 
clergy"  (the  immunity  of  all  churchmen  from  secular  justice) 
thus  continued  to  be  enjoyed  in  England  down  to  the  time  of 
the  religious  Reformation. 

Henry's  son,  Richard  I,  the  Lion-Hearted,  was  a  good  warrior, 
but  a  bad  ruler.  Most  of  his  reign  was  devoted  to  the  Third 

235.  Rich-      Crusade  and  to  the  defense   of  his   continental   posses- 
ard  I  sions.     Only  seven  months  of  the  ten  years  of  his  reign 

9-1199;    were  passed  in  England.     Administrative  officers  trained 
by  Henry  II,  however,  kept  the  country  orderly  and  peaceful. 

After  Richard's  death,  the  Great  Council  chose  as  king  his 
brother  John,  in  preference  to  Arthur,  the  son  of  an  elder  brother 

236.  Mis-       (Geoffrey).     John  had  been  an  undutiful  son  and  brother ; 
of  ^Joim*6       ne  now  Proved  the  worst  king  that  England  ever  had.     He 
(1199-1216)    was  cruel,  faithless,  lazy,  and  reckless  of  everything  save 

his  own  pleasure.  Yet  his  very  wickedness  and  tyranny,  by 
spurring  all  classes  to  resistance,  helped  much  to  bring  about  polit- 
ical liberty,  and  to  make  such  tyranny  impossible  for  the  future. 
John's  misconduct  in  Aquitaine  led  his  barons  there  to  appeal 
to  John's  suzerain,  Philip  II  of  France ;  and  when  John  refused 
to  appear  for  trial  in  Philip's  court,  his  French  fiefs  were  de- 
clared forfeited.  Soon  after  this,  John  secured  possession  of 
his  young  nephew,  Arthur,  and  basely  put  him  to  death.  This 
made  it  easier  for  Philip  Augustus  to  enforce  the  sentence  of 


THE  NORMAN  AND  PLANTAGENET  KINGS  217 

forfeiture.     By  the  close  of  1206  all  the  English  possessions  in 
France  except  Aquitaine  were  lost. 

John  was  next  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Pope  Innocent  III 
over  a  disputed  election  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury. 
For  nearly  five  years  England  lay  under  an  interdict,  all  ordi- 
nary church  services  being  prohibited.  To  prevent  his  own 
deposition,  John  at  last  made  his  peace  by  surrendering  his 
kingdom  into  the  hands  of  the  Pope's  legate  and  receiving  it 
back  again  as  a  papal  fief,  on  condition  of  paying  an  annual 
tribute.  Humiliating  as  this  submission  may  seem  to  us,  it 
caused  little  comment  at  the  time. 


BATTLE  BETWEEN  KNIGHTS  IN  THE  THIRTEENTH  CENTURY 

John  next  hastened  to  France,  with  such  forces  as  he  could 
raise,  to  regain  his  lost  possessions  there.  At  Bouvines,  in 
1214,  his  ally,  Otto  IV  of  Germany,  was  overwhelmingly  de- 
feated (§  131),  and  John  returned  discredited  to  England. 
The  loss  of  the  English  possessions  in  France  was,  on  the 
whole,  fortunate  for  England.  It  practically  completed  the 
process,  which  had  long  been  going  on,  whereby  the  barons 
ceased  to  be  Normans  and  were  absorbed  in  the  body  of  the 
English  nation. 

All  classes  in  England  were  now  aroused  by  John's  misgovern- 
ment.  During  his  absence  on  the  Continent  a  meeting  had  been 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


held  at  which  it  was  agreed  to  take  up  arms  unless  he  granted 

a  charter  of  liberties  similar  to  that  of  Henry  I.     John  sought 

The        to  evade  this  demand ;  but  the  whole  nation  —  nobles, 

Great  Char-  clergy,  and  townsmen  —  united  in  it.     Finally  in  June, 

1215,  ain  the  meadow  called  Runnymede,"  on  the  river 

Thames,  John  put  his  seal  to  the  Great  Charter  (Magna  Carta). 


O^vttOgt    < 

*s«&waiw 


*»! 


PORTION  OF  MAGNA  CARTA 

Since  John's  day  the  Great  Charter  has  repeatedly  been  con- 
firmed, and  now  stands  as  part  of  the  English  constitution.  Its 
principles  are  part  of  the  law  of  every  English-speaking  nation, 
and  hence  have  almost  as  much  interest  for  us  as  for  England 
itself.  Recent  writers,  however,  have  shown  that  Magna  Carta 
is  more  feudal  and  less  national  than  is  ordinarily  supposed 
The  chief  desire  of  the  barons  was  to  secure  their  own  class 
interests,  and  later  ages  have  read  into  the  charter  much  wider 
meanings  than  were  at  the  time  intended.1 

Among  the  provisions  of  the  great  Charter,  the  following 
is  noteworthy :  "  No  free  man  shall  be  taken,  or  imprisoned,  or 
dispossessed,  or  outlawed,  or  banished,  or  in  any  way  destroyed, 
nor  will  we  go  upon  him,  nor  will  we  send  upon  him,  except  by 
the  lawful  judgment  of  his  peers,  and  by  the  law  of  the  land." 
In  this  passage  the  king  admitted  that  he  had  no  right  to  imprison 
or  punish  any  man,  except  according  to  law,  and  not  according 
to  his  own  will.  In  another  famous  passage  John  promised  that 

1  For  recent  views  of  the  Great  Charter  see  McKechnie,  Magna  Carta;  also  Jenkst 
"The  Myth  of  Magna  Carta,"  in  the  Independent  Review,  1904,  260. 


THE   NORMAN  AND   PLANTAGENET  KINGS 


219 


he  would  collect  no  unusual  feudal  dues  unless  they  were  granted 
to  him  by  the  consent  of  his  barons  in  a  Great  Council  assem- 
bled for  that  purpose.    In  this  passage  was  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  principle  that  a  government  ought  not  to  tax  its  subjects 
without  their  consent,  and  that  "taxation  without  consent  Pollock  and 
is  tyranny."     It  is  because  of  such  provisions  as  these  Maitland, 
that  the  Great  Charter  is  now  so  highly  prized.     "  In  brief,   English  Law, 
it  means  this,  that  the  king  is  and  shall  be  below  the  law."     l>  *73 
When  John  granted  the  Great  Charter,  he  had  no  intention 
of  abiding  by  it.     Within  three  months  he  was  again  at  open    . 
war  with  his  barons.     The  latter  then  planned  to 
accept  the  son  of  the  French  king  as  their  sovereign. 
In  1216,  however,  John  died,  leaving  a  nine-year- 
old  son,  Henry  III,   to   succeed  him.     The   Great 
Charter  now  received  the  first  of  many  confirma- 
tions, and  peace  was  rapidly  restored  in  England. 

During   the   first   sixteen   years    of  Henry  Ill's 
reign,  officers  trained  in  the  methods  of  Henry  II 
directed  affairs,  and  good  order  and  prosperity  238. 
followed.     When  Henry  III  took  the  govern- 
ment  into  his  own  hands,  misgovernment  was  Henry  in 
the  result.     Thereupon  the  barons  again  rebelled, 
this  time  under  the  leadership  of  a  patriotic  noble- 
man, Simon  de  Montfort.     For  a  time  the  barons 
were   completely    successful,  and  the   king  himself  became  a 
captive    in    their    hands.      Then  reaction  set  in.     Simon  de 
Montfort  was  defeated  and  slain   in  the   battle   of   Evesham 
(evz'am ;  1265),  and  the  barons'  party  went  to  pieces.    The  con- 
trol of  the  government  for  the  rest  of  Henry's  reign  was  in  the 
hands  of  his  son  Edward.     This  prince  was  a  strong  and  able 
ruler,  and  ended  the  misgovernment  which  had  caused  the  revolt. 
Edward  I  became  king  in  1272.     He  was  the  first  king  since 
the   Norman  conquest  of  whom  it  can  be  said  that  he  239.  Good 
was  "every  inch  an  Englishman."     He  sought  to  unite  ^°*d  l 
under  one  rule  the  whole  of  the  British  Isles.     To  ac-   (1272-1307) 
complish  this  he  waged  war  against  the  Welsh,  and  in  1284 


220 


ENGLAND   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 


annexed  their  country  to  England.  Soon  after  this  he  made  his 
son  and  heir  "  Prince  of  Wales,"  a  title  which  since  then  has 
regularly  been  given  to  the  heir  to  the  English  throne.  Edward 
also  attempted  the  conquest  of  Scotland.  The  chief  result  of 
his  aggressions  there  was  to  throw  the  Scots  into  alliance  with 
France,  and  to  postpone  until  the  eighteenth  century  the  con- 
stitutional union  of  the  two  British  kingdoms. 

Edward's  greatest  title  to  fame  rests  on  the  improvements 

that  he  made  in  the  English  laws.      The  crusades  were  now 

240.  JEd-        coming  to  an  end,  and  in  Europe  as  a  whole  strong  govern- 

w ardswoi£  ments  were  arising.     Everywhere  there  was  need  that  old 

giver  laws  should  be  revised  and  new  ones  made  to  suit  the  new 

time.     The  thirteenth  century,  therefore,  was  above  all  things 

the  age  of  the  lawyer  and  legislator.     In  this  field  Edward's 

work  may  well  challenge 
comparison  with  that  of 
Frederick  II  of  Sicily 
(§  133),  and  Louis  IX  and 
Philip  IV  of  France  (§§  258- 
264).  He  revised  and  put 
in  order  the  old  laws,  and 
he  made  many  new  ones. 
Only  two  of  his  new  en- 
actments call  for  mention 
here.  The  first  of  these 


SEAL  OF  EDWARD  I 


was    the  Statute  of  Mort- 
main   (mortmain   =   "dead 


"Edward,  by  the  grace  of  God  King  of  hand"),  which  forbade  that 
England,  Lord  of  Ireland,  and  Duke  of  any  more  land  should  be 
Aquitaine." 


of  the  church,  without  the  king's  consent.  This  was  to  check 
the  amassing  of  so  much  of  the  land  of  the  kingdom  —  practi- 
cally one  third  —  by  the  church,  especially  the  monasteries. 
The  second  statute,  called  from  its  opening  words  Quia 
Empto'res,  attacked  feudalism  by  forbidding  "  subinf  eudation  " 
(§60).  Thenceforth  when  a  vassal  sold  or  otherwise  alienated 


THE   RISE   OF   PARLIAMENT  221 

any  part  of  his  land  the  new  tenant  held  it  not  of  the  seller  but 
of  the  seller's  lord. 

Edward  II  (1307-1327)  proved  an  unworthy  successor  to  his 
great  father,  and  after  many  disturbances  was  forced  to  abdicate 
in  favor  of  his  son.     Edward  III   (1327-1377)   showed          Ed_ 
something  of  the  energy  and  capacity  of  his  grandfather,   ward  II  and 
The  beginning  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  with  France  Edward  m 
(ch.  xiii)  was  the  most  notable  event  of  his  reign.    Constitutional 
progress,  however,  was  not  arrested.     Under  Edward  I  Parlia- 
ment had  assumed  definite  form;  and  under  Edward  III  and  • 
his  successors,  in  the  course  of  the  long  war  with  France,  it 
began  to  develop  the  powers  which  to-day  make  it  the  supreme 
governing  body  of  England. 

B.   THE  RISE  OF  PARLIAMENT 

There  never  has  been  a  period  since  England  was  united 
into  a  single  kingdom  when  some  sort  of  council  or  assembly 
has  not  been  called,  from  time  to  time,  to  aid  the  king  in  242.  The 
governing  his  realm.     In  the  days   of   the  Angles  and  fn^Angio- 
Saxons  this  body  was  called  the  Wti'cnagemot,  or  assem-   Saxon  times 
bly  of  wise  men.     It  was  made  up  of  the  bishops,  abbots,  king's 
thegns  (his  personal  followers),  and  chief  officers  of  the  kingdom. 
It  was  this  body  which  aided  Alfred  in  making  his  laws,  and 
which  elected  Harold  —  and  after  him  William  —  to  be  king. 

After  the  Norman  conquest,  the  king  from  time  to  time  called 
about  him  all  the  lords  who  held  land  directly  of  him  by  feudal 
tenure.     Except  for  the  fact  that  the  feudal  lords  were  243.  The 
at  first  mainly  Normans,  this  body  did  not  differ  very 
much  from  the  Witenagemot ;  for  the  great  officers  of  the  cil 
land  were  the  king's  vassals,  and  the  bishops  and  abbots  also 
held  their  lands  by  feudal  tenure.     It  was  this  Great  Council  of 
the  barons  which  settled  who  should  have  the  crown  when  there 
was  a  dispute ;   it  was  also  this  body  which  helped  the  kings  to 
carry  on  the  work  of  government.     But  the   Great  Council 
only  aided  and  advised  the  king ;  it  did  not  control  him. 


222  ENGLAND   IN  THE   MIDDLE  AGES 

What  is,  it  that  marks  the  difference  between  these  earlier 
assemblies  and  the  later  one  that  we  call  Parliament?     First, 

244.  How       Parliament  is  a  "representative"  body,  —  that  is,  it  is 
fered  from      composed  in  part  of  persons  who  do  not  sit  in  right  of 
Parliament     their  offices  or  lands,  but  who  are  elected  to  represent 

the  people.  Second,  it  is  divided  into  two  "houses,"  —a 
House  of  Lords,  and  a  House  of  Commons.  And  third,  it  has 
more  power  than  the  older  assemblies  possessed. 

The  addition  of  representatives  to  sit  with  the  great  churchmen 
and  barons  was  the  first  step  in  transforming  the  Great  Council 

245.  Repre-  into  Parliament.     The  practice  of  choosing  representatives 
inlocal65       ^0  act  in  the  name  of  the  community  was  first  used  in 
affairs  local  government.     In  the  Anglo-Saxon  time,  as  we  have 

seen  (§  78),  each  township  sent  four  representatives  to  take 
part  in  the  hundred  and  the  shire  meetings.  When  the  Normans 
came,  they  began  the  practice  of  using  committees  of  repre- 
sentatives, in  the  different  districts  of  the  country,  for  many 
purposes.  Sometimes  they  ordered  such  committees  to  declare 
what  the  old  English  law  was,  in  order  to  guide  their  judges  in 
deciding  cases.  Sometimes  such  committees  were  used  to  make 
a  list  of  all  the  property  in  their  districts,  with  the  value  of  it  and 
the  names  of  the  owners.  Henry  II  made  use  of  such  committees 
of  sworn  representatives,  or  "  juries,"  to  find  out  the  facts  in  given 
cases  at  law,  and  to  declare  their  decision  or  verdict.  The  im- 
portant thing  to  note  is  that  the  decision  which  each' jury  gave  was 
regarded  as  the  decision  of  its  community.  In  other  words,  the 
jury  "represented"  the  community  for  that  purpose,  and  its 
voice  was  taken  as  the  voice  of  its  community.  Thus,  in  many 
ways,  the  English  people  became  used  to  the  idea  of  having  rep- 
resentatives chosen  to  help  carry  on  the  work  of  local  govern- 
ment in  the  name  of  the  people  of  the  community. 

Why,  we  may  now  ask,  were  representatives  added  to  the 

246.  Repre-   Great  Council  ?    The  reason  is  that  a  time  came  when  the 
sentatives       kings  needed  more  money  to  carry  on  the  work  of  govern- 
th^Great       ment ;   and  that  this  additional  money  had  to  come,  not 
Council          only  from  the  nobles,  who  already  had  seats  in  the  Great 


THE   RISE  OF   PARLIAMENT  223 

Council,  but  also  from  the  wealthy  townsmen  and  country 
gentlemen.  It  seemed  best,  therefore,  to  ask  the  towns  and 
the  counties  to  send  representatives  to  meet  with  the  Great 
Council,  and  there  give  the  consent  of  their  communities  to 
the  new  taxes.  This  would  make  it  easier  to  collect  the  money, 
for  then  there  would  be  less  grumbling  about  it.  It  would  also 
be  in  keeping  with  the  spirit  of  that  passage  of  the  Great  Charter 
in  which  the  king  promised  not  to  collect  money  from  his  subjects 
without  their  consent.  Of  course  it  would  have  been  possible 
for  the  king's  officers  to  go  about  the  country  asking  the  consent 
of  each  community  in  turn,  and  indeed  this  was  sometimes 
done.  But  on  the  whole  it  was  felt  that  it  would  be  quicker  and 
more  satisfactory  to  bring  together  at  one  place  the  represent- 
atives of  all  the  communities  and  there  secure  their  consent. 

The  representatives  who  were  thus  called  together  were  of  two 
sorts.  First,  there  were  the  "knights  of  the  shire,"  who  rep- 
resented the  lesser  nobles  and  country  gentlemen ;  and,  247<  Knights 
second,  there  were  the  "borough  representatives,"  who  of  the  shire 
came  from  the  cities  and  towns  (boroughs)  and  repre-  (I2I3) 
sented  the  trading  classes.  The  knights  of  the  shire  were  the 
first  to  be  added  to  the  assembly.  In  1213,  for  the  first  time  the 
king  called  them  to  meet  with  the  Great  Council,  "to  speak 
with  us  concerning  the  business  of  our  kingdom."  From  time 
to  time  after  that,  "knights  of  the  shire"  were  summoned  to 
the  assembly,  until  the  practice  became  permanent.  They 
were  elected  by  the  landholders,  in  the  county  assemblies,  and 
every  county  sent  two,  no  matter  what  its  size. 

The  addition  of  the  town,  or  borough,  representatives  came 
in  1265,  when  Simon  de  Montfort  was  in  power.     To  gain  wide- 
spread support  he  summoned  representatives  from  each  248.  Bor- 
of  the  towns  favorable  to  his    cause  to   meet  with  the  ^^taT 
barons  and  the  knights  of  the  shire  in  the  Parliament  of  tives  (1265) 
that  year.     This  practice  of  summoning  representatives  of  the 
boroughs,  from  time  to  time,  was  continued  after  the  barons' 
revolt  was  put  down.     Finally,  in  1295,  King  Edward  I  called 
a  meeting  which  established  it  as  a  rule  that  in  a  Parliament 


224  ENGLAND   IN  THE  MIDDLE   AGES 

there  ought  to  be  representatives  both  of  the  counties  and  of  the 
towns.  This  was  called  the  " Model  Parliament"  because  it  be- 
came a  model  for  succeeding  ones.  Each  town  which  sent  repre- 
sentatives at  all,  in  those  days,  elected  two.  Gradually  the  place 
of  meeting  became  fixed  at  Westminster,  a  suburb  of  London. 
At  first  the  representatives  of  the  counties  and  of  the  boroughs 
sat  in  the  same  body  with  the  barons  and  great  churchmen. 

249.  Sepa-     By  tne  year  I34°j  however,  Parliament  had  separated  into 
ration  into      two    "houses."     The    upper   house    was    the   House    of 

Lords  ;  it  included  the  great  barons,  who  bore  the  titles  of 
duke,  marquis,  earl,  viscount,  and  baron,  and  had  an  hereditary 
right  to  be  summoned  to  the  Parliament.  It  also  included  the 
archbishops  and  bishops,  and  the  abbots  or  heads  of  monasteries, 
who  belonged  by  virtue  of  their  lands  and  offices.  The  lower 
house,  made  up  of  county  and  borough  members,  was  called 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  course  of  time  it  became  the  most 
important  part  of  Parliament.  This  was  because  it  especially 
was  called  upon  to  vote  the  taxes  which  the  king  needed  for 
carrying  on  the  government.  For  a  time  the  towns  and  counties 
looked  upon  representation  in  Parliament  as  a  burden.  Gradu- 
ally their  representatives  began  to  hold  back  the  voting  of 
taxes  until  the  king  and  his  ministers  promised  to  correct  any 
grievances  of  which  they  complained.  Then  it  was  seen  that 
the  right  of  voting  taxes  was  a  great  and  valuable  power,  and  the 
people  no  longer  complained  of  being  represented  in  Parliament. 
At  first  it  was  not  certain  whether  the  House  of  Commons 
would  be  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  lawmaking  power,  or 

250.  The        whether  it  would  be  allowed  only  to  vote  taxes.     In  his 
given^equai    summons  to  the  Model  Parliament,  however,  Edward  I 
powers          laid  down  the  principle  that  "what  concerns  all  should 

be  approved  by  all."  Twenty-seven  years  later,  the  rule  was 
definitely  stated  that  all  matters  which  concerned  the  kingdom 
and  the  people  "shall  be  established  in  Parliament,  by  the 
King,  and  by  the  consent  of  the  Lords  and  the  Commons  of  the 
realm."  From  this  time  on,  the  powers  of  the  Commons  grew, 
until  they  are  now  much  greater  than  those  of  the  Lords. 


THE   RISE   OF   PARLIAMENT  225 

But  we  must  not  think  of  these  early  Parliaments  as  having 
the  great  powers  which  Parliaments  have  to-day.  The  king 
was  still  much  more  powerful  than  the  Parliament,  2gl 
though  since  the  granting  of  the  Great  Charter  it  was  mentnot 
recognized  that  the  king  was  below  the  law  and  not  above  yet  supre 
it.  In  making  new  laws,  and  in  laying  new  taxes,  he  needed  the 
consent  of  Parliament ;  but  in  carrying  on  the  general  business 
of  the  government  —  in  making  war  and  in  concluding  peace  — 
he  could  act  without  Parliament.  Often  he  consulted  Parlia- 
ment about  such  matters,  but  he  could  act  as  he  pleased.  The 
ministers  who  carried  on  the  government  were  still  the  king's 
ministers,  and  responsible  to  him  only.  It  was  tcf  be  several 
centuries  yet — and  two  civil  wars  were  to  be  fought,  and  one  king 
beheaded  and  two  deposed  —  before  Parliament  was  recognized 
as  the  chief  power  in  the  government. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  the  frame- 
work of  the  legislative  assembly  in  England  was  complete.  The 
importance  of  this  development  is  not  due  solely  to  the  great 
part  which  that  assembly  has  played  in  the  government  of 
Great  Britain.  In  modern  times  the  English  Parliament  became 
"the  Mother  of  Parliaments"  for  other  countries  also.  Indeed, 
it  is  not  going  too  far  to  say  that  the  greatest  thing  that  England 
has  done  for  the  world  was  to  give  it  this  system  of  legislative 
assemblies  (including  our  Congress  and  state  legislatures),  by 
which  practically  the  whole  world  is  now  governed. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1100-1135.  Henry  I,  the  "Lion  of  Justice." 

1154-1189.  Henry  II  reforms  the  government  and  introduces  jury  trial. 

1170.  Thomas  Becket  murdered. 

1206.  King  John  loses  Normandy. 

1213.  Knights  of  the  shire  first  summoned  to  Parliament. 

1215.  The  Great  Charter  granted. 

1265.  Borough  representatives  added  to  Parliament;  Montfort  slain. 

1284.  Edward  I  completes  the  conquest  of  Wales. 

1295.  The  Model  Parliament  of  Edward  I. 

1327.  Edward  II  deposed  and  Edward  HI  becomes  king. 

1340.  Parliament  separated  into  two  houses. 


226  ENGLAND   IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Was  the  Norman  conquest  a  good  or  a  bad  thing 
for  England?  Why?  (2)  What  feature  of  feudalism  is  illustrated  by 
the  anarchy  under  Stephen  ?  (3)  Show  on  an  outline  map  the  lands  ruled 
by  Henry  II.  Show  also  those  lost  by  John.  (4)  What  advantages  does 
trial  by  jury  have  over  the  older  forms  of  trial?  (5)  Was  more  right  on 
the  side  of  Henry  II  or  of  Becket  in  their  quarrel?  Give  your  reasons. 
(6)  Why  was  Richard  I  a  poor  ruler?  (7)  How  did  the  battle  of  Bouvines 
affect  England?  (8)  Commit  to  memory  the  sentence  from  the  Great 
Charter  which  is  quoted  in  this  chapter.  (9)  Did  that  charter  grant 
any  new  rights  to  Englishmen  ?  (10)  Why  is  it  so  important  in  English 
history  ?  (n)  Point  out  the  importance  of  the  work  of  Edward  I  as  a  law- 
giver. (12)  Show  how  the  representative  system  of  government  made 
self-government  possible  for  larger  districts  than  in  ancient  times.  (13)  Can 
you  name  any  important  countries  to-day  in  which  Parliaments  do  not  exist  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  JUDICIAL  REFORMS  OF  HENRY  II.  Cheyney, 
Short  History  of  England,  148-154;  Montague,  English  Constitutional 
History,  47-50;  Mrs.  Green,  Henry  II,  116-126.  —  (2)  HENRY  II  AND 
THOMAS  BECKET.  Green,  Short  History,  106-109;  Cheyney,  Readings, 
143-164;  Mrs.  Green,  Henry  II,  ch.  vii.  —  (3)  THE  Loss  OF  NORMANDY. 
Green,  History  of  the  English  People,  Bk.  II,  ch.  iv.  —  (4)  JOHN'S  QUARREL 
WITH  THE  POPE.  Green,  Short  History,  1 2  2-1 25  ;  Green,  Henry  II;  Milman, 
Latin  Christianity,  Bk.  IX,  ch.  v.  —  (5)  WINNING  THE  GREAT  CHARTER. 
Green,  History  of  the  English  People,  Bk,  II,  last  half  ch.  ii;  Ogg,  Source 
Book,  297-310;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  231-238. — 
(6)  SIMON  DE  MONTFORT.  Green,  Short  History,  152-160;  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XVIII,  781-782;  Hutton,  Simon  de  Montfort  and 
his  Cause  (sources).  —  (7)  CHARACTER  AND  WORK  OF  EDWARD  I.  Tout, 
Edward  I,  ch.  iv.  —  (8)  THE  CONQUEST  OF  WALES.  Tout,  Edward  /, 
ch.  vi;  Green,  Short  History,  161-169.  —  (9)  WARS  OF  EDWARD  I  WITH 
SCOTLAND.  Tout,  Edward  I,  chs.  x,  xii;  Green,  Short  History,  181- 
193.  —  (10)  THE  ORIGIN  OF  PARLIAMENT.  Ilbert,  Parliament,  7-20; 
Boutmy,  English  Constitution,  55-69;  Tout,  Edward  I,  ch.  viii;  Green, 
Short  History,  169-181. 

General  Reading.  —  In  addition  to  the  general  histories  of  England  and 
the  works  referred  to  in  connection  with  the  search  topics,  see  Miss  Norgate's 
John  Lackland,  Taswell-Langmead's  Constitutional  History  of  England, 
and  Skottowe's  Short  History  of  Parliament.  Medley's  Manual  of  English 
Constitutional  History  is  an  excellent  book,  topically  arranged.  Pollard's 
History  of  England  (Home  University  Library)  is  a  brilliant  sketch  in  247 
pages.  The  articles  in  the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography  (2d  ed.,  22 
vols.)  are  of  the  highest  value  for  the  teacher  and  advanced  student. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   GROWTH    OF  FRANCE    (987-1337) 
A.  Louis  VI  AND  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS 

WHEN  Hugh  Capet  came  to  the  throne  of  France,  in  987 
(§41),  feudal  tendencies  had  overmastered  the  monarchy. 
What  is  now  France  was  then  only  a  bundle  of  feudal  252.  Deve 
fragments,  steadily  growing  farther  apart  in  language,  ™* 
in  law,  and  in  political  feeling.  It  was  the  work  of  the  power 
Capetian  kings  to  reunite  these  fragments,  to  form  a  strong 
monarchy,  and  to  arouse  in  it  a  national  enthusiasm.  Three 
centuries  passed  before  the  task  was  approximately  completed. 
The  Capetian  kings  were  assisted  in  the  work  by  their  possession 
of  extensive  estates  in  northern  France,  by  the  support  of  the 
church  and  the  towns,  and  by  the  moral  authority  which 
attached  to  the  office  of  king.  A  chief  means  used  to  effect 
the  transformation  was  by  increasing  the  area  of  the  royal 
domain,  —  that  is,  of  those  lands  which  were  directly  under  the 
control  of  the  crown;  for  the  extension  of  the  royal  domain 
brought  increased  revenues  and  more  numerous  retainers. 

Under   the  first   four    Capetian    kings l   little   was    accom- 
plished;  but  beginning  with  Louis  VI,  in  1108,  rapid  progress 

1  The  kings  of  the  direct  Capetian  line,  with  the  dates  of  their  reigns,  were  as 
follows :  — 


Hugh  Capet 987-996 

Robert 996-1031 

Henry  I 1031-1060 

Philip  I 1060-1108 

Louis  VI 1108-1137 

Louis  VII 1137-1180 

Philip  II,  Augustus  .     .     .  1180-1223 


Louis  VIII  .......  1223-1226 

Louis  DC 1226-1270 

Philip  III 1270-1285 

Philip  IV 1285-1314 

Louis  X 1314-1316 

Philip  V 1316-1322 

Charles  IV  .  .  1322-1328 


227 


228  THE  GROWTH  OF  FRANCE 

was  made.  By  purchase,  marriage,  inheritance,  and  forfeiture, 
fief  after  fief  was  acquired,  until  at  last  the  royal  domain 
included  almost  the  whole  of  France.  To  keep  what  was 
gained,  the  principle  of  hereditary  succession  to  the  crown  was 
established,  as  against  that  of  election  (§  41).  Until  hereditary 
succession  was  fully  recognized,  the  son  was  usually  elected  in 
the  father's  lifetime  as  his  associate  and  successor.  The  fortu- 
nate fact  that,  unlike  the  German  imperial  houses,  the  Capetians 
for  eleven  generations  (until  1316)  never  lacked  a  son  to  receive 
the  scepter  from  the  father,  and  that  only  once  was  a  long 
regency  necessary,  greatly  aided  them  in  transforming  the 
monarchy  from  an  elective  to  an  hereditary  basis. 

Louis  VI  (1108-1137)  is  styled  "the  Fat,"  but  he  was  the 
embodiment  of  warlike  energy.     His  great  task  was  to  reduce  to 

253.  Royal     order  the  petty  nobles  of  the  royal  domain,  who  were 
ducecUo*6'     ^k  better  tnan  brigands.     The  conditions  which  pre- 
order  vailed  in  France  at  this  time  were  similar  to  those  which 

existed  in  England  under  Stephen  (§  230).  Every  lord  of  a  castle 
robbed  at  will,  and  some  tortured  with  fiendish  cruelty  those 
who  fell  into  their  hands.  Twenty  years  of  hard  fighting  was 
necessary  before  the  last  of  these  brigands  was  crushed.  In 
order  that  such  evils  might  not  again  occur,  every  fortress  taken 
was  destroyed  or  intrusted  to  faithful  persons. 

The  greater  task  of  breaking  the  English  power  in  France  was 
reserved  for  Louis's  grandson,  Philip  II  (1180-1223).     You  will 

254.  Philip     recall  that  Henry  II,  the  first  Angevin  king  of  England, 
Augustus       held  vast  possessions  in  France  (map  for  1180,  p.  240). 
Angevin         These  possessions  included  more  than  half  of  the  territory 
power  jn  which  Philip  was  recognized  as  king,  and  were  many 

times  greater  than  the  royal  domain  itself.  It  therefore  became 
the  chief  principle  of  French  policy  to  stir  up  dissensions  in  the 
English  royal  family,  and  to  separate  the  continental  possessions 
of  England  from  the  island  kingdom.  Unlike  his  contemporary, 
Richard  I  of  England,  Philip  had  little  of  the  knight  errant  in 
his  character.  He  was  patient  and  persevering,  a  master  of 
statecraft  and  of  diplomacy ;  he  knew  how  to  dissimulate,  and 


LOUIS   VI   AND    PHILIP  AUGUSTUS 


229 


SEAL  OF  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS 

"Philip,   by   God's  grace  King  of  the 
French  " 


was  unscrupulous  in  his  choice  of  means.     "He  was  stern,"  says 
a  contemporary,  "toward  the  nobles  who  disobeyed  him.     It 

pleased  him  to  stir  up  Chronideof 
discord  among  them,  and  a  Canon  of 
he  loved  to  use  in  his  £££<- 
service    men    of    lesser  France, 
rank."     Another  chroni-  xvm'  3°4) 
cler  gave  him  the  name  of  Au- 
gustus, "because  he  enlarged 
the  boundaries  of  the  state." 

Philip's  part  in  the  Third 
Crusade  (§  168)  was  a  mere 
episode  of  his  reign.  His  heart 
was  not  in  the  work,  and  as 
soon  as  the  sense  of  obligation 
would  permit,  he  returned  to 
France,  to  scheme  against  his 
rival.  But  Richard's  military  and  engineering  ability,  and  a 
conflict  with  the  papacy  caused  by  Philip's  attempt  to  divorce 
his  first  wife,  prevented  Philip  from  accomplishing  much  at 
that  time.  The  weakness  and  wickedness  of  Richard's  succes- 
sor, John,  however,  gave  him  his  opportunity.  In  1202  the  Eng-  » 
lish  fiefs  were  declared  forfeited  (§  236).  Castle  after  castle 
was  then  taken,  including  the  famous  Chateau  Gaillard,  built  by 
Richard  to  guard  the  passage  of  the  river  Seine.  All  the  Eng- 
lish fiefs  except  Aquitaine  passed  into  Philip's  hands  ;  and  the 
battle  of  Bouvines  (12,14)  secured  him  in  possession.  A  vast 
domain,  with  an  extensive  seaboard,  thus  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  French  king,  lifting  him  far  above  the  level  of  his  greatest 
vassals. 

In  the  reign  of  Philip  Augustus  was  begun  also  the  movement 
to  stamp  out  the  Albigensian  heresy  in  southern  France  (de- 
scribed  in  chapter  x).     The  results  for  civilization  and  255.  Addi- 
the  church  of  the  Albigensian  Crusade  have  already  been  3°^*°  tt 
noted ;  we  have  here  only  to  set  forth  its  effect  in  increas-   (1229-1271) 
ing  the  French  royal  power.      Under  the  treaty  which  ended 


230 


THE   GROWTH   OF   FRANCE 


that  war  (1229),  a  great  part  of  the  estates  of  the  count  of  Tou- 
louse passed  immediately  to  the  royal  domain ;  and  another  large 
part  was  gained,  some  forty  years  later,  upon  the  death  of  the 
count's  daughter  and  heiress.  These  gains  in  southern  France 
almost  equaled  in  extent  those  made  in  the  north  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  king  of  England.  A  comparison  of  the  upper 
two  maps  on  page  240  will  show  how  greatly  the  royal  do- 
main was  increased  in  the  hundred  years  which  followed  the 
accession  of  Philip  Augustus.  From  a  little  district  about 
Paris  and  Orleans,  less  than  200  miles  in  length,  the  territory 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  French  king  increased  until 
it  extended  from  Flanders  on  the  north  to  the  Pyrenees  Moun- 
tains on  the  south,  and  from  the  Atlantic  on  the  west  to  the 
river  Rhone  on  the  east.  And  the  greater  part  of  this  vast  gain 
was  due  to  the  statesmanship  of  this  wise  king,  Philip  Augustus. 
The  development  of  the  towns,  which  was  sketched  in  a 
preceding  chapter,  went  on  at  a  rapid  rate  under  King  Philip ; 

256.  Paris      for  he  welcomed    r  n 

the  capital  the  towns  as 
useful  allies 
against  the  feudal 
nobles.  City  independ- 
ence, however,  was  no 
part  of  his  plan;  and 
if  with  one  hand  he 
granted  charters  of  lib- 
erties to  the  towns, 
with  the  other  he  ex- 
tended the  royal  su- 
premacy over  them. 

Paris,  as  the  chief 
place  of  the  royal  do- 
main, calls  for  special 
mention.  In  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar,  Paris  was  a  little 
cluster  of  huts  on  a  marshy  island  of  the  river  Seine.  During 
the  five  hundred  years  of  Roman  rule  it  grew  to  be  a  provincial 


PARIS  UNDER  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS 


CATHEDRAL  OF  NOTRE  DAME,  PARIS 

Founded  1163;   completed  about  1240.     Defaced  in  the  French  Revolution,  but  subse- 
quently restored 

231 


23  2 


THE   GROWTH   OF   FRANCE 


capital.  By  making  it  his  ordinary  place  of  residence,  Philip 
Augustus  caused  it  to  become  the  first  national  capital  of  a 
modern  state.  His  fostering  care  increased  its  area,  erected  new 
walls  (inclosing  territory  on  both  banks  of  the  river),  and  paved 
its  streets  to  do  away  with  their  ill-smelling  and  unsanitary 
mudholes.  He  also  adorned  it  with  its  chief  ornament  by  ar- 
ranging for  the  completion  of  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  — 
one  of  the  noblest  examples  of  Gothic  architecture. 

B.  Louis  IX  (SAINT  Louis)  AND  PHILIP  IV 
The  organization  of  the  territory  won  by  Philip  Augustus 
was  largely  the  work  of  Louis  IX  (1226-1270)  and  of  Philip  IV 
(1285-1314). 

Louis  IX  possessed  virtues  which 
won  for  him  the  title  of   "  Saint," 

257-  and  abilities  which  insured  the 

entile'0'      steady   g^wth   of    the   royal 

regent  power.     He  had  all  the  good 

qualities  of  his  age,  and  few  of  its  bad 
ones.  Until  he  attained  the  age  of 
twenty-one  (in  1236),  the  govern- 
ment was  carried  on  by  his  mother, 
Blanche  of  Castile.  She  was  a  high- 
minded,  ambitious,  capable,  and 
pious  woman,  and  it  was  from  her 
that  Louis  derived  his  best  quali- 
ties. The  nobles  resented  her  rule 
because  she  was  a  woman  and  a 
foreigner.  They  also  thought  the 
occasion  favorable  to  regain  lost  ter- 
ritories and  privileges.  The  courage 
and  ability  of  Blanche,  however, 
were  more  than  a  match  for  her 
enemies.  It  is  not  too  much  to 
say  that  she  saved  the  monarchy ;  and  until  her  death,  in  1252. 
she  exercised  a  powerful  influence  on  the  French  government. 


SAINT  Louis 

A  wooden  statue  in  the  Musee 
de  Cluny,  Paris 


LOUIS  IX   (SAINT  LOUIS)   AND   PHILIP  IV  233 

The  most  important  work  of  Louis's  personal  reign  was  his 
administrative  reforms  and  his  legislation.  The  great  in- 
crease in  the  royal  domain  under  Philip  Augustus,  and  258.  Re- 
the  reduction  of  the  feudal  nobility  within  its  borders,  j^gix 
made  necessary  a  new  system  of  local  government.  The  (1226-1270) 
domain  was  divided  into  great  provinces,  each  under  a  royal 
official  who  corresponded  roughly  to  the  sheriff  of  an  English 
shire  or  county.  These  royal  officials  appointed  inferior  officers, 
administered  justice,  collected  the  royal  revenues,  and  were  re- 
sponsible to  the  central  government  for  the  general  administra- 
tion of  their  districts.  Since  they  were  usually  chosen  from 
among  the  king's  own  officers,  they  were  more  loyal  to  his  in- 
terests, and  more  impartial  in  their  administration  of  justice, 
than  officers  chosen  from  the  feudal  nobles.  They  were  an  im- 
portant aid,  indeed,  in  keeping  the  latter  in  check.  Louis  also 
improved  the  administration  of  justice  by  abolishing  trial  by 
combat,  by  encouraging  appeals  to  the  king's  court,  by  in- 
creasing the  number  of  cases  which  had  to  be  tried  in  that 
court  in  the  first  instance,  and  by  introducing  into  the  adminis- 
tration lawyers  trained  in  the  principles  of  the  Roman  law. 

Louis's  crusades  to  Egypt  (1248-1254)  and  to  Tunis  (1270) 
won  him  wide  renown  for  his  devotion  and  courage  (§  172). 
They  need  not,  however,  be  discussed  here,  as  they  were  of  little 
importance  for  the  history  of  France. 

Louis's  grandson,  Philip  IV  (1285-1314),  who  was  called  "the 
Fair"  on  account  of  his  good  looks,  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant kings  of  medieval  France.     A  modern  writer  says  2S     Rei 
of   this   king   that   "he   set   a   mark   upon   French   life  of  Philip  iv 
and  government  which  has  never  been  completely  effaced,   (I2°5-i3i4) 
not  even  by  the  floods  of  successive  revolutions."     His  reign, 
however,  had  little  in  it  that  was  picturesque.     His  most  impor- 
tant military  project  was  the  attempted   annexation  of  Lod  e  Closl 
Flanders,  whose  count  had  allied  himself  with  the  English,   of  Middle 
with  whom  Philip  was  on  bad  terms.     The  count  was  Ages'  49 
easily  overcome,  but  this  was  not  the  case  with  the  sturdy 
Flemish  townsmen.     The  oppressions  of  French  governors  soon 


234  THE   GROWTH  OF  FRANCE 

caused  them  to  revolt,  and  in  1302  they  routed  the  knights  of 
the  French  king  in  the  battle  of  Courtrai  (koor-tre') .  This  was 
the  first  of  a  long  series  of  battles  which  taught  Europe  that 
foot  soldiers,  if  properly  armed  and  handled,  were  more  than 
a  match  for  mounted  men  at  arms.  The  attempt  to  annex 
Flanders  was  perforce  given  up.  The  only  important  additions 
which  Philip  IV  made  to  the  royal  domain  were  the  city  of 
Lyons,  on  the  river  Rhone,  and  the  county  of  Champagne, 
east  of  Paris,  —  both  made  by  peaceable  methods. 

But  if  Philip  the  Fair  failed  to  make  much  increase  in  the 
royal  domain,  he  left  his  impress  deep  and  wide  upon  the  govern- 

260.  He  or-    ment.     He  completed  the  work,  begun  by  his  predecessors, 
centra?  ^v-    °^  organizmg  the  central  administration.     Royal  officials 
ernment         were    now    distributed   definitely   among    three   distinct 

branches  of  the  government :  (i)  the  Council,  for  political  af- 
fairs; (2)  the  Exchequer,  for  finance,  with  duties  similar  to 
those  of  the  English  Exchequer  organized  by  Henry  II;  and 
(3)  the  Parlement  (par-le-maN')  of  Paris,  for  judicial  business. 
The  difference  in  function  between  the  French  Parlement  and 
the  English  Parliament  must  be  carefully  noted.  Both  names 
are  derived  from  the  same  root  (the  French  verb  parler,  mean- 
ing to  speak).  But  the  English  Parliament  is  a  legislative 
body,  while  the  Parlement  of  Paris  was  primarily  a  supreme 
court,  hearing  appeals  from  lower  courts  and  trying  cases  which 
were  in  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  king.  In  all  these 
branches  of  the  central  government  Philip  kept  the  administra- 
tion in  the  hands  of  men  of  humble  origin,  who  were  trained 
in  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  law.  Their  zeal  and  loyalty 
were  a  constant  support  to  the  crown. 

The  body  which  in  medieval  France  corresponded  most  closely 
to   the   English   Parliament   was    the    Estates-General.     This 

261.  First       was  called  together,  for  the  first  time,  by  Philip  IV  in 
General          Z3°2-     Its  nistory  differs  from  that  of  the  English  Parlia- 
(1302)  ment  in  that  its  three  "estates"  (the  clergy,  the  nobility, 

and  the  commons,  or  Third  Estate)  remained  distinct  from 
one  another.  Class  and  local  interests,  therefore,  controlled 


LOUIS  IX   (SAINT  LOUIS)   AND   PHILIP  IV  235 

its  action,  and  it  never  attained  the  regularity  of  session  and  the 
extensive  powers  which  gave  the  English  Parliament  its  great 
strength. 

Another  important  feature  of  Philip's  reign  was  his  struggle 
with  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  The  question  at  issue  was  whether  the 
papacy  should  rule  over  European  states  in  temporal  as  well  262  c 
as  in  spiritual  matters.  Gregory  VII,  Innocent  III,  and  now  test  with 
Boniface  VIII,  advanced  claims  which  would  have  made  the  Pope 
kings  and  Emperors  mere  vassals  and  dependents  of  the  papacy ; 
and  the  papal  triumph  over  the  house  of  Frederick  II  (§  137) 
seemed  firmly  to  establish  these  principles.  But  in  France, 
as  also  in  England,  a  national  sentiment  was  arising  which 
enabled  the  king  to  maintain  his  independence.  In  both 
countries  the  quarrel  arose  over  a  bull  issued  by  Boniface 
(called  from  its  opening  words  Clericis  Laicos),  which  forbade 
the  payment  of  taxes  by  the  clergy  to  the  laity.  In  England, 
Edward  I  brought  the  clergy  to  terms  by  withdrawing  from  them 
the  protection  of  the  law,  since  they  refused  to  pay  taxes  to 
support  the  government.  In  France,  Philip  answered  the  Pope's 
bull  by  prohibiting  the  export  of  money  from  France,  thus 
cutting  off  contributions  to  Rome.  The  immediate  question  of 
the  right  of  the  state  to  tax  the  clergy  was  compromised;  but 
disputes  continued  between  the  Pope  and  the  king  of  France 
over  the  right  claimed  by  the  former  to  intervene  in  the  French 
government.  At  last  Pope  Boniface  VIII  prepared  to  put 
into  execution  the  powers  which  he  claimed,  and  to  de- 
clare King  Philip  excommunicated  and  deposed  from  his 
throne.1 

1  In  the  course  of  the  struggle  with  Philip,  Pope  Boniface  issued  a  bull  called 
Unam  Sanctam.  In  this  the  papal  claims  to  temporal  power  were  stated  in  their 
most  explicit  form.  "There  are  two  swords,"  argued  Boniface,  quoting  Saint  Luke 
(xx,  38),  "the  spiritual  and  the  temporal.  Our  Lord  said  not  of  these  two  swords, 
'  it  is  too  much,'  but,  'it  is  enough.'  Both  are  in  the  power  of  the  church :  the  one 
(the  spiritual)  to  be  used  by  the  church,  the  other  (the  material),  for  the  church ;  the 
former  that  of  priests,  the  latter  that  of  kings  and  soldiers,  to  be  wielded  at  the  com- 
mand and  by  the  sufferance  of  the  priest.  One  sword  must  be  under  the  other,  the 
temporal  under  the  spiritual.  The  spiritual  instituted  the  temporal  power,  and 
judges  whether  that  power  is  well  exercised.  If  the  temporal  power  errs,  it  is  judged 


236  THE  GROWTH  OF  FRANCE 

To  prevent  the  issuing  of  the  bull  of  excommunication,  agents 
of  the  French  king,  acting  with  Boniface's  Italian  enemies, 
seized  the  Pope  at  the  little  town  of  Anagni  (a-nan'ye), 
Pope  seized    near  Rome,  whither  he  had  retired  for  the  summer.     He 
at  Anagni       was  msuited  and  threatened  with  deposition,  and  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  his  Italian  enemies  were  prevented 
from  doing  him  personal  violence.     After  three  days'  imprison- 
ment he  was  set  free.     Boniface  was  now  an  old  man,  and  the 
shock  of  this  humiliation  was  such  that  he  died  within  a  few 
weeks  (1303).     He  was  the  last  of  the  great  medieval  Popes. 

The  affair  at  Anagni  is  the  counterpart  to  the  humiliation  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV  at  Canossa  (§  113).     The  papacy  had 
264.  French  triumphed  over  the  empire  because  it  had  been  able  to 
overthe         st*r  UP  ret>em'on  in  the  Emperor's  loosely  united  dominions, 
papacy  But  the  new  national   monarchies,   when  under  strong 

kings,  were  proof  against  rebellion,  for  they  were  grounded  on 
national  interest  and  a  rising  sense  of  national  patriotism. 
Philip  IV  violated  the  independence  of  the  papacy  without  a 
blow  being  struck  in  its  behalf.  In  the  college  of  cardinals 
itself  his  influence  was  strong  enough  to  secure  the  election  of  a 
successor  to  Boniface  who  pardoned  the  insult,  and  favored 
the  French  claims.  On  the  ground  that  Rome  was  unsafe 
as  a  papal  residence,  because  of  political  troubles  in  Italy, 
the  papacy  was  removed  from  Rome  to  France  (1305),  and 
was  soon  established  at  Avignon  (a-ven-yoN') .  There  it  re- 
mained for  about  seventy  years,  —  until  1377.  This  is  the 
period  called  the  "Babylonian  Captivity"  of  the  church  (§318), 
in  which  France  controlled  the  papacy  as  the  German  Emperors 
had  controlled  it  in  the  days  before  Hildebrand. 

Under  Philip  IV,  France  was  indisputably  the  first  power  of 
Europe,  and  its  strength  was  exercised  without  scruple.  Well 
might  the  Italian  poet  Dante  speak  of  the  Capetians  as  "the 
evil  tree  whose  deadly  shade  all  Christendom  doth  fill." 

by  the  spiritual.  To  deny  this,  is  to  assert  with  the  heretics  two  coequal  principles. 
We  therefore  assert,  define,  and  pronounce  that  it  is  necessary  to  salvation  to  believe 
that  every  human  being  is  subject  to  the  Pontiff  of  Rome." 


ACCESSION  OF  THE  V ALOIS  KINGS  237 

C.   ACCESSION  OF  THE  VALOIS  KINGS  (1328) 

The  death  of  Philip  IV,  in  1314,  was  followed  by  the  rule, 
in  rapid  succession,  of  his  three  sons,  —  Louis  X,.  Philip  V,  and 
Charles  IV.     The  chief  interest  of  these  reigns  lies  in 
the  question  of  the  succession  to  the  throne.     Louis  X  cession  to 
was  the  first  Capetian  king  to  die  without  a  son,  and  for  t*16  throne 
the  first  time  the  question  arose  whether  a  woman  could 
reign.     An  assembly  of  the  nobles  and  clergy  decided  against 
Louis's  daughter  and  in  favor  of  his  brother  Philip.     Thus  a 
new  rule  of  succession  was  established,  in  accordance  with  which 
no  queen  has  ever  held  sway  over  France  in  her  own  right. 

When  Charles  IV,  the  last  of  the  Capetians  in  the  direct  line, 
died  (in  1328)  without  a  son,  this  rule  received  a  further  exten- 
sion. The  councilors  of  young  Edward  III  of  England  claimed 
the  throne  for  him  as  the  nearest  male  heir,  through  his  mother, 
who  was  a  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  A  French  assembly  decided, 
however,  that  not  only  was  a  woman  herself  debarred  from  the 
succession,  but  she  could  transmit  no  claim  to  her  son.  This 
is  the  principle  to  which  the  name  "Sal'ic  law"  was  afterward 
given,  on  the  supposition  that  it  was  based  on  a  provision  of 
the  old  law  of  the  Salian  Franks.  In  reality  it  was  based  on  the 
unwillingness  of  the  French  nobles  to  receive  a  foreigner  as 
king,  and  at  the  time  nothing  was  said  of  the  Salic  law. 

The  choice  of  the  nobles  fell  upon  Philip  of  Valois  (val-wa/), 
representative  of  the  nearest  male  line  of  the  Capetian  house.1 
Under  the  name  of  Philip  VI  he  was  accepted  by  France ;  and 

1  The  following  genealogy  will  show  the  rival  claims  of  the  house  of  Valois  and 
Edward  III :  — 

(i)  PHILIP  III  (1270-1285) 


. 

(2)  PHIL 

tpIV  (1285-1314) 

Charles,  Count  of  Valois 

(6)  PHILIP  VI  (1328-1350) 
first  king  of  Valois  house,  which  possessed 
the  throne  until  1498  (see  p.  360) 

(3)  Louis  X                (4)  PHILIP  V 
(1314-1316)                 (1316-1322) 

(5)  CHARLES  IV                Isabella,  m.  Edward  II 
(1322-1328)                              of  England 

Edward  III 


238  THE   GROWTH  OF  FRANCE 

in  1329,  and  again  in  1331,  Edward  III  acknowledged  him  as  his 
lord  for  the  fief  of  Guienne  (ge-en',  i.e.  Aquitaine).  Other 
causes,  however,  soon  led  to  war  between  England  and  France, 
and  then  the  claim  of  Edward  III  to  the  French  throne  became 
a  factor  in  the  contest  which  we  call  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 
A  comparison  of  the  development  of  France  during  the  Middle 
Ages  with  that  of  Germany  and  England  is  instructive.  In 

266.  French,   Germany  the  decentralizing  tendencies  of  feudalism  pre- 
German,        vailed.     A  minute  territorial  division  was  the  result,  and 
develop-        the  Emperor  was  despoiled  of  all  power,  without  profit 
ment  to  the  people.     In  England  the  struggle  between  the  feudal 

nobles  and  the  crown  produced  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
under  which  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people  rapidly  de- 
veloped. In  France  the  crown  grew  at  the  expense  of  the  feudal 
nobles ;  but  this  was  without  gain  to  the  people,  save  through 
the  greater  security  and  better  government  which  followed. 

After  the  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufen  house  (§  137)  France  be- 
came the  most  important  country  of  Europe.     The  part  which 

267.  French   ^e  Emperors  formerly  had  played  in  Italy  was  now  taken 
art  and          by  the  French  kings.     The  intellectual  and  artistic  in- 
fluence of  France  was  also  great.      "Her  intellect,"  says 

an  eminent  historian,  "gave  expression  to  the  whole  civilization 
of  that  period,  —  religious,  feudal,  and  knightly.  The  French 
wrote  heroic  poems,  built  castles  and  cathedrals,  and  inter- 
preted the  texts  of  Aristotle  and  the  Scriptures.  Their  songs, 
buildings,  and  scholastic  philosophy  verged  upon  perfection. 

Lavisse,  Gen-   Already  independent,  already  mobile  and  sprightly,  the 
View  oj     French  mind  freed  itself  from  tradition  and  authority. 
Xt  produced  the  aerial   grace  of   Gothic   art.     Christian 

Europe,  61-  Europe  copied  French  cathedrals,  recited  French  heroic 
and  humorous  songs,  and  thus  learned  the  French  language. 
Almost  all  the  universities  of  Europe  were  like  swarms  of  bees 
from  the  hive  of  Mount  Saint  Genevieve  [University  of  Paris]. 
A  proverb  said  that  the  world  was  ruled  by  three  powers,  — 
the  Papacy,  the  Empire,  and  Learning;  the  first  residing  in 
Rome,  the  second  in  Germany,  the  third  in  Paris." 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  239 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1108-1137.  Louis  VI  reduces  the  crown  domain  to  order. 

1202-1206.  Philip  Augustus  breaks  the  Angevin  power  in  France. 

1214.  Battle  of  Bouvines. 

1226-1270.  Reign  of  Louis  IX  (Saint  Louis). 

1285-1314.  Reign  of  Philip  IV. 

1302.  Battle  of  Courtrai. 

1302.  First  meeting  of  the  Estates-General. 

1305.  Seat  of  papacy  transferred  to  France;  beginning  of  Babylonian 

Captivity. 

1316.  Women  excluded  from  the  French  throne. 
1328.  Claims  of  Edward  III  of  England  to  the  French  throne  rejected, 

and  Philip  VI,  of  the  house  of  Valois,  made  king. 

TOPICS   AND    REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  How  did  the  possession  of  England  by  the  Nor- 
man dukes  change  their  relations  with  the  kings  of  France?  (2)  What 
does  the  length  of  the  struggle  to  reduce  the  domain  to  order  show  concern- 
ing the  power  of  the  French  crown  at  this  time?  (3)  Make  a  list  of  the 
things  which  contributed  to  the  growth  of  the  power  of  the  French  kings. 
(4)  What  was  the  chief  difference  between  the  Parlement  of  Paris  and  the 
English  Parliament  ?  (5)  What  preliminary  training  of  the  English  helped 
to  make  their  Parliament  more  effective  than  the  French  Estates-General? 
(6)  What  arguments  could  be  advanced  on  the  side  of  Philip  IV  and  of  Boni- 
face VIII  in  their  quarrel  over  taxation?  (7)  How  do  you  account  for 
the  preeminence  of  France  over  other  countries  in  the  Middle  Ages  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  PERSONALITY  OF  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS.  Dunn  Pattison, 
Leading  Figures  in  European  History;  Hutton,  Philip  Augustus,  15-18, 
204-225.  —  (2)  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ANGEVINS.  Hutton,  Philip  Augustus, 
ch.  iii.  —  (3)  BATTLE  OF  BOUVINES.  Hutton,  Philip  Augustus,  ch.  iv; 
Oman,  Art  of  War,  457-479.  —  (4)  PARIS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  Tout, 
Empire  and  Papacy,  403;  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XX,  813- 
818. —  (5)  PERSONALITY  OF  Louis  IX.  Perry,  St.  Louis,  ch.  xi;  Munro 
and  Sellery,  Medieval  Civilization,  491-523;  Ogg,  Source  Book,  ch.  xix. — 
(6)  PHILIP  IV  AND  BONIFACE  VIII.  Milman,  Latin  Christianity,  Bk.  XI, 
ch. .  ix.  —  (7)  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FRENCH  INSTITUTIONS  COMPARED 
WITH  THOSE  OF  ENGLAND.  Adams,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
320-331. 

General  Reading.  —  Adams's  Growth  of  the  French  Nation  is  the  best  brief 
history  of  France.  Other  histories  in  English  afe  Jameson's  edition  of 
Duruy's  France,  Masson's  Medieval  France,  and  Kitchin's  History  of  France 
(3  vols.). 


13  SO 

lish  Possessions 
r~71     French  Royal  Domain 
I  I     Other  French  Territory 


ENGLISH  POSSESSIONS   IN  FRANCE,  1  ISO- 1439 

AFTER  1453  ENGLAND  RETAINED   ONLY  CALAIS,  AS  ON  P.  338 


L.L.POATES,  ENSH'G  CO.,  N.Y 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR   (1337-1453) 
A.   ORIGIN  OF  THE  WAR 

MANY  causes  combined  to  produce  the  succession  of  conflicts 
between  England  and  France  which  we  call  the  Hundred  Years' 
War.     (i)   The  conquests  of  Philip  Augustus  had  left  268.  Causes 
a  lingering  hostility  between  the  two  countries,  and  the  of  the  war 
rejection  of  the  claims  of  Edward  III  to  the  French  throne  in- 
creased the  feeling.     (2)  There  was  continual  friction  over  the 
English  possession  of  Guienne.     (3)  In  Scotland  the  French 
aided  the  young  king,  David  Bruce,  against  the  English  attempts 
at  conquest.      (4)  Finally,  there  was  a  conflict  of  interests  in 
Flanders,  which  led  directly  to  the  war. 

Although  Flanders  was  a  French  fief,  the  prosperity  of  the 
Flemish  townsmen  depended  on  the  manufacture  of  cloth  which 
they  made  from  English  wool.  In  1336  the  French  king,  Philip 
VI,  recklessly  caused  the  arrest  of  all  Englishmen  who  were 
in  Flanders.  In  retaliation  Edward  III  seized  Flemish  mer- 
chants in  his  kingdom,  and  forbade  the  exportation  of  English 
wool.  The  Flemish  burghers  thereupon  rebelled,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  England  to  secure  their  accustomed  wool  sup- 
plies. To  satisfy  Flemish  scruples  against  warring  upon  their 
king,  Edward  III  took  the  title  of  king  of  France,  —  a-title  which 
his  successors  did  not  finally  abandon  until  the  time  of  George 
III  (1802).  Previous  wars  between  England  and  France  had 
been  feudal  struggles  between  their  kings,  the  people  taking 
little  part.  French  interference  with  English  trade  interests 
now  aroused  the  English  Parliament  to  enthusiastic  support 
of  the  war.  Edward's  claim  to  the  throne  of  France,  on  the  other 

241 


242 


THE  HUNDRED   YEARS'   WAR 


hand,  made  the  war  a  life-and-death  struggle  on  the  part  of  the 
French  monarchy. 

We  may  distinguish  three  distinct  periods  of  active  warfare 
in  this  long  conflict.     The  first  period  lasted  from  its  outbreak, 

269.  Three     in  J337»  to  the  Peace  of  Bretigny  (bre-ten-ye'), -in  1360. 

periods  of  The  second  period  began  with  the  renewal  of  hostilities 
in  1369,  and  lasted  to  their  decline  following  the  death 
of  the  French  king,  Charles  V,  in  1380.  After  a  long  interval, 
filled  with  troubles  in  both  countries,  the  third  period  of  the 
war  began  with  the  invasion  of  France  by  Henry  V  in  1415, 
and  lasted  with  some  interruptions  until  1453. 


the  war 


ch.  50 


B.   FIRST  PERIOD  OF  THE  WAR  (1337-1360) 

The  operations  of  the  first  few  years  were  carried  on  by 

Edward  III  in  Flanders  and  were  without  appreciable  results. 

270.  Naval     In  I34°>  however,  Edward  and 

victory  at       his  fleet  met  the  French  fleet 

Sluys  (1340;   near  Sluys  (slois)j  off  the  Flem_ 

ish  coast.  The  incompetent  French 
commanders  had  huddled  their  ves- 

Froissart,        se^s  together  in  a  narrow  inlet, 

Chronicles,1  where  maneuvering  was  impos- 
sible. The  battle,  therefore,  re- 
sembled a  land  conflict.  "  Archers 

1  Froissart's  Chronicles  is  one  of  the  most  noted 
histories  composed  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
was  written  in  French,  and  shows  the  dawn  of  the 
Renaissance  spirit.  Froissart  was  born  in  the 
neighborhood,  of  Flanders  just  as  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  was  beginning.  He  spent  consider- 
able time  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Italy,  as  well 
as  in  France.  He  was  personally  acquainted  with 
many  actors  in  this  great  war,  from  whom  he 
learned  of  the  events  which  he  narrates.  "No 

newspaper  correspondent,  no  American  interviewer,  ever  equaled  this  medieval 
collector  of  intelligence."  His  history,  however,  is  one-sided,  for  his  sympathies 
were  all  with  the  knightly  class  whose  picturesque  deeds  he  recounts,  rather  than 
with  the  humbler  townsmen  and  peasants. 


GENOESE  CROSSBOWMAN 


FIRST  PERIOD   OF   THE  WAR  243 

and  crossbows  began  to  shoot,  and  men  of  arms  approached 
and  fought  hand  to  hand ;  and  the  better  to  come  together  they 
had  great  hooks  and  grapplers  of  iron  to  cast  out  of  one  ship 
into  another,  and  so  tied  them  fast  together."  The  battle 
ended  in  complete  victory  for  the  English.  Thenceforth,  for  a 
generation,  they  were  masters  of  the  sea  and  could  land  their 
expeditions  where  they  wished. 

In  1346  occurred  the  first  important  battle  of  the  war  on 
land.      An  expedition  under  Edward  III  advanced  from  Nor- 
mandy up  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  until  the  flames  of  the  2?I   Battle 
villages  fired  by  the  English  could  be  seen  from  the  walls  of  Crecy 
of   Paris.     Without   attempting   to   attack   the   capital,   (I346) 
Edward  turned  northward  to  join  his  forces  with  those  of  the 
Flemings,  while  an  enormous  French  army  under  King  Philip 
followed  him.     Seeing  this,  Edward  took  up  a  position  near  the 
village  of  Crecy  (kra-se'),  from  which  the  battle  takes  its  name. 

The  English  forces  consisted  chiefly  of 
infantry  armed  with  the  longbow,  —  the 
excellence  of  which  had  been  proved  in  the 
wars  of  Edward  I  against  the  Welsh  and 
Scots.  They  were  stationed  in  three  divi- 
sions, on  the  slope  of  a  hill.  The  French 
outnumbered  the  English  five  to  one,  but 
consisted  chiefly  of  mounted  men  at  arms, 
with  a  body  of  hired  Genoese  crossbowmen. 
The  latter  were  first  sent  forward  to  the 
attack.  They  were  tired  with  a  long  day's 
march,  and  their  crossbow  strings  were  per- 
haps slacked  with  a  wetting  received  in  a 
passing  thundershower.  They  were  no 
match  for  the  English  longbowmen,  and 

when  the  shafts  of  the  latter  began  to  fall 

,,.,,,,.,  ,         -f  -^  i  >»    ENGLISH  LONGBOWMAN 

so  thick  that  it  seemed  as  if  it  snowed, 

the  Genoese  broke  and  fled.  At  this,  Philip  in  passion  called 
out,  "Slay  these  rascals,  for  they  trouble  us  without  reason." 
"And  ever  still,"  says  the  chronicler  Froissart,  "the  English- 


244 


THE  HUNDRED   YEARS'    WAR 


men  shot  wherever  they  saw  thickest  press.     The  sharp  arrows 
ran  into  the  men  of   arms  and  into  their  horses;    and 

rroissart, 

Chronicles,       many  fell,  horse  and  men,  among  the  Genoese,  and  when 
ch.  130  tkey  were  down  they  could  not  arise  again,  the  press  was 


c 

so  thick  that  one  overthrew  another." 

A  portion  of  the  French  finally  managed  to  reach  the  English 

knights,  under  the  Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III,  who  were 

on  foot  in  the  rear  of  the  archers.     In  haste  messengers  were 

sent  to  inform  the  king,  who  with  the  reserve  coolly  watched 

Froissart         ^e  ^attle  from  a  windmill  at  the  top  of  the  hill.     "  Return 

Chronicles,       to  them  that  sent  you,"  said  Edward,  "and  say  to  them 

that  they  send  no  more  to  me  as  long  as  my  son  is  alive. 

And  also  say  to  them  that  they  suffer  him  this  day  to  win  his 

spurs  ;  for  if  God  be  pleased,  I  will  that  this  day  be  his  and  the 

honor  thereof." 

At  nightfall  the  English  lines  were  still  unbroken,  while  the 

French  were  in  hopeless  confusion.     Philip  fled  wounded  from 

272   Out        the  ^e^'  leavmg  behind  him  among  the  slain  eleven  princes 

come  of  the    of  France  and  thousands  of  lesser  rank.     The  English 

loss  was  inconsiderable.       The  victory  was  due  chiefly 

to  the  English  archers  and  to  the  tactical  skill  of  King  Edward. 

Even  if  cannon  of  a  small,  crude  sort  were  not  (as  some  writers 

claim)    used    at    Crecy,1     the    battle     nevertheless    foretold, 

Lodge  Close    eclually  with  that  of  Courtrai  (§  259),  a  new  era  in  warfare. 

of  the  Middle   "It  was  a  combat  of  infantry  against  cavalry,  of  missile 

weapons  against  heavy  armor  and  lances,  of  trained  pro- 

fessional soldiers  against  a  combination  of  foreign  mercenaries 

1  Cannon  were  certainly  known  in  Europe  as  early  as  1326,  in  which  year  pro- 
vision was  made  by  the  city  of  Florence  for  their  manufacture.  But  these  early 
cannon  were  very  imperfect,  being  made  of  a  number  of  iron  bars  welded  together 
and  reenforced  by  iron  hoops.  The  gunpowder  of  that  time  was  also  very  weak, 
owing  to  impurities  in  its  composition,  and  the  missiles  were  usually  stones 
roughly  chipped  into  a  round  form.  The  first  mention  (1340)  of  the  use  of  cannon 
in  France  (Froissart,  ch.  in)  implies  that  their  chief  effect  was  to  frighten  the  horses 
of  the  enemy  by  their  noise.  Not  until  the  middle  of  the  next  century  did  artillery 
become  so  improved  as  to  be  useful  in  battering  down  castles  and  other  fortifications. 
The  development  of  hand  firearms  (the  arquebus,  musket,  pistol)  came  even  later. 
See  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  art.  "Gunpowder." 


FIRST   PERIOD    OF  THE   WAR 


245 


with  disorderly  feudal  levies.  And  the  inevitable  result  was 
made  the  more  decisive  by  the  utter  want  of  generalship  on 
the  part  of  the  French  king." 


BATTLE  OF  CRECY 

From  a  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris.     Note  the  crossbowmen  at  left; 
longbowmen  at  right.    The  representation  is  not  wholly  accurate. 

After  the  battle,  Edward  continued  his  retreat  unmolested, 
and  laid  siege  to  Calais  (ka-le').     In  spite  of  heroic  resistance 
the  town  was  obliged  to  surrender.     Although  Edward  did  273   Calais 
not,  as  he  at  first  threatened,  put  to  death  the  leading  towns-  captured 
men,  the  whole  population  was  expelled  and  their  places   ^I347^ 
taken   by  English   settlers.        Thenceforth   for   two   hundred 
years  Calais  was  an  English  town,  an  outpost  of  England's 
power  and  trade.     Its  possession,  with  that  of  Dover  on  the 


246  THE   HUNDRED  YEARS'   WAR 

other  side  of  the  Channel,  went  far  to  confirm  the  claim  of  the 
English  king  to  be  "lord  of  the  narrow  seas." 

After  the  fall  of  Calais,  a  truce  was  arranged  which  lasted  for 
several  years.  In  this  interval  the  exhaustion  caused  by  the  war 
274.  Rav-  was  intensified  by  a  terrible  pestilence,  called  the  "  Black 
ages  of  the  Death,"  which  resembled  the  bubonic  plague  of  to-day. 
*  Arising  in  Asia,  it  reached  Europe  by  way  of  Egypt  and 
Syria,  appearing  in  Sicily,  Tuscany,  and  Provence  (pro-vaNs') 
in  1347.  We  now  know  that  the  "plague"  is  carried  by  a 
certain  kind  of  fleas,  which  live  on  rats ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  fleas  came  in  bundles  of  merchandise  which  caravans 
brought  to  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  and  which  were  dis- 
tributed thence  through  Europe.  During  the  winter  months 
of  1347  the  progress  of  the  disease  was  checked.  Next  summer 
it  resumed  its  march,  spreading  "from  city  to  city,  from  village 
to  village,  from  house  to  house,  from  man  to  man."  Germany 
and  England  experienced  its  ravages  in  1349  and  1350 ;  Norway 
and  Russia  in  1351. 

Everywhere   the  mortality  was  frightful.     During  the  four 
years  that  this  plague  lasted,  at  least  a  third  of  the  inhabitants 
Chronicle  of     °^  Europe  were  carried  off.     In  some  of  the  provinces 
Gittes  Li         of  France,  two  thirds  of  the  population  perished.     "It 
STuet"1       is  imPossible  to  believe,"  wrote  a  French  monk  of  that 
The  Black       time,  "  the  number  who  have  died  throughout  the  whole 
Death,  58        country.-    Travelers,    merchants,   pilgrims,    declare    that 
they  have  found  cattle  wandering  without  herdsmen  in  fields, 
towns,  and  waste  lands.     They  have  seen  barns  and  wine- 
cellars  standing  wide  open,  houses  empty,  and  few  people  to 
be  found  anywhere.     In  many  towns  where  there  were  before 
20,000  people,  scarcely  2000  are  left.     In  many  places  the  fields 
lie  uncultivated."    The  dead  were  buried  hastily,  great  numbers 
at  a  time,  in  long  ditches  dug  in  the  fields,  for  the  cemeteries 
were  filled  to  overflowing.     The  unsanitary  arrangements  of 
the  Middle  Ages  —  the  complete  lack  of  sewerage  systems, 
the  accumulations  of  filth  and  decaying  matter  in  streets  and 
houses,  and  the  pollution  of  water  supplies  —  help  to  explain 


FIRST  PERIOD   OF   THE   WAR 


247 


the  great  mortality.  Where  conditions  were  better,  as  among 
the  monks  of  Christ  Church,  Canterbury,  the  mortality  was  less. 
The  Black  Death  was  only  the  most  terrible  of  many  plagues 
which  visited  Europe  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  recurrence  of 
which  gradually  ceased  with  advance  in  cleanliness  and  sanitary 
science. 

In  France  the  influence  of  the  Black  Death  was  complicated 
by  the  injury  wrought  by  war  and  misgovernment.1  On  the 
reduced  population  the  heavy  taxes  fell  with  double  force.  27g 
The  peasants  had  to  contribute  to  pay  ransoms  for  the  lation  of 
deliverance  of  their  lords  from  captivity,  and  for  the  re-  I 
demption  of  their  own  goods  from  destruction.  They  were 
forced  by  both  sides  to  labor  without 
pay  in  carrying  supplies,  and  at  siege  oper- 
ations. Often  they  were  tortured  to  extort 
money  and  provisions,  when  they  them- 
selves lacked  bread  for  their  families.  To 
escape  such  evils,  peasants  fled  in  large 
numbers  to  the  depths  of  the  forests,  only 
to  die  there  of  famine  and  the  attacks  of 
wolves.  Through  the  joint  operation  of 
the  plague  and  the  war,  the  rude  prosper- 
ity which  had  characterized  the  French 
people  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  was 
brought  to  an  end,  and  their  condition  be- 
came pitiable  in  the  extreme. 

Philip  VI  died  in  1350.     His  son  John 
(1350-1364)  was  a  good  knight,  but  with- 
out capacity  for  government  or  gen-  2?6  Battle 
eralship.     In  1355  the  Black  Prince  of  Poitiers 
led  an  expedition  into  southern  France   ^I3S 
and  the  next  year  started  to  march  north- 
ward to  Normandy.     Near  Poitiers  (pwa- 
tya')  he  was  confronted  by  a  French  army 


THE  BLACK  PRINCE 

From  a  brass  figure  on 
his  tomb 


1  The  influence  of  the  Black  Death  on  the  agricultural  system  of  England  is 
treated  in  the  following  chapter  (§  305). 


248 


THE  HUNDRED   YEARS'   WAR 


many  times  larger  than  his  own.  So  hopeless  seemed  the  odds, 
that  he  offered  (but  in  vain)  to  surrender  his  spoil  and  his 
prisoners,  and  to  bind  himself  not  to  fight  again  for  seven 
years,  as  the  price  of  a  free  retreat. 

As  at  Crecy,  the  English  force  consisted  principally  of  archers, 
while  the  French  were  mostly  mounted  and  armored  knights. 
The  English  were  stationed  on  a  little  plateau  protected  by  a 
hedge  and  by  rough  and  marshy  ground.  King  John  was  per- 


BATTLE  OF  POITIERS 
From  a  MS.  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris 

suaded  that  the  strength  of  the  English  at  Crecy  had  been  due, 

not  to  their  archers,  but  to  the  fact  that  their  men  at  arms  were 

dismounted.     Accordingly,  he  ordered  his  knights  to  advance 

on  foot,  thus  throwing  away  his  chief  advantage.     The  first 

and  second  divisions  of  his  army  failed  to  accomplish  anything. 

Upon  their  retiring,  the  third  division,  commanded  by  the  king 

himself,  was  left  to  bear  the  whole  weight  of  the  English  coun- 

Froissart         ter  attack.     "There  was  a  sore  fight,"   says  Froissart, 

Chronicles,       "and  many  a  great  stroke  given  and  received.     King 

164    John  with  his  own  hands  did  that  day  marvels  in  arms; 

he  had  an  ax  in  his  hands  wherewith  he  defended  himself  and 


FIRST  PERIOD   OF  THE   WAR  249 

fought  in  the  breaking  of  the  press."     Refusing  to  flee,  he  and 
his  youngest  son  were  taken  captives  by  the  English. 

The  whole  number  of  prisoners  was  twice  that  of  their  English 
captors.  "That  day,"  says  Froissart,  "whosoever  took  any 
prisoner,  he  was  clear  his,  and  might  quit  or  ransom  him 
at  his  pleasure.  All  such  as  were  there  with  the  prince  Chronicles, 
were  made  rich  with  honor  and  goods,  as  well  by  ransom-  ch' ie 
ing  of  prisoners  as  by  winning  of  gold,  silver,  plate,  jewels,  that 
were  there  found."  After  the  battle  the  Black  Prince  enter- 
tained the  captive  king,  waiting  upon  him  in  person  at  table. 
But  for  all  this  chivalrous  display,  the  English  shrewdly  ex- 
tracted full  advantage  from  the  victory.  Pending  the  accept- 
ance of  their  terms,  King  John  was  carried  prisoner  to  London, 
where  for  four  years  he  was  detained  in  honorable  captivity. 

France  meanwhile  was  in  a  deplorable  condition.  The  govern- 
ment was  carried  on  by  the  king's  eldest  son,  the  Dauphin 
Charles.1  Charles  was  an  untried  youth,  and  demoraliza-  277.  Peas- 
tion  pervaded  every  branch  of  the  government.  In  1358 
there  was  added  to  other  miseries  a  great  uprising  of  the  (1358) 
peasants.2  They  had  suffered  the  most  from  the  war  and  pesti- 
lence, and  to  their  dulled  minds  the  disasters  of  Crecy  and 
Poitiers  were  explainable  only  on  the  theory  that  the  nobles 
had  betrayed  France.  The  revolt  was  confined  to  a  few  provinces 
in  northern  France,  but  it  was  characterized  by  the  utmost 
ferocity.  The  peasants  seemed  turned  by  their  sufferings  into 
wild  beasts,  and  the  nobles  retaliated  in  like  manner.  The  revolt 
was  soon  put  down,  and  the  lot  of  the  peasant,  who  was  now 
dreaded  as  well  as  despised,  became  worse  than  before. 

1  This  prince  was  the  first  of  the  heirs  apparent  of  France  to  bear  the  title  of 
dauphin.      The  title  was  derived  from  the  Dauphine  (do-fe-na/),  just  east  of  the 
river  Rhone,  which  was  annexed  to  France  in  1349. 

2  This  revolt  of  the  peasants  was  called  the  Jacquerie  (zhak-reO ,  from  the  French 
nickname  for  a  peasant,  Jacques  Bonhomme  (zhak  bo-nom') .     This  name  is  perhaps 
also  the  origin  of  our  term  "country  Jake."      The  attempt  at  this  time  of  the 
townsmen  of  Paris,  under  their  leader  Stephen   Marcel,  to  give  France   a   con- 
stitutional government  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  special  report.     See  reference 
at  the  close  of  the  chapter. 


250  THE  HUNDRED   YEARS'   WAR 

A  treaty  with  England  was  at  last  concluded  at  Bretigny 
in  1360.  The  following  were  its  chief  provisions  (map,  p.  240) :  — 

p  i .  John  agreed  to  pay  a  large  money  ransom. 

of  Bre-  2.  He  granted  to  Edward  III  full  sovereignty  over  Aquitaine, 

tigny  Calais,  and  the  district  about  Crecy. 

3.  Edward  III  abandoned  his  claim  to  the  French  crown. 

All  questions  seemed  settled  and  the  war  ended  by  this  treaty. 
If  Edward  III  failed  to  win  the  French  crown,  he  had  gained 
in  Calais  an  important  outpost  across  the  Channel,  and  had 
considerably  enlarged  his  territories  in  southern  France.  Above 
all,  he  had  thrown  off  his  feudal  dependence  on  the  French  king 
for  the  lands  which  he  possessed  in  that  kingdom.  He  might 
well  be  content  with  the  gains  shown  by  this  period  of  the  war. 

C.   SECOND  PERIOD  OF  THE  WAR  (1369-1380) 

Four  years  after  the  peace  of  Bretigny,   King  John  died  at 

London,  whither  he  had  returned  on  a  visit  of  mingled  business 

279-  Charles  and  pleasure.     The  new  king,  Charles  V   (1364-1380), 

the^waT8       had  as  dauphin  gained  in  experience.     As  king  he  is 

(1369)  known  as  Charles  "the  Wise,"  for  he  proved  one  of  the 

ablest  rulers  of  France  in  the  Middle  Ages.     He  was  a  shrewd, 

practical  statesman,  who  knew  how  to  select  good  generals, 

and  fought  no  useless  battles.     During  the  first  five  years  of 

his  reign  peace  was  kept  with  England  and  the  abuses  in  the 

government  were  remedied.     Then  in  1369  a  dispute  arose  over 

Aquitaine,  which  gave  Charles  an  excuse  for  repudiating  the 

treaty  of  Bretigny  and  reasserting  French  suzerainty  over  the 

English  possessions.     Edward  III  thereupon  renewed  the  war, 

and  resumed  his  claim  to  the  French  throne. 

Every  advantage  was  now  on  the  side  of  France.     England 

was  tired  of  the  contest,  Edward  III  was  old  and  enfeebled 

280.  Sue-       Q16  d^d  m  I377)>  and  the  Black  Prince  was  burdened  with 

cess  of  the     a  disease  which  carried  him  off  a  year  before  his  father. 

The  command  of  the  sea  was  also  with  the  French,— 

thanks  to  the  fleet  of  the  king  of  Castile,  whom  Charles  had  aided 


SECOND   AND  THIRD   PERIODS  OF   THE   WAR        251 

against  a  rival  who  was  supported  by  the  English.  Finally, 
the  French  now  had  a  first-class  general  in  the  person  of  a  Breton 
noble  1  who  cast  aside  the  old  knightly  traditions  of  warfare, 
used  professional  soldiers  instead  of  the  disorderly  feudal  levies, 
and  carried  on  a  cautious  campaign  of  rapid  maneuvers,  strata- 
gems, and  ambuscades.  As  a  result  of  these  changed  conditions, 
place  after  place  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French.  The  extent 
of  the  conquests  made  by  Charles  V  may  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  when  a  truce  was  made  in  1375,  Calais  in  the  north  and 
Bordeaux  (bor-do')  and  Bayonne  (ba-yon')  in  the  south  were 
the  only  important  strongholds  left  in  English  hands. 

This,  however,  proved  the  limit  of  Charles's  success.  He 
died  in  1380.  His  son,  Charles  VI  (1380-1422),  was  a  sickly 
boy  who  became  insane  soon  after  he  attained  manhood.  281.  Cessa- 
His  whole  reign,  therefore,  was  filled  with  contests  of  fa° 
French  princes  for  control  of  the  government.  These  1415) 
reached  their  height  in  1407,  when  the  king's  cousin,  the  surly 
duke  of  Burgundy,  caused  the  murder  of  the  duke  of  Orleans, 
brother  of  the  king  and  leader  of  the  opposing  faction.  Civil 
war  then  broke  out  between  the  rival  parties  of  Burgundians 
and  Or'leanists.  Fortunately  for  France,  this  was  also  for 
England  a  time  of  peasant  revolt  and  party  struggles  (§§  306, 
$08).  For  a  full  generation,  therefore,  the  war  languished. 

D.   THIRD  PERIOD  OF  THE  WAR  (1415-1453) 

The  renewal  of  the  war  came  soon  after  Henry  V,  the  hero- 
king  of  England,  succeeded  to  the  English  throne  (1413).    The 
title  of  his  house  to  rule  was  disputed,  and  his  father's  2g2.  War 
reign  had  been  distracted  by  many  troubles 'growing  out  renewed: 
of   this   fact.     Henry   V   resolved,    therefore,    to    "busy  Agincourt 
giddy  minds  with  foreign  quarrels"  (as  the  poet  Shake-   (1415) 
speare  phrases  it)  and  raised  again  the  English  claims  to  the 
French  throne. 

1  Named  Bertrand  du  Guesclin  (ber-traN'  dii  ge-klanO  ;  his  career  may  well  be 
made  the  subject  for  a  written  or  oral  report.  See  references  at  the  close  of  this 
chapter . 


252  THE  HUNDRED   YEARS'    WAR 

In  1415  Henry  led  an  army  into  Normandy,  whence  he 
marched  northward  toward  Calais.  At  Agincourt .  (a-zhaN- 
koor'),  near  Crecy,  his  way  was  blocked  by  a  great  French 
army,  composed  mainly  of  Orleanists,  who  at  that  moment 
were  in  control  of  the  French  government.  The  French  seem 
to  have  learned  wisdom  neither  from  the  disasters  of  King  John 
nor  from  the  successes  of  Charles  V.  Again  their  forces  were 
chiefly  dismounted  knights,  weighted  down  with  their  heavy 
armor.  They  were  packed  so  close  in  a  narrow  defile  between 
two  woods  that  they  scarcely  had  room  to  wield  their  swords. 
To  make  matters  worse,  the  field  was  newly  harrowed  and  ankle- 
deep  with  mud.  Well  might  King  Henry  say,  the  night  before 
the  battle,  that  he  "wished  not  for  a  single  man  more"  to  share 
the  glory.  A  third  English  victory,  equal  to  those  won  at 
Crecy  and  Poitiers,  was  the  result. 

Instead  of  uniting  French  parties,  the  disaster  at  Agincourt 
only  made  the  feuds  of  the  princes  more  bitter.     In  1419,  at 
283   Treaty    a  conference  between  the  Dauphin  Charles   (now  head 
of  Troyes       of  the  Orleanist  party)  and  the  duke  of  Burgundy,   the 
latter  was  treacherously  slain  by  the  Orleanists,  in  revenge 
for  the  murder  of  their  leader  twelve  years  before.     The  new 
duke  of  Burgundy,  as  a  consequence,  put  himself  unreservedly 
on  the  English  side.     In  1420  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Troyes 
by  the  shameless  French  queen,  Isabella,  who  was  under  Bur- 
gundy's influence.     It  contained  the  following  provisions :  — 

1.  The  Dauphin  Charles  was  disinherited  because  of  his  part  in  the 

murder  of  the  late  duke  of  Burgundy. 

2.  Henry  V  was  to  marry  Catherine,  the  daughter  of  Isabella  and 

Charles  VI. 

3.  Henry  was  at  once  to  become  regent,  and  his  title  to  the  throne  of 

France  was  to  be  recognized  after  the  death  of  Charles  VI. 

The  dauphin  naturally  refused  to  accept    this    outrageous 

treaty.     Southern  France  remained  loyal  to  him,  but  the  north 

284.  Acces-     (including  the  capital)  passed  into  English  hands.     Henry 

Charles  vii    ^'s  ru^e  m  France  was  short,  as  he  died  in  1422.     Seven 

(1422)  weeks  later  the  pathetic  life  of  Charles  VI  also  came  to  an 


THIRD   PERIOD   OF  THE  WAR  253 

end.  The  heir  to  both  England  and  France,  by  the  treaty  of 
Troyes,  was  a  babe  less  than  a  year  old,  —  Henry  VI,  the 
son  of  Henry  V  and  Catherine.  Such  sentiment  of  nation- 
ality as  existed  in  France  supported  the  claims  of  the  dauphin, 
now  called  Charles  VII  (1422-1461).  But  his  resources  were 
slender,  and  his  court  was  distracted  by  the  quarrels  of  his 
adherents.  During  the  first  seven  years  of  his  reign,  little 
progress  was  made  in  driving  the  English  from  the  realm. 

In  1429  a  new  factor  entered  the  struggle  in  the  person  of 
Joan  of  Arc.  Joan  was  an  uneducated  peasant  maid  of  north- 
eastern France.  She  was  of  a  religious  temperament,  and  28g  joan 
after  reaching  the  age  of  fourteen  began  to  hear  "voices"  of  Arc 
and  see  visions  of  saints  and  angels,  in  which  she  firmly  (I429~I43I-) 
believed.  She  was  much  affected  by  the  troubles  of  her  time. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  her  " voices"  urged  her  to  go  to  the 
dauphin,  lead  him  to  Rheims  to  be  crowned,  and  deliver  France. 
With  much  difficulty  she  reached  the  king's  court,  in  male  attire. 
There  she  so  impressed  Charles  that  he  gave  her  an  opportunity 
to  show  the  reality  of  her  powers.  The  city  of  Orleans  at  this 
time  was  besieged  by  the  English ;  if  it  fell,  it  would  carry  with  it 
the  ruin  of  the  French  cause.  Equipped  with  armor  and  a  holy 
banner,  Joan  set  out  with  a  small  force,  and  entered  Orleans  in 
April,  1429.  Under  the  inspiration  of  her  courage,  faith,  and 
enthusiasm,  blow  after  blow  was  struck  against  the  English, 
and  within  ten  days  the  siege  of  Orleans  was  raised.  The  French 
seemed  suddenly  to  have  become  invincible.  Success  followed 
success,  and  in  July  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  as  she  was  now  called, 
was  able  to  lead  Charles  across  a  hostile  countjy  to  Rheims, 
for  coronation  at  the  place  where  his  ancestors  had  been  crowned. 
Thus  Joan's  chief  mission  was  accomplished. 

After  this,  Charles  VII  was  received  by  the  French  people 
with  enthusiasm.  But  the  successes  won  by  Joan  aroused  the 
jealousy  of  Charles's  advisers,  and  they  did  all  they  could  to 
thwart  her  further  plans.  In  September  she  was  wounded 
while  leading  an  attack  on  Paris.  In  May  of  the  next  year  she 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Burgundians,  and  eventually  sold 


RELIEF  OF  ORLEANS  BY  JOAN  OF  ARC 
From  a  mural  painting  by  Lenepveu,  in  the  Pantheon,  Paris 


254 


THIRD  PERIOD  OF  THE  WAR 


255 


to  the  English.  The  latter  wished  to  break  the  spell  of  her 
deeds  by  proving  her  a  witch,  that  is,  a  person  in  league  with  the 
devil.  She  was  accused  of  sorcery  and  heresy,  and  was  tried 
before  a  bishop  who  was  an  English  partisan!  Her  condemna- 
tion was  a  foregone  conclusion.  At  Rouen,  in  May,  1431, — 
wearing  the  cap  of  those  condemned  by  the  Inquisition,  on  which 
were  painted  devils  and  flames,  with  the  words,  "Relapsed 
heretic,  apostate,  and  idolater,"  —  she  was  burned  at  the  stake. 


ENTRY  OF  CHARLES  VII  INT;O  PARIS 
From  a  miniature  in  a  thirteenth-century  manuscript 

The  nobility  and  purity  of  her  character  were  such  as  to  impress 
even  her  enemies.  "We  are  lost;  we  have  burned  a  saint!" 
were  the  words  of  an  Englishman  who  .witnessed  her  execution. 
The  greatest  blot  on  the  fame  of  Charles  VII  is  the  ingratitude 
he  showed  in  making  no  effort  to  rescue  from  death  the  brave 
girl  who,  more  than  any  one  else,  saved  for  him  the  throne  of 
France. 

The  influence  of  Joan  survived  her  in  the  energy  with  which 
the  war  was  continued.  Four  years  after  her  death,  Philip 
of  Burgundy  abandoned  the  English  cause,  on  condition  that 


256  THE  HUNDRED   YEARS'    WAR 

he  be  given  certain  lands  and  be  freed  from  all  homage  to 
Charles  VII  during  his  lifetime.     France  was  thus  once  more 

286.  Close      united.    A  series  of  reforms  also  gave  to  the  crown  a  stand- 
of  the  war      jng  army,  a  force  of  improved  artillery,  —  for  cannon  were 

becoming  effective,  —  and  a  permanent  revenue.  While 
the  French  government  was  thus  strengthened,  England  was 
weakened  by  the  insanity  of  King  Henry  VI,  and  the  growth 
of  dissensions  among  the  English  princes.  In  these  circumstances 
the  expulsion  of  the  English  from  France  was  only  a  question 
of  time.  Paris  soon  surrendered  to  one  of  Charles's  generals; 
presently  Normandy  and  the  greater  part  of  Aquitaine  were 
conquered;  and  finally,  in  1453,  Bordeaux  fell.  Only  Calais 
remained  in  English  hands,  to  be  kept  for  a  century  longer. 
The  Hundred  Years'  War,  with  its  enormous  injury,  both  ma- 
terial and  moral,  to  both  parties,  came  quietly  to  an  end  with- 
out a  formal  treaty  of  peace. 

Instead  of  winning  for  the  English  crown  the  whole  of  France, 
the  Hundred  Years'  War  lost  for  it  possessions  which  had  been 

287.  Re-        ^e^  by  English  kings  since  the  accession  of  Henry  II 
suits  of  the     (1154).     For  France  the  struggle  had  these  results:  (i) 

The  French  king  was  delivered  from  the  anomaly  of  having 
a  rival  king  among  his  vassals.  (2)  The  power  of  the  crown 
was  consolidated  into  almost  absolute  monarchy.  (3)  A 
national  sentiment  was  born,  which  ultimately  led  to  the  com- 
plete nationality  of  to-day.  (4)  But  against  these  gains 
must  be  balanced  fearful  losses  inflicted  upon  land  and  people, 
the  check  to  population,  and  the  brutalization  of  long-continued 
and  unrestrained  warfare. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1346.  Battle  of  Crecy. 

1347.  Calais  taken  by  the  English. 

1347.  The  Black  Death  first  appears  in  France. 

1356.  Battle  of  Poitiers. 

1360.  Peace  of  Bretigny. 

1369.  Renewal  of  the  war;  successes  of  Charles  V. 

1377-1415.  England  weakened  by  party  struggles. 

1380-1435.  France  weakened  by  party  struggles. 


TOPICS   AND    REFERENCES  257 

1415.  Henry  V  wins  the  battle  of  Agincourt. 

1419.  Duke  of  Burgundy  murdered  by  the  Orleanists. 

1420.  Treaty  of  Troyes. 

1429.  Joan  of  Arc  relieves  Orleans. 

1431.  Joan  burned  as  a  heretic  by  the  English. 

1435.  The  duke  of  Burgundy  abandons  the  English. 

1453.  The  English  driven  from  Aquitaine;  end  of  the  war. 

TOPICS   AND    REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  What  advantage  did  the  battle  of  Sluys  give 
the  English?  (2)  What  enabled  the  English  to  win  at  Crecy  and  Poitiers  ? 
(3)  Of  what  value  was  Calais  to  the  English  ?  (4)  Was  King  John  of  France 
a  good  soldier  ?/  Was  he  a  good  general  ?  (5)  What  change  was  to  be  made 
in  the  position  of  the  English  in  Aquitaine  by  the  treaty  of  Bretigny? 
(6)  Make  a  list  of  reasons  for  the  French  successes  in  the  second  period  of 
the  war.  (7)  Why  did  those  successes  not  continue  after  1380?  (8)  Why 
did  Joan  of  Arc  experience  difficulty  in  obtaining  an  opportunity  to  show 
her  powers  ?  (9)  Was  it  only  jealousy  of  her  that  led  Charles's  advisers 
to  oppose  her  plans?  (10)  Why  were  the  English  determined  to  prove  her 
a  heretic?  (n)  Was  it  a  good  or  a  bad  thing  for  England  that  it  lost  its 
possessions  in  France  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  BATTLE  OF  CRECY.  Oman,  Art  of  War,  603-615; 
Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  I,  466-470;  George,  Battles  of 
English  History,  54-67.  —  (2)  DEEDS  OF  THE  BLACK  PRINCE.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (nth  ed.),  VIII,  999-1000;  Froissart,  Chronicles;  Dunn 
Pattison,  The  Black  Prince.  —  (3)  THE  BLACK  DEATH.  Jessopp,  Coming  of 
the  Friars,  ch.  iv;  Trevelyan,  England  in  the  Age  of  Wydijfe,  183-195; 
Gasquet,  The  Great  Pestilence,  34-57,  194-219. —  (4)  STEPHEN  MARCEL. 
Lodge,  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  81-88.  —  (5)  BERTRAND  DU  GUESCLIN. 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  "Du  Guesclin";  Stoddard,  Bertrand  du  Guesclin, 
chs.  xii-xv.  —  (6)  EARLY  LIFE  OF  JOAN  OF  ARC.  Lang,  The  Maid  of 
prance,  chs.  ii-v;  Lowell,  Joan  of  Arc;  Lea,  Inquisition,  III,  338-378; 
Green,  Short  History,  271-281. —  (7)  THE  RELIEF  OF  ORLEANS.  Lang,  chs. 
viii-xi;  Lowell,  Joan  of  Arc.  —  (8)  JOAN'S  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION.  Lang, 
chs.  xxii-xxvi ;  Lowell,  Joan  of  A  re. —  (9)  ARMS  AND  ARMOR  IN  THE  TIME 
OF  THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR.  Boutell,  Arms  and  Armour,  113-152; 
Scribner's  Magazine,  III,  3-19.  —  (10)  THE  LONGBOW  AND  CROSSBOW. 
Boutell,  Arms  and  Armour,  137-146;  Oman,  Art  of  War,  557-562. 

General  Reading.  —  Froissart's  Chronicles  (several  translations)  are  a 
mine  of  picturesque  incidents  for  the  period  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War. 
Lanier's  The  Boys'  Froissart  is  the  best  edition  for  school  use.  Lodge, 
The  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  gives  a  dry  but  scholarly  account. 


STATES  OF 
THE  EMPIRE 

IN  1477 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0       26       50  100 

m  Boundary  of  the  Empire 


Territories  of  Charles  the  Bold 
ffapsburg  Territory 
|  _^    J|  Lands  belonging  to  Bishops 
14    I  -4rm  subdivided  into  many  small  s 

<•    Imperial  Cities 

L.I..FOATES.  CNGH'GCn.,  N.r. 


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KN 


fr 


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N 


O    M 


A    N 


E    M 


P    I    R    E 


4          Longitude  16        East  from     18  Greenwich 


259 


CHAPTER  XIV 
EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  THE  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 

A.   RISE  OF  THE  MODERN  STATE 

ONE  of  the  important  contrasts  between  medieval  and  modern 

times  is  the  difference  in  the  nature  and  functions  of  their  govern- 

2gg  ments.     It  was  especially  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 

Changes  in     centuries  that  the  development  from  the  one  to  the  other 

type  of  government  began.     Before  turning,   therefore, 

to  the  history  of  the  separate  countries  of  western  Europe,  we 

will  first  examine  briefly  the  character  of  these  differences. 

First   among  them  we  may  count  the   practical  disappear- 
ance in  modern  times  of  the  Holy  Roman   Empire.     In  the 

289.  Weak-    Middle  Ages  the   empire  was    the    counterpart   to   the 
Holy  Roman  Holy  Roman   Church.     It  was  supposed,   equally  with 
Empire          the  latter,  to  have  been  founded  by  God;    and  to  it  all 

persons,  in  theory,  owed  allegiance.  In  reality  the  claim  of  the 
empire  to  universal  rule,  even  in  western  Europe,  was  never 
completely  established;  and  the  long-continued  conflicts  be- 
tween papacy  and  empire  practically  destroyed  what  power 
it  did  possess.  As  a  name  for  the  government  of  the  German 
confederation  it  continued  to  exist ;  but,  in  the  words  of  a  witty 
Frenchman,  it  was  fast  becoming  "neither  holy,  nor  Roman, 
nor  an  empire."  In  place,  therefore,  of  a  single  great  state 
comprising  all  Europe,  there  now  came  in  the  idea  of  a  Europe 
divided  into  a  number  of  separate  territorial  states. 
Another  difference  is  to  be  found  in  the  greater  unity  of  the 

290.  Na-        new  states  as  compared  with  feudal  governments.     "In 
against          tne  Middle  Ages,"  says  a   French  writer,  "every  large 
feudal  ties      proprietor  lived  like  a  sovereign  on  his  domains.     Every 

organized  city  governed  itself  like  a  republic.      Each  country 

260 


RISE  OF  THE  MODERN   STATE  261 

was  divided  into  several  thousand  petty,  independent  powers, 
who  negotiated  with  one  another  as  if  they  were  foreign  nations. 
The  inhabitant  of  a  town  or  feudal  lordship  was  considered  a 
foreigner  in  the  neighboring  town  or  lordship.     To  have      . 
the  right  even  of  taking  there  his  merchandise,  he  was  Medieval  ' 
obliged   to   have   a   special   permission.     Each  lordship,  and  Modern 

.        Civilization, 

each  town,  had  its  tribunal,  its  treasury,  its  army,  its   2II  (trans- 
customs,  its  complete  government.     But  this  government  lation  con- 
was  only  exercised  within  the  limits  of  the  lordship  or  of 
the  town.     Consequently  there  was  no  government  for  the  whole 
country,  no  nation,  not  even  a  state."     The  direct  tie  which  in 
modern  times  binds  all  subjects  or  citizens  to  the  head  of  the 
state  was  wanting  in  strictly  feudal  societies. 

Nor  was  this  all.  The  ties  of  sympathy  were  stronger  be- 
tween members  of  the  same  class  who  dwelt  in  different  countries, 
than  they  were  between  members  of  different  classes  in  the  same 
country.  Thus  the  nobility  of  France,  Germany,  and  other 
countries  had  more  in  common  with  one  another  than  any  of 
them  had  with  the  townsmen  or  peasantry  of  their  own  country. 
To  put  this  fact  in  another  way,  we  may  say  that  the  social 
cleavage  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  along  class  lines,  and  not  along 
national  lines. 

With  the  rise  of  the  modern  state,  these  conditions  changed. 
Feudal  rights  of  government  were  everywhere  restricted,  and 
the  sovereignty  of  the  state  was  reconstituted.  All  inhabitants 
are  now  bound  to  the  head  of  the  state  by  a  duty  of  allegiance 
and  service  which  is  superior  to  that  owing  to  any  other  person. 
A  consciousness  of  a  common  nationality  —  based  on  the  posses- 
sion of  the  same  speech,  the  same  government,  the  same  mem- 
ories, interests,  and  hopes  —  began  to  arise.  The  sentiment 
of  patriotism,  that  is,  of  loyalty  to  one's  native  land,  was  born. 
The  ties  which  united  together  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  country 
became  closer,  therefore,  while  the  cleavage  between  different 
countries  became  sharper  and  more  distinct. 

The  modern  state  also  differs  from  feudal  governments  in  the 
extent  of  the  powers  which  it  exercises.  Many  functions  of 


262        EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 

government  which  had  existed  in  the  ancient  Roman  Empire 

—  such  as  support  of  hospitals,  orphan  asylums,  poor  relief, 

291.  En-        schools  and  universities  —  disappeared  during  the  feudal 

tions  of  gov-  Peri°d,  or  were  teft to  private  charity  and  to  the  church. 

eminent         Road-making,  bridge-building,  and  the   construction  of 

public  buildings  (except  churches  and  town  halls)  practically 

ceased  altogether. 

With  the  rise  of  the  modern  state,  these  functions  of  govern- 
ment were  resumed.  The  enforcement  of  justice,  and  the  hold- 
ing of  courts,  which  had  earlier  been  left  to  the  feudal  lords, 
were  also  restored  to  the  state.  A  constantly  enlarging  sphere 
of  action  by  the  state  is  one  of  the  marks  of  modern  times. 
With  these  greatly  increased  functions  there  came  naturally 
a  larger  staff  of  paid  officials  in  the  service  of  the  government. 
As  a  result,  the  old  feudal  and  royal  revenues  of  the  crown  no 
longer  sufficed.  Taxes,  which  had  practically  disappeared  with 
the  overthrow  of  the  old  Roman  Empire,  were  therefore  revived. 
And  since  every  state  had  to  be  in  a  position  to  enforce  its  com- 
mands upon  its  subjects,  and  to  repell  the  attacks  of  other  states, 
there  arose  the  necessity  of  police  forces  and  standing  armies. 

As  a  result  of  such  changes  as  these,  we  find  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  western  Europe,  in  the  course  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  modern  states  arising.  They  were  the 
creation,  in  the  main,  of  the  monarchs  of  the  time,  who  were 
aided  by  favoring  circumstances.  The  new  governments  were 
supported  by  a  strong  national  spirit,  and  had  large  powers 
and  separate  departments  of  administration.  They  were 
strengthened  by  a  body  of  well-ordered  law,  and  they  controlled 
their  resources  of  men  and  money  more  adequately  than  did 
the  feudal  governments.  This  rise  of  modern  states  was,  in- 
deed, as  characteristic  a  feature  of  the  new  time  as  the  power  of 
Empire  and  Papacy  had  been  of  the  old. 

B.   FRANCE  AND  BURGUNDY 

France  was  one  of  the  first  countries  to  develop  the  powers  of 
the  modern  state.  The  earlier  steps  in  the  strengthening  of  the 


FRANCE    AND    BURGUNDY 


263 


under 
Charles  VII 


royal  power  in  that  country  have  been  described  in  the  chapter 
on  the  Growth  of  France.  We  have  also  seen  how,  in  the  clos- 
ing stage  of  the  Hun-  2p2  France 
dred  Years'  War, 
Charles  VII  was  en- 
abled to  increase  the  king's 
power  by  establishing  a  per- 
manent tax  and  a  standing 
army.  With  an  armed  force 
at  his  unrestricted  com- 
mand, and  a  tax  whose 
amount  he  could  increase 
at:  pleasure,  the  king  needed 
no  longer  to  consult  the  Es- 
tates-General, except  when 
he  chose.  When  the  war 
with  England  was  at  an  end, 
Charles  was  thus  able  to 
apply  himself  with  success 
to  the  task  of  ending  the 
disorder  in  the  land,  and  of 
strengthening  still  further 
the  central  government. 
The  work  of  building 

saints  from  pilgrim  shrines.  Upon    the   foundations   thus 

laid  was   left  to  Charles's 

son  and  successor,  Louis  XI.  In  appearance  this  prince  2p3  Work 
was  ugly  and  unkingly ;  in  character  he  was  unscrupulous  of  Louis  XI 
and  fond  of  cunning  intrigue.  He  lived  economically  (I46i 
and  cared  nothing  for  display.  He  could  not  find  the  money 
to  buy  himself  a  new  hat  to  replace  the  old  felt  one  that 
he  wore,  but  he  spent  a  great  sum  to  buy  back  certain  border 
towns  for  France.  Many  of  his  acts  were  those  of  a  cynical 
tyrant.  He  did  a  great  work,  however,  in  weakening  the 
power  of  the  higher  nobles,  and  in  making  impossible  any 
tyranny  but  that  of  the  king. 


Louis  XI 
His  hat  is  banded  with  small  lead  images  of 


264        EUROPEAN  STATES   IN   LATER   MIDDLE   AGES 


The  chief  task  of  Louis  XI  was  to  restore  the  royal  domain, 
which  had  largely  been  granted  away  to  princes  of  the  royal 

294.  Lands     house.      His   most  formidable   opponent  was   the   duke 
of  Bur-  U  B  °f  Burgundy.     This  prince  possessed  the  duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy gundy  in  eastern  France  and  the  neighboring  county  of 

the  same  name  in  the  Empire,  —  also  called  Franche  Comte 

(f  raNsh-koN-t  a') ,  the 
' '  free  county. ' '  Flan- 
ders and  Artois  (ar- 
twa')  in  northern 
France  were  also  in 
his  hands,  as  well  as 
a  number  of  fiefs  of 
the  Empire -about  the 
mouth  of  the  river 
Rhine,  styled  collec- 
tively the  Nether- 
lands, or  "  Low  Coun- 
tries" (see  map,  p. 
258).  The  extent  and 
richness  of  these  pos- 
sessions made  the  duke 
of  Burgundy  in  many 
crises  more  powerful 
than  the  French  king 
himself.  Throughout 
the  first  ten  years  of 
Louis  XI's  reign  the  king  struggled  desperately  with  the  great 
nobles,  headed  by  the  Burgundian  duke,  Charles  the  Bold. 
Several  times  Louis's  power  seemed  crushed ;  but  in  the  end 
his  cunning  diplomacy,  and  some  fortunate  circumstances,  en- 
abled him  to  triumph. 

The  circumstance  which  chiefly  contributed  to  this  end  was 

295.  Charles  the  withdrawal  of  Charles  the  Bold  from  French  affairs  to 
overthrown    carry  out  plans  in  the  Empire.     Charles  made  a  brilliant 
(1477)  figure  in  contrast  to  the  shabbiness  of  Louis  XI,  but  he 


MARY  OF  BURGUNDY 
From  the  painting  by  R.  van  Bruges 


FRANCE   AND    BURGUNDY 


265 


lacked  Louis's  practical  shrewdness.     He  wished  to  consolidate 
his  scattered  possessions  into  a  single  territory,  and  to  obtain 
from  the  Emperor  the  title  of  king  over  them.     His  purpose,  in 
effect,  was  to  restore  the  old  kingdom  of  Lotharingia,  as  a  buffer 
state  between  France  and  Germany.    Unfortunately  for  Charles, 
his  project  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  sturdy  mountain- 
eers and  townsmen  of  Switzerland.     Twice  in  1476  (at  Gran- 
son  and  Morat)  the  Swiss  halberdiers  and  pikemen  defeated 
the  mailed  horsemen  of  Burgundy.     Burning  to  avenge  these 
humiliations,    Charles    then    undertook    a   winter    campaign, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Nancy  (in  Lorraine,  1477),  his  forces  were 
again  defeated.     This  time  he  himself  was  slain,  and  his  body 
was  found  stark  and  frozen  in  the  marsh  into  which  it  had  been 
thrown.      Once   more   the 
lesson  was  enforced,  as  at 
Courtrai  and  Crecy,  that 
foot  soldiers  properly 
armed  and  handled   were 
more    than    a    match    for 
feudal  cavalry. 

Charles  left  as  sole  heir 
to  his  numerous  territories 
his  daughter  Mary,  who 
was  soon  married  to  Max- 
imilian of  Austria  (§  302). 
It  was  not  to  be  expected 
that  Louis  XI  would  per- 
mit the  opportunity  offered 
by  Charles's  death  to  pass 
unused.  He  seized  the 
duchy  of  Burgundy  and  other  possessions  of  the  late  duke  — 
some  on  the  justifiable  ground  that  they  could  pass  only  to 
male  heirs,  and  others  on  less  defensible  pretexts.  In  other 
directions  also  Louis  XI  rounded  out  the  royal  domain,  296.  Divi- 

until  it   became   almost  as  extensive    as    France    itself,   sionofthe 

Burgundian 
The  only  great  feudal  territories  left  outstanding  at  Louis's  lands 


MAXIMILIAN  or  AUSTRIA 
From  an  old  print 


266        EUROPEAN   STATES   IN  LATER  MIDDLE   AGES 

death,  in  1483,  were  Brittany  and  Flanders..      Brittany  was 
finally  acquired  by  the  crown  through  marriage,  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century.     Flanders,  however,  had  long  been  drifting 
away  from  France,  and  in  1526  it  was  surrendered  to  the  Em- 
pire —  to  be  largely  reconquered,  however,  in  the  next  century. 
Charles   VIII  (1483-1498),  son  of  Louis  XI,  was  thirteen 
years  old  when  his  father's  death  made  him  king.     During  his 
297.  Italian   mm°rity  the  government  was  ably  administered  by  his 
war  of  older  sister  Anne,  whom  her  father  had  cynically  styled 

Charles  vin  tt ^  ^^  foolish  woman  m  ^  world."     After  coming  of 

age  Charles,  in  1494,  led  an  army  into  Italy.  His  purpose  was 
to  enforce  claims  to  the  kingdom  of  Naples  which  he  had  in- 
herited from  that  French  house  which  Charles  of  Anjou  had 
founded  in  1265  (§137).  The  weakness  of  the  mutually  hostile 
Italian  states  was  strikingly  revealed  by  this  expedition.  It 
was  almost  a  triumphal  procession,  and  Naples  fell  with  scarcely 
a  blow.  But  soon  Charles  was  called  back  by  news  of  a  formi- 
dable league  formed  in  his  rear  by  the  chief  states  of  Italy 
(including  the  Pope)  together  with  the  king  of  Aragon  (ar'a-gon) 
and  the  Emperor.  Before  Charles's  death  (1498)  Naples  was 
again  lost  by  France,  and  it  soon  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  who  already  ruled  Sicily.  In  spite  of  the 
failure  of  France  to  retain  hold  of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  the 
expedition  of  Charles  VIII  was  of  great  importance.  It  marked 
the  end  of  the  period  of  national  isolation  in  European  rela- 
tions, and  introduced  a  period  of  international  leagues  and  war- 
fare. More  especially  it  marked  the  beginning  of  a  conflict 
between  France  and  Spain  for  the  control  of  Italy  which  lasted 
until  1559;  and  this,  as  we  shall  see,  profoundly  affected  the 
fortunes  of  the  German  Reformation. 


C.   GERMANY  AFTER  THE  INTERREGNUM 

The  Great  Interregnum  in  Germany,  which  followed  the 
overthrow  of  the  Hohenstaufen  house  (§  138),  was  ended  in 
1273  by  the  election  of  a  petty  Swabian  count,  Rudolph  of 


GERMANY  AFTER   THE   INTERREGNUM 


267 


Hapsburg,1  to  the  German  kingship.      For  three  quarters  of 
a  century  longer,  however,  the  history  of  Germany  presents 
a  confused  and  uninteresting  story.     Rudolph  wisely  re-   29g  Rise 
f rained  from  attempting  to  exercise  power  over  Italy  or  to  of  the  Haps- 
gain  the  imperial  title.    "  Italy,"  said  he,  alluding  to  a  well-  burg  house 
known   fable,  "is   the 
den  of  the  lion.     I  see 
many    tracks    leading 
into  it,  but  none  com- 
ing out  again."     The 
wise  policy  which  he 
inaugurated    was    fol- 
lowed by  most  of  his 
immediate   successors. 
The  main  interest  of 
this  period  consists  in 
the    gradual    acquisi- 
tion, by  the  Hapsburg 

family,  of  a  territorial  CASTLE  HAPSBURG.    From  an  old  print 

power  on  the  eastern 

borders  of  Germany.  The  beginning  of  •  this  development 
was  made  by  Rudolph,  who  used  his  position  as  king  to  gain 
for  his  family  the  duchies  of  Austria  and  Styria.  About  half 
a  century  later  two  duchies  which  border  Styria  on  the  south 
and  west  were  added.  Soon  after  this  the  gap  which  separated 
these  eastern  possessions  of  the  house  from  their  original 
Swabian  lands  was  partly  bridged  by  the  acquisition  of  the  Tyrol, 
as  the 'region  of  the  eastern  Alps  is  called  (see  map,  p.  259). 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Hapsburgs  for  a  time  lost  their 
hold  on  the  German  kingship,  they  succeeded  in  building  up 
a  group  of  estates  which  made  them,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
religious  Reformation  in  Germany,  the  strongest  territorial 
power  in  that  land. 

1  The  name  of  this  important  family  is  derived  from  their  castle  of  Hapsburg 
(earlier  Habichtsburg,  "hawk's  castle  ").  It  was  built  about  1020  on  the  river  Aar, 
not  far  from  its  junction  with  the  Rhine  (see  map,  p.  258). 


268        EUROPEAN   STATES  IN   LATER   MIDDLE  AGES 

In  this  confused  period  the  rulers  of  Germany  were  chosen 
now  from  one  and  now  from  another  house.     The  great  nobles, 
Kin  s     m  t*ie*r  selfisn  desire  to  maintain  their  independent  rights, 
from  differ-    sought   for  weakness  rather  than  strength   in   the   men 
ent  houses     wnOm  they  elected.     Now  a  Hapsburg  was  chosen,  now 
a  member  of   the  ducal  house  of  Bavaria,  now  a  member  of 
the  house  of  Luxemburg.    Like  the  Hapsburg  house,  the  counts 
of  Luxemburg  had  reached  out  from  their  petty  seat  in  west- 
ern Germany,  and  had  built  up  a  strong  power  in  the  east  by 
acquiring  the  Slavic  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 

In  1347  Charles  IV,  the  head  of  the  latter  house,  succeeded 
in  gaining  possession  of  the  German  throne.     He  proved  one 
300.  Charles   of    the    greatest    rulers    of    Europe    in    the    fourteenth 
GoWen  century.     His  policy  was  to  build  up  Bohemia  by  the 

Bull  (1356)  promotion  of  commerce  and  the  founding  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Prague ;  and  so  successful  was  he  that  for  a  time  Prague 
became  almost  the  capital  of  Europe.  His  neglect  of  Germany, 
and  his  persistent  refusal  to  be  drawn  into  Italian  politics, 
caused  one  of  his  successors  to  say  of  him  that  he  "was  the  father 
of  Bohemia,  but  the  stepfather  of  the  Empire." 

The  most  important  single  act  of  Charles  IV  was  his  issuing 
in  1356  of  the  famous  Golden  Bull,  by  which  the  constitution 
of  the  Empire  was  denned.  The  right  to  choose  the  king  of 
Germany  (the  future  Emperor),  as  we  have  seen  (§  118),  was 
originally  vested  in  all  freemen.  But  it  had  gradually  been 
restricted  until  by  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  idea 
became  fixed  that  there  should  be  just  seven  persons,  constituting 
an  electoral  college,  who  possessed  the  right  to  elect.  Two  of 
these  votes,  however,  were  in  dispute.  In  the  Golden  Bull 
the  seven  electoral  votes  were  definitely  decided  to  belong 
to  the  three  great  Rhineland  archbishops  of  Mainz,  Cologne, 
and  Treves,  and  to  four  secular  princes,  the  king  of  Bohemia, 
the  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  the  duke  of  Saxony,  and  the 
margrave  of  Brandenburg  (see  map,  p.  259).  To  prevent  future 
disputes,  the  territories  of  these  secular  princes  were  made  in- 
divisible, with  succession  to  males  only.  The  right  of  coining 


GERMANY   AFTER  THE   INTERREGNUM  269 

money  and  of  trying  cases  without  appeal  was  given  to  the  elec- 
tors, who  were  placed  above  all  other  German  princes.  This 
arrangement,  while  it  prevented  the  recurrence  of  disputed 
elections,  made  the  constitution  of  Germany  for  centuries  a 


TOWN  HALL  OF  THE  FREE  IMPERIAL  CITY  or  FRANKFORT 

A  group  of  separate  houses  built  largely  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  since  re- 
modeled.   Here  the  imperial  elections  were  held  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

federation  of  almost  sovereign  states  instead  of  a  consolidated 
monarchy.     It  was  a  step  directly  opposite  to  those  which  Sol  RQ 
elsewhere  were  being  taken  in  the  creation  of  moclern  Empire,  250 
states.     The  English  historian  Bryce  says  of  Charles  IV's   (revised  ed-} 
work  that  "  he  legalized  anarchy,  and  called  it  a  constitution." 

Members  of  the  Luxemburg  house  occupied  the  imperial 
throne  for  sixty  years  after  the  death  of  Charles  IV,  the  last 
ruler  of  this  house  being  the  Emperor  Sigismund  (1410- 
1437).     In  the  person  of  Albert  II  the  Hapsburg  line  burg  line  J 
was  then  restored,  and  retained  possession  of  the  throne  restored 
continuously  for  the  next  three  centuries. 

Frederick  •  III  (1440-1493),  cousin  of  Albert,  was  the  last 


270        EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 


IMPERIAL  ARMS  AFTER 
SIGISMUND'S  REIGN 

From  iron  work  in  the  State 
Museum  at  Frankfort 


Emperor  to  be  crowned  at  Rome.     The  weakness  of  the  im- 
perial power  did  not  permit  him  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 

302.  Growth   affairs  of  Europe ;  indeed,  for 

bl^wer     twenty-five  years  he  remained 

(1440-1519)  secluded  on  his  hereditary  es- 
tates, without  even  visiting  other 
parts  of  Germany.  Nevertheless, 
his  long  reign  and  patient  persist- 
ence greatly  increased  the  power  of 
his  house,  by  reuniting  its  divided 
fragments.  A  notable  achievement 
was  a  treaty  which  laid  a  basis  for 
the  later  acquisition  by  his  descend- 
ants of  the  great  Magyar  kingdom 
of  Hungary.1 

The  marriage  of  Frederick's  son 
Maximilian  (Emperor  from  1493  to 
1519)  with  Mary  of  Burgundy  has  already  been  mentioned 
(§  296).  By  this  step  a  large  part  of  the  lands  of  Charles 
the  Bold  was  added  to  the  Hapsburg  inheritance.  A  begin- 
ning was  thus  made  of  renewed  growth  of  that  power  in  western 
Eurepe.  In  a  later  section  will  be  described  a  further  marriage 
which  brought  Spain  also,  with  its  vast  dependencies  in  the  Old 
and  in  the  New  World,  into  Hapsburg  hands  (§  314).  Maxi- 
milian's reign  is  thus  a  special  illustration  of  the  saying  that, 
while  other  states  grew  by  wars,  the  Hapsburg  family  throve 
through  fortunate  marriages. 

In  concluding  this  sketch  of  Germany,  some  account  must 
be  given  of  the  rise  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  Many  of  the 

303.  The        stories  told  concerning  the  Swiss  (such  as  the  one  of  which 
federation'     William  Tell  is  the  hero)  have  been  proved  by  scholars 
(1291-1499)    to  be  mere  myths.     The  authentic  history  of  that  land, 

1The  five  vowels  "A.  E.  I.  O.  U."  appeared  inscribed  on  all  the  buildings  and 
possessions  of  Frederick  III.  These  initials  are  interpreted  to  mean,  Austria  est 
imperare  orbi  universe  (in  German,  Alles  Erdreich  ist  Oesterreich  unterthan),  —  that 
is,  "the  whole  world  is  subject  to  Austria." 


GERMANY  AFTER  THE   INTERREGNUM 


27I 


however,  is  highly  interesting.  In  the  mountainous  region 
lying  between  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Aar,  much  of  the  old  Ger- 
manic spirit  of  freedom  had  been  preserved.  Consequently 
when  the  neighboring  Hapsburg  counts  attempted,  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  to  extend  their  feudal  jurisdiction  over  these 
independent  communities,  resistance  followed.  The  union  in 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  10  20  30  40 

fHi3  Original  Three  Cantons,  1291-1315 
^^  Five  Cantons  added  in  1315-1353 
V%M  Fire  Cantons  added  in_l48L-1513 
i        -JA.UI.J  and  Protected  Di<tri<-H.  down  to  \- 
EH3  Subject  Districts  down  to  1708 


GROWTH  OF  THE  Swiss  CONFEDERATION 

1291  of  the  three  "forest  cantons"  (Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unter- 
walden)  in  a  "  Perpetual  League,"  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Swiss  Confederation.  The  first  test  of  its  strength  came  in 
1315.  In  that  year  the  Hapsburg  count  sent  a  great  force  of 
armored  knights  to  attack  the  confederates,  who  —  armed 
with  lances  made  by  tying  their  scythes  to  their  alpenstocks  — 
were  stationed  among  the  hills  of  Mor'garten.  As  the  enemy 
toiled  up  the  steep  slope,  they  were  met  by  avalanches  of  stones 
and  tree  trunks ;  and  when  they  arrived  at  the  summit  they 
were  scattered  by  a  well-directed  charge.  Subsequent  vic- 
tories, such  as  that  won  at  Sempach  (zem'paK)  in  1386,  con- 


272         EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 

firmed  the  Swiss  claim  to  freedom  from  feudal  control.  These 
•exploits,  taken  with  the  great  victories  won  over  Charles  the 
Bold  (§  295),  had  the  effect  of  making  the  Swiss  pikemen  the 
most  renowned  and  most  sought  after  soldiers  in  Europe. 

Success  in  the  field  brought  increased  membership  to  the  con- 
federation. By  1513  it  numbered  thirteen  cantons,  including 
the  flourishing  Swiss  cities  of  Zurich  (zoo'rik),  Lucerne  (lu- 
surn'),  and  Bern  (bern).  At  first  the  cantons  had  been 
content  to  reject  all  dependence  on  feudal  lords,  offering 
allegiance  to  the  Emperor  alone.  But  when  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian, towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sought  to 
bring  the  Swiss  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  imperial  courts, 
a  brief  war  followed,  in  which  the  Swiss  were  again  successful. 
As  a  result,  after  1499  the  dependence, of  the  Swiss  on  the  Empire 
practically  ceased.  The  formal  recognition  of  their  independ- 
ence, however,  was  not  granted  until  1648  (§  434).  In  the 
separation  of  Switzerland  from  the  Empire  we  may  see  a  further 
mark  of  that  territorial  decay  to  which  unhappy  Germany  was 
subject. 

D.   ENGLAND  AFTER  THE  BLACK  DEATH 

In  England  the  measures  adopted  by  William  the  Conqueror 
(§  80)  had  prevented  feudalism  from   becoming   the  disinte- 
304  Com-      grating  force  that  it  proved  to  be  on  the  Continent ;  and 
parison  with   the  reforms  of  Henry  II  (§§  231-233)  began  the  process 
of  strengthening  the  monarchy.     In  part  it  is  the  contin- 
ued growth  of  the  monarchy  that  we  have  here  to  trace.     One 
point  of  difference  between  the  results  attained  in  France  and 
in  England,  however,  should  be  noted.     In  France  the  over- 
throw of   the  feudal  nobility  was   achieved   largely  through 
the  king's  obtaining  a  permanent  army  and  a  permanent  rev- 
enue, which  made  the  further  calling  of  Estates- General  a  mat- 
ter of  choice  with  him.     When  the  power  of  feudalism  was  over- 
thrown the  king  of  France  thus  became  an  absolute  monarch, 
for  there  was  left  no  power  in  the  state  strong  enough  to  check 
his  will.     In  England,  on  the  other  hand,  the  crown  did  not 


ENGLAND  AFTER  THE  BLACK   DEATH  273 

secure  either  a  permanent  army  or  a  permanent  revenue ;  hence 
the  king  was  obliged  to  have  constant  recourse  to  Parliament  for 
taxes  with  which  to  wage  war  and  to  carry  on  the  government. 
It  was  not  so  much  the  crown,  therefore,  that  profited  by  the 
overthrow  of  the  feudal  nobles  as  it  was  the  English  nation 
itself,  through  the  strengthening  of  Parliament. 

The  Black  Death  in  England  contributed  to  a  reorganiza- 
tion of  medieval  society.  This  in  turn  helped  on  the  growth  of 
the  powers  of  the  state,  and  also  the  part  played  by  the  Effects 

people  in  the  government.  Before  the  Black  Death,  there  of  the  Black 
were  in  England  about  four  or  five  millions  of  inhabitants.  Death 
When  that  pestilence  had  passed  away,  there  were  only  about 
half  this  number,  and  it  was  long  before  the  number  of  inhabit- 
ants again  rose  as  high  as  three  millions.  Field  laborers  had 
become  scarce,  and  those  who  were  left  demanded  greatly  in- 
creased wages.  Many  villeins  left  the  estates  of  their  masters 
and  fled  to  the  towns,  or  found  places  elsewhere  where  their 
lot  was  easier.  Parliament  passed  laws  to  keep  wages  and  prices 
at  their  former  levels,  but  these  could  not  be  enforced.  As  a 
result,  the  old  manorial  system  of  labor  and  agriculture  broke 
down,  and  a  new  system  gradually  took  its  place.  In  the  new 
system  the  land  was  either  rented  to  tenant  farmers,  who  paid 
money  for  its  use  instead  of  services,  or  else  the  land  was  re- 
tained by  the  lord  and  put  into  pasture  for  sheep.  In  either 
event  the  number  of  villeins  was  greatly  decreased. 

In  the  midst  of  this  transformation  came  the  great  Peasants' 
Revolt  of  1381.     (i)In  part  the  causes  of  the  rising  were  eco- 
nomic.   On  the  one  hand  was  the  impatient  desire  of  the  306.  The 
half-freed  peasants  to  complete  their  emancipation ;  and  Revolt*8 
on  the  other,  the  attempt  of  various  lords  (by  legal  tricks,   (1381) 
the  revival  of  obsolete  and  half-forgotten  manorial  rights,  or 
downright  violence)  to  reduce  their  peasants  again  to  villeinage. 
(2)  In  part  the  causes  were  political,  especially  the  passage 
by  Parliament  of  a  new  poll  tax,  which  bore  most  heavily  upon 
the  poor.     (3)  In  part  they  were  social,  and  were  traceable  to 
the  teachings  of   revolutionists   like  John  Ball,  who  preached 


274        EUROPEAN   STATES  IN  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 


JOHN  BALL  AND  THE  ENGLISH  REBELS 

against  the  oppression  of  the  poor  by  the  rich,1  and  asked  (in 
a  verse  which  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth) :  — 

"  When  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span, 
Who  was  then  the  gentleman  ?  " 

Under  various  leaders,  of  whom  the  chief  was  Wat  Tyler 
the  peasants  advanced  from  all  sides  upon  London.  The  draw- 
bridge of  London  Bridge  was  opened  by  the  people  of  the  city, 
and  soon  the  capital  was  in  the  hands  of  the  rebels.  Some  of  the 
king's  oppressive  ministers  were  murdered,  as  were  also  a  few 
lawyers  and  nobles,  and  a  few  buildings  were  burned.  But 

1  The  nature  of  Ball's  teachings  may  be  seen  in  the  following  passage  from  one  of 
his  speeches:  "Ah,  ye  good  people,"  he  exclaimed,  "matters  will  not  go  well  in 
England  until  everything  is  owned  in  common,  and  there  are  no  longer  villeins  nor 
gentleman,  but  all  are  united  together.  Now,  the  lords  are  clothed  in  velvet  and 
furs,  while  we  are  clothed  with  poor  cloth.  They  have  wines,  spices,  and  good 
,  bread,  while  we  live  upon  chaff  and  drink  water.  They  dwell  in  fine  houses, 
while  we  have  pain  and  labor,  wind  and  rain,  in  the  fields.  And  when  the  produce 
is  raised  by  our  labors,  they  take  it,  and  consume  it ;  and  we  are  called  their  bond- 
men, and  unless  we  serve  them  readily  we  are  beaten.'' 


ENGLAND  AFTER  THE  BLACK  DEATH 


275 


compared  with  the  excesses  committed  by  the  French  peasants 
(§  277)  the  conduct  of  the  English  peasants  was  moderate  and 
restrained.  The  de- 
mands of  the  peasants 
were  chiefly  for  the 
abolition  of  serfdom 
and  servile  labor,  and 
the  fixing  of  a  fair 
money  rent  for  their 
holdings.  For  a  time 
the  government  gave 
way  and  granted  these 
demands.  Then  Wat 
Tyler  was  treacher- 
ously murdered  in  a 
conference ;  and  his 
followers  were  per- 
suaded to  return  home, 
under  written  guaran- 
tees from  the  king  that  LONDON  BRIDGE  IN  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY 


Note  the  houses  on  the  bridge,  and  the  traitors' 
heads  above  the  gate 


the     promises     made 

should    be    observed, 

and  that  they  should 

have  a  free  pardon  for  their  rebellion.     When  once  their  forces 

•had  dispersed,  these  concessions  were  revoked,  and  the  leaders 

of  the  revolt  were  hunted  down  and  put  to  death.1 

1  According  to  one  account  the  young  king,  Richard  II,  showed  great  courage 
and  resourcefulness  in  this  crisis.  When  he  rode  out  to  meet  the  rebels  he  said :  "I 
am  your  king  and  lord,  good  people;  what  will  you?"  "We  will  that  you  free  us 
forever,"  shouted  the  peasants  in  reply,  "us  and  our  lands,  and  that  we  be  never 
named  or  held  for  serfs."  "I  grant  it,"  replied  Richard ;  and  he  bade  them  go  home, 
pledging  himself  at  once  to  issue  charters  of  freedom  and  amnesty.  At  the  meeting 
next  day,  when  Wat  Tyler  was  slain,  Richard  acted  with  even  greater  boldness. 
WThile  the  enraged  peasants  shouted,  "Kill,  kill,  they  have  slain  our  captain!"  Rich- 
ard rode  boldly  forward  and  cried :  "What  need  ye,  my  masters?  I  am  your  cap- 
tain and  your  king.  Follow  me  ! "  Thus,  it  is  said,  he  persuaded  them  to  disperse. 
Recent  historians  throw  serious  doubts  on  the  accuracy  of  this  story.  See  Ameri- 
can Historical  Review,  VII,  254-285,  458-484. 


276 


EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 


In  spite  of  this  base  withdrawal  of  solemn  pledges,  the  days 
of  villeinage  were  numbered.  Landlords  found  that  unwilling 
service  was  unprofitable  under  the  new  conditions,  and  within 
a  hundred  years  after  the  Peasants'  Revolt,  villeinage  in  Eng- 
land had  practically  ceased  to  exist. 

The  teachings  of  a  great  English  philosopher  and  church- 
307.  Teach-  man  named  John  Wyc'lif  were  one  cause  of  the 
Jolui0  Peasants'  Revolt.  He  was  a  professor  in  the  Univer- 

Wyclif  sity  of  Oxford,  and  students  from   all   over  Europe   at- 

tended his  lectures.  The  evils  in  the  church  early  at- 
tracted his  attention,  and  he  preached  and  wrote  against  the 

luxury  and  worldliness  of 
the  clergy,  which  he  con- 
trasted with  the  poverty 
of  Christ  and  the  Apos- 
tles. When  the  Pope 
laid  claim  in  1365  to  the 
tribute  which  King  John 
had  promised  (§  236), 
and  which  for  some  years 
had  been  withheld,  Wyc- 
lif  wrote  a  treatise  show- 
ing a  number  of  reasons 
why  this  should  not  be 
paid.  He  followed  this 
by  attacking  all  temporal 
lordship  exercised  by  the 
church.  He  proclaimed 
the  doctrine  that  lord- 
ship and  property  were 
granted  to  their  holders 

by  God,  and  could  be  enjoyed  only  so  long  as  their  holders  were 
in  a  "state  of  grace"  and  exercised  their  powers  justly.  This 
teaching  seemed  to  justify  rebellion  against  unjust  rulers. 
Others  of  his  writings  seemed  to  teach  communism,  —  that  is, 
that  all  property  should  be  held  in  common. 


JOHN  WYCLIF.    From  an  old  print 


ENGLAND  AFTER  THE   BLACK  DEATH  277 

After  the  Peasants'  Revolt,  Wyclif  lost  the  support  of  the 
great  nobles,  who  had  upheld  him  when  he  merely  attacked  the 
wealthy  clergy.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life  Wyclif  rejected 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  (§  87),  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  one  of  the  most  cherished  beliefs  of  the  church.  To 
spread  his  ideas  he  organized  a  body  of  followers  called  "poor 
priests,"  who  preached  among  the  common  people.  He  also 
caused  the  Bible  to  be  translated  from  the  Latin  version  of  the 
church  into  the  language  of  the  people.  By  this  step,  and  by 
his  writing  and  preaching  in  the  popular  tongue,  he  did  much  to 
aid  the  rise  of  the  English  language  as  a  means  of  literary  expres- 
sion. In  1382  he  was  condemned  for  heresy  and  was  obliged 
to  retire  from  Oxford.  But  circumstances  did  not  permit  of 
further  steps  being  taken  against  him,  and  he  died  peacefully 
two  years  later.  The  importance  of  Wyclif's  teaching  outlived 
his  own  time  and  the  circumstances  which  called  it  forth.  He 
was  the  greatest  of  the  "reformers  before  the  Reformation,"  and 
the  movement  which  he  started,  both  in  England  and  in 
Bohemia  (whither  it  was  transplanted),  lasted  in  some  sort  down 
to  the  days  of  Luther. 

When  Edward  III  died,  in  1377,  he  was  succeeded  by  his 
grandson,  Richard  II  (1377-1399),  son  of  the  Black  Prince.  It 
was  the  dissensions  which  filled  the  minority  of  this  king,  g  Depo_ 
together  with  further  troubles  which  arose  after  he  became  sition  of 
of  age,  that  prevented  England  from  profiting  by  the  weak- 
ness of  France  in  the  period  following  the  death  of  Charles  V 
(§  281).  In  1397-1398  matters  in  England  reached  a  crisis. 
At  that  time  Richard  suddenly  brought  charges  against  his  chief 
opponents,  and  caused  them  to  be  banished  or  put  to  death.  He 
then  surrounded  Parliament  with  archers,  and  compelled  it  to 
grant  him  a  tax  to  be  collected  as  long  as  he  should  live,  and 
other  powers  such  as  no  English  kings  had  ever  possessed.  As 
a  result  of  these  despotic  acts  Richard's  cousin,  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster, whom  he  had  unjustly  banished  and  deprived  of  his  es- 
tates, returned  to  England  in  1399,  and  put  himself  at  the  head 
of  a  •widespread  rebellion.  This  succeeded  so  well  that  Richard 


278        EUROPEAN   STATES   IN  LATER   MIDDLE   AGES 

II,  the  last  of  the  Plantagenet  kings,  was  deposed  by  Parliament. 
On  the  vacant  throne  was  seated  his  cousin  Henry  IV,  the  first 
of  the  Lancastrian  house.1 

The  powers  of  Parliament  had  already  greatly  increased,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  Edward  III  had  been  obliged  to  call  it  to- 
309.  The        gether  frequently  to  obtain  grants  of  money  for  his  war 
powers  of       with  France.     Under  the  Lancastrian  kings  its  authority 

Parliament  i  »  • 

grew  to  yet  greater  heights.  Among  the  important  con- 
stitutional principles  which  we  find  established  in  this  period 
are  the  following:  (i)  All  taxes  must  be  granted  by  Parliament. 
(2)  Parliament  has  the  right  to  inquire  into  the  administration 
of  the  government,  and  the  grievances  which  it  reports  must  be 
redressed  before  it  will  grant  taxes.  (3)  The  "  Good  Parliament " 
of  1376  established  its  right  to  punish  by  impeachment  royal 
officers  who  were  guilty  of  misgovernment.  (4)  The  deposition 
of  Richard  II  by  Parliament  strengthened  its  claim  to  superior- 
ity over  the  crown.  (5)  The  fact  that  Henry  IV  and  his  immedi- 
ate successors  owed  their  title  to  the  throne  to  Parliament  led 
them  frankly  to  recognize  its  powers  and  to  appoint  and  dismiss 
ministers  in  accordance  with  its  wishes.  (6)  Freedom  of  speech 
and  freedom  from  arrest  during  the  sessions  of  Parliament  be- 
came recognized  privileges  of  its  members.  (7)  Finally,  under 
Henry  VI  (grandson  of  Henry  IV),  Parliament  abandoned  the 
practice  of  passing  petitions  in  which  the  king  was  asked  to  make 
the  laws  it  desired,  —  the  details  being  left  to  the  king  and  his 

1  The  poet  Shakespeare  makes  Richard  II  speak  these  pathetic  words  upon  his 
deposition :  — 

"What  must  the  king  do  now ?     Must  he  submit ? 
The  king  shall  do  it.     Must  he  be  deposed  ? 
The  king  shall  be  contented  :  Must  he  lose 
The  name  of  king  ?    In  God's  name,  let  it  go : 
I'll  give  my  jewels  for  a  set  of  beads, 
My  gorgeous  palace  for  a  hermitage, 
My  gay  apparel  for  an  alms-man's  gown, 
My  figured  goblets  for  a  dish  of  wood, 
My  scepter  for  a  palmer's  walking-staff, 
My  subjects  for  a  pair  of  carved  saints, 
And  my  large  kingdom  for  a  little  grave." 

—  Richard  II,  Act  iii,  scene  ? 


ENGLAND  AFTER  THE  BLACK  DEATH 


279 


council.  Instead,  it  began  to  pass  bills,  or  complete  drafts  of 
laws,  which  could  not  be  changed  by  the  king  in  any  particular, 
without  referring  them  back  to  Parliament. 

Thus,  while  the  -powers  of  the  state  in  England  were  steadily 
increased,  the  exercise  of  these  powers  came  more  and  more 
to  be  under  the  control  of  Parliament.  And  in  this  body  the 
more  important  chamber  was  that  of  the  Commons,  which 
was  composed  of  elected  representatives  of  the  people. 

The  constitutional  development  which  we  have  been  tracing 
was  interrupted  and  its  results  partly  destroyed  by  a  series 
of  civil  wars  for  the  throne  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  310.  Wars 
century.     These  struggles  are  known  as  the  Wars  of  the  Jf0*g 
Roses,  from  the  red  rose  which  was  taken  as  the  badge  of  the   (1455-1485) 
house  of  Lancaster,  and  the  white  rose  worn  by  the  house  of 
York.     To  understand  the  contest  you  will  need  to  study  the 
genealogical  table  below,  and  see  how  each  of  the  two  houses 
was  descended  from  Edward  III.1 

Henry  VI  (1422-1461),  the  head  of  tlie  Lancastrian  house, 
represented  the  third  line  of  descent ;  while  Richard  of  York, 
who  claimed  the  throne  against  him,  was  descended,  through 
his  mother,  from  Edward's  second  son  Lionel,  as  well  as  from 

iTHE  HOUSES  OF  LANCASTER  AND   YORK 
(i)  EDWARD  III  (1327-1377) 


Edward 

Lionel 

John  of  Gaunt                       Edmund,  Duke 

the  Black  Prince 

1 

Duke  of                             of  YORK 

(d.  1376) 

1 

LANCASTER 

1 

Philippa 

1 

1 

(3) 

HENRY  IV  (1390-1413) 

(2)  RICHARD  II  (1377-1399) 
(deposed) 

(4) 

HENRY  V  (1413-1422) 

Roger 
Earl  of  March 

(5) 

HENRY  VI  (1422-1461) 

(deposed) 

i 

Anne 


Richard 


Richard,  Duke  of  York 


(6)  EDWARD  IV 
(1461-1483) 

(7)  EDWARD  V 
(1483) 


(8)  RICHARD  III 
(1483-1485) 


280        EUROPEAN   STATES   IN  LATER    MIDDLE   AGES 

the  fourth  son  through  his  father.  If  strict  rules  of  hereditary 
succession  were  regarded,  Richard  of  York  had  a  better  right  to 
the  throne  than  Henry  VI.  But  the  claims  of  the  line  of  Lionel 
had  been  passed  over  in  1399,  and  had  since  been  disregarded. 
It  was  only  the  miserable  failure  of  the  French  war,  and  the 
misgovernment  at  home  under  the  incompetent  and  at  times 
insane  Henry  VI,  that  enabled  the  Yorkists  to  win  any  atten- 
tion for  their  claims. 

Into  the  details  of  these  wars  we  cannot  go.  The  contest  was 
one  of  the  bloodiest  and  most  merciless  in  English  history, 
for  it  was  largely  a  selfish  struggle  for  power  between  the  great 
nobles.  The  strength  of  the  Lancastrians  lay  chiefly  in  the 
feudal  north  of  England.  The  Yorkists  were  more  powerful  in 
the  south,  where  the  middle  classes  were  more  in  evidence. 
Richard  of  York  was  slain  in  battle,  but  his  strong  and  able 
son,  Edward  IV  (1461-1483),  secured  the  throne.  The  poor  in- 
sane Henry  VI  was  shut  up  in  the  Tower  of  London,  and  was 
subsequently  murdered.  Edward  IV  maintained  himself, 
with  some  variations  of  fortune,  until  his  death  in  1483.  His 
young  son  Edward  V  was  soon  deposed  and  murdered  by  his 
uncle  Richard  III,  whom  Shakespeare  depicts  as  a  monster  of 
cunning  and  cruelty.  Finally  Richard  was  himself  overthrown 
in  the  battle  of  Bosworth  Field  (1485)  and  the  throne  passed 
to  Henry  VII,  the  first  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns.  This  king  was 
remotely  descended  from  the  Lancastrian  house.  By  his 
marriage  with  Elizabeth  of  York,  the  daughter  of  Edward  IV, 
he  united  to  the  claims  of  Lancaster  those  also  of  the  house  of 
York. 

In  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  through  deaths  in  battle  and  on 

the   scaffold,   the   old   nobility   was   almost    destroyed.     The 

31  *,  The        English  nation,  wearied  with  years  of  disorder,  allowed 

wdiT'^fn"  Henry  V11  (1485-1509)  and  his  son  Henry  VIH  to  make 

the  T udors     themselves  almost  absolute  in  power.     It  was  only  under  a 

strong  monarchy  that  the  people  could  hope  to  be  freed  from 

feudal  anarchy.    Parliament  in  this  struggle  had  become  the  mere 

tool  of  contending  factions.     Under  the  "  New  Monarchy  "  it 


THE  RISE  OF  SPAIN  281 

was  not  allowed  to  regain  its  independent  authority.  It  became 
the  servile  instrument  of  the  Tudor  sovereigns,  meeting  from 
time  to  time  to  pass  the  measures  proposed  to  it  by  the  king 
and  his  ministers.  The  decline  of  the  nobles  had  deprived 
Parliament  of  its  natural  leaders,  and  the  townsmen  and  country 
gentlemen  were  still  too  weak  to  challenge  the  power  of  these 
strong  and  arbitrary  kings.  But  the  power  of  the  crown  was 
used  to  put  down  disorder  and  enforce  law,  and  England  pros- 
pered as  it  had  never  prospered  before.  Also,  the  fact  that 
Parliament  was  allowed  to  continue  to  meet  and  go  through 
the  form  of  voting  taxes  and  passing  laws  kept  alive  the  tradi- 
tions of  liberty  and  parliamentary  power.  It  thus  became  easy, 
when  more  favorable  times  arrived,  to  revive  that  power,  and 
to  increase  it  to  a  point  hitherto  undreamed  of. 

E.  THE  RISE  OF  SPAIN 

The  development  of  Spain  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  was  little 
short  of  marvelous.  During  the  Middle  Ages  its  history  lies 
outside  the  general  history  of  western  Europe,  its  chief  Con_ 
features  being:  (i)  the  gradual  decay  of  the  Moham-  solidation 
medan  power  which  had  been  established  in  that  peninsula  ° 
since  711;  and  (2)  the  rise  of  the  Christian  states  of  Castile 
and  Leon,  Aragon,  Portugal,  and  Navarre  (na-var').  By  the 
year  1150  Christian  conquests  had  been  pushed  south  to  the 
Tagus  River.  In  1266  the  Moors  were  driven  into  their  last 
stronghold,  the  kingdom  of  Granada  (gra-na'da),  where  they  re- 
mained in  comparative  peace  for  more  than  two  centuries  longer. 
Continuous  warfare  with  the  infidel,  together  with  the  geographi- 
cal environment  of  Spain,  made  the  Spaniards  proud,  brave,  in- 
tensely devoted  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  indisposed  to  manual 
labor  and  industry.  In  1469  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile  laid  the  basis  of  the  permanent 
union  of  these  two  countries  under  a  single  head.  Then,  in 
1492,  Granada  was  taken,  and  the  long  crusade  against  the 
Mohammedans  was  brought  to  an  end. 


282        EUROPEAN  STATES  IN  LATER   MIDDLE  AGES 


Portugal  remained  an  independent  country ;  and  early  in  the 

fifteenth  century  it  took  the  lead  in  Atlantic  discovery  and  in 

313.  Ex-        the  search  for  an  ocean  route  to  India.     The  exertions  of 

aliTdis"8       Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  (died  1460)  led  to  the  discovery 

coveries         of  a  number  of  outlying  islands  in  the  eastern  Atlantic, 

and  to  the  exploration  of  the  African  coast  as  far  south  as  Cape 

Verde.      In  1486  the  Portuguese  navigator  Bartholomew  Diaz 


»a  50          100         150 


SPANISH  STATES,  1266-1492 

(de'as)  reached  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  1498  Vasco  da 
Gama  (ga'ma)  completed  the  work  by  reaching  India.  Seeking 
to  anticipate  this  result,  Queen  Isabella  of  Castile,  in  1492,  con- 
sented to  fit  out  the  expedition  with  which  Columbus  discov- 
ered the  New  World.  To  both  Spain  and  Portugal  the  result  of 
these  efforts  was  the  acquisition  of  vast  colonial  dependencies, 
and  a  flood  of  wealth. 

In  Europe,  meanwhile,  a  series  of  wars,  shrewd  diplomatic 
negotiations,  and  notable  marriages  raised  the  kingdom  of 
Spain  to  a  height  which  made  its  sovereign  the  most  powerful 


THE  RISE  OF   SPAIN        '  283 

prince  in  the  world.     Sicily  had  been  annexed  to  Aragon  since 
1409.     The  failure  of  the  French  kings  to  maintain  their  hold  on 
Naples  (§  297)  gave  Spain  that  kingdom  also  (confirmed   3I4   Spain 
by  treaty  in  1504).     This  made  Spain  the  ruling  power   and  the 
in    Italy.      We    have    already    seen    (§   302)    how    the   HaPsbur«s 
marriage  of   Maximilian  of  Austria  with  Mary  of  Burgundy 
united  the  Hapsburg  possessions  in  Germany  with  the  greater 
part  of  the  territories  over  which  Charles  the  Bold  had  ruled. 
A  new  marriage,  that  of  the  son  of  Maximilian  and  Mary  with 
the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  now  insured  that  the 
Hapsburg  and  Burgundian  lands  should  be  joined  with  Spain, 
Sicily,   Italy,  and  the  New  World,  in  the  hands  of  a  single 
prince,  the  future   Emperor  Charles  V.1    It  was  one  of    the 
most  amazing  political  developments  that  the  world  had  ever 
seen. 

But  though  Spain  by  the  year  1500  was  strong  in  its  inter- 
national position,  internally  it  was  weak.     It  was  thinly  popu- 
lated, and  trade  and  industry  were  little  developed.     The  315-  inter- 
Jews  and  Moors,  who  were  the  most  industrious  classes 


in  Spain,  were  cruelly  oppressed.  The  wealth  which  Spain 
flowed  from  America  and  the  Indies  proved  a  curse  rather  than  a 
blessing,  for  it  discouraged  honest  industry  and  stimulated  the 
search  for  treasure.  Castile  and  Aragon  were  only  loosely  united, 
and  the  power  of  the  crown  in  each  was  weak.  The  addition 


(i)  MAXIMILIAN  I: 


(Emperor 


i  GENEALOGY  OF  CHARLES  V 

-  Mary  <d.  1482 )  FERDINAND  .  ISABELLA 


daughter  of  (King  of  /Aragon  (Queen  of  Castile 


1493-1519) 

of  Burgundy 

Ca 
Philip,         .  :Juana         n 

of  England 


Charles  the  Bold  1470-1516)  1474-1504) 

of  Burgundy 

Catherine 

==Juana         m.  Henry  VIII 
Archduke  of  Austria  the  Insane          of  England 


(d.  1506) 


(d.  1555) 


(2)  CHARLES  V  =  Isabella  of  Portugal  (3)  FERDINAND  I  =  Anne  of  Bohemia 

(Emperor  (Emperor     I      and  Hungary 

1556-1564)   I 

PHILIP  II  (4)  MAXIMILIAN  II 

(King  of  Spain  (Emperor 

1556-1598)  1564  1576) 

Spanish  Hapsburgs  Austrian  Hapsbuigs 


284        EUROPEAN  STATES   IN  LATER  MIDDLE  AGES 

of  representatives  of  the  Third  Estate  to  their  Parliaments 
(called  Cor'tes)  had  taken  place  earlier  in  these  countries  than 
elsewhere,  dating  in  Aragon  from  1133  and  in  Castile  from  1166. 
But  the  disunion  of  the  nobles  and  the  people  prevented  the 
growth  of  these  assemblies  into  national  institutions.  In  spite 
of  many  reforms  made  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  the  powers 
of  the  government  in  Spain  remained  undeveloped.  It  was 
not  until  the  reigns  of  Charles  V  and  his  son  Philip  II  that  a 
modern  state  was  created  in  Spain,  and  the  power  of  the  crown 
became  absolute. 

F.   FALL  OF  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE 

While  in  western  Europe  the  governments  of  the  several 
countries  (except  Germany  and  Italy)  were  being  strengthened 
316.  Rise  and  consolidated,  the  Eastern  Empire  was  tottering  to 
toman  °  *ts  ^*  ^or  more  &&**•  &  century  before  its  final  over- 
Turks  throw,  it  steadily  lost  ground.  This  was  due  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  new  enemy  from  the  wilds  of  central  Asia,  —  the 
Ottoman  Turks.  The  newcomers  were  even  more  fierce  <  and 
barbarous  than  their  predecessors,  the  Seljukian  Turks.  Like 
the  latter  they  had  embraced  Mohammedanism,  and  they 
were  now  the  dominant  force  in  the  Mohammedan  world.  In 
1357  they  crossed  the  Hellespont  and  gained  their  first  footing 
in  Europe,  in  a  little  city  whose  walls  had  been  thrown  down  by 
an  earthquake  (§  173).  Within  three  years  came  the  conquest 
of  Adrianople,  and  soon  the  horse-tail  standards  of  the  Turks 
were  advanced  to  the  Danube.  The  strong  walls  of  Constan- 
tinople long  withstood  them,  though  the  Eastern  Emperors 
were  forced  to  pay  tribute.  In  another  way  also  the  Christian 
populations  contributed  to  their  own  subjugation ;  for  each  year 
the  Turks  demanded  a  fixed  number  of  children,  who  were 
educated  by  them  in  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  trained  to 
fight  as  their  famous  "new  troops,"  or  Jan'izaries. 

The  Greek  Emperors  made  repeated  attempts  to  gain  aid 
from  the  West,  even  at  the  price  of  the  submission  of  the  Greek 


FALL  OF  THE  EASTERN   EMPIRE 


285 


Church  to  the  Latin,  but  the  attempts  proved  futile.     In  1453 
Sultan  Mohammed  II,  with  an  overwhelming  force,  began  the 
last  siege  of  Constantinople.     Medieval  and  modern  ap-  317-  Fall 
pliances  were  used  together,  the  Turkish  cannon,  con- 
structed  by  foreign  engineers,  being  of  larger  caliber  than   (1453) 
ever  before  seen.     The  Greek  Emperor  made  a  heroic  defense, 
but  his  people  held  aloof  in  sullen  bigotry  because  of  new  nego- 
tiations for  union  with  the  Latin  Church.     After  fifty-  three  days' 
siege,  a  final  assault  was  ordered,  and  the  Janizaries  forced  the 


MOSQUE  OF  ST.  SOPHIA 

gates  (May  29,  1453).  The  Emperor  was  slain  after  a  desperate 
resistance.  The  city  was  given  up  to  plunder,  and  thousands 
of  its  people  were  enslaved.  The  great  Church  of  St.  Sophia 
was  robbed  of  its  treasures,  its  frescoes  and  mosaics  were  white- 
washed over  by  the  puritanic  zeal  of  the  Turks,  and  it  was  con- 
verted into  a  Mohammedan  mosque.  Thus  the  Eastern  Empire, 
after  surviving  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  for  a  thousand 
years,  came  to  an  end,  and  Constantinople  became  at  last  the 
capital  of  the  Turkish  dominions.  The  Greeks  and  other  native 
Christians  maintained  themselves  under  Turkish  rule,  thereby 
giving  rise  to  the  troublesome  Eastern  Question  of  later  times 
(ch.  xxxiv). 


286         EUROPEAN   STATES   IN   LATER  MID,DLE   AGES 


IMPORTANT   DATES 

1273.  Great  Interregnum  ended  in  Germany. 

1291.  Beginning  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

1315.  Battle  of  Morgarten. 

1356.  Emperor  Charles  IV  issues  the  Golden  Bull. 

1381.  Peasant  revolt  in  England. 

1399.  Richard  II  of  England  deposed;  accession  of  Lancastrian  house. 

1453.  Fall  of  Constantinople. 

1455-1485.  Wars  of  the  Roses  in  England. 

1461.  Louis  XI  becomes  king  of  France. 

1477.  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  overthrown. 

1492.  Conquest  of  Granada ;  Columbus  discovers  America, 

1494.  Charles  VIII  of  France  invades  Italy. 

1498.  Vasco  da  Gama  reaches  India  by  sea. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Make  a  list  of  the  differences  between  modern 
state  organization  and  that  of  the  Middle  Ages.  (2)  Compare  the  French 
monarchy  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Charles  VII  with  its  condition  at 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XL  (3)  What  arguments  could  be  advanced 
in  favor  of  Charles  the  Bold's  plan  of  erecting  a  monarchy  between  France 
and  Germany  ?  To  what  extent  has  it  since  been  done  ?  (4)  Compare 
the  history  of  Germany  after  the  Great  Interregnum  with  the  history  of 
France  under  the  first  four  Capetian  kings.  (5)  What  were  the  good  features 
of  the  Golden  Bull?  Its  bad  ones?  (6)  Trace  the  steps  in  the  growth  of 
the  power  of  the  Hapsburg  house.  (7)  What  things  enabled  the  Swiss  to 
win  and  maintain  their  independence?  (8)  What  things  prevented  the 
English  kings  from  becoming  as  absolute  as  the  kings  of  France  ?  (9)  Make 
a  list  of  the  economic  effects  of  the  Black  Death  in  England.  (10)  Compare 
the  peasants'  revolt  in  England  with  the  "Jacquerie"  in  France  in  1358. 
(n)  How  does  the  work  of  John  Wyclif  foreshadow  the  end  of  the  Middle 
Ages?  (12)  Compare  the  growth  of  Parliament  in  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries  with  its  growth  in  the  fifteenth  century.  (13)  How 
did  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  check  the  growth  of  Parliament?  (14)  Which 
was  of  more  immediate  importance  to  Spain,  the  consolidation  of  its  power 
at  home,  or  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  ?  (15)  Which  was  more  impor- 
tant in  the  end  ?  (16)  What  were  the  results  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  CHARLES  THE  BOLD  OF  BURGUNDY.  Freeman, 
Essays,  First  Series,  "  Charles  the  Bold" ;  Lodge,  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
364-386 ;  Adams,  Growth  of  the  French"  Nation.  —  (2)  CHARACTER  AND 
WORK  OF  Louis  XI.  Duruy,  France,  chs.  xxxiv-xxxv;  Willert,  Reign  of 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  287 

Lewis  XI,  22-34,  284-300.  —  (3)  THE  GOLDEN  BULL  or  CHARLES  IV. 
Henderson,  Short  History,  I,  159-162 ;  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  ch.  xiv; 
Ogg,  Source  Book,  409-416.  —  (4)  LEGEND  OF  WILLIAM  TELL.  McCrackan, 
Rise  of  the  Swiss  Republic,  ch.  vi;  Lodge,  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  124-125; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XXVI,  574-576.  —  (5)  EFFECTS  OF  THE 
BLACK  DEATH  IN  ENGLAND.  Cheyney,  Industrial  and  Social  History,  ch.  v ; 
Trevelyan,  England  in  the  Age  of  Wycli/e,  183-195;  Traill,  Social  England, 
II,  133-146.  —  (6)  WYCLIF'S  TEACHINGS  AND  How  THEY  SPREAD.  Green, 
Short  History,  235-244;  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  Bk.  I,  ch.  ii; 
Bk.  II,  ch.  iii;  Lechler,  John  Wycliffe  and  his  English  Precursors,  ch.  vi, 
sec.  2.  —  (7)  PEASANTS'  REVOLT  IN  ENGLAND.  Gardiner,  Student's  History, 
267-269;  Trevelyan,  England  in  the  Age  of  Wycliffe,  ch.  vi;  Green,  Short 
History,  244-255.  —  (8)  WARS  OF  THE  ROSES.  Gardiner,  Student's  History, 
323-343 ;  Green,  Short  History,  281-288.  —  (9)  THE  INQUISITION  IN 
SPAIN.  Lea,  The  Inquisition  in  Spain,  I,  ch.  iv ;  II,  507-534 ;  III,  1-35 ;  IV, 
179-205.  —  (10)  CONQUEST  OF  SPAIN  FROM  THE  MOORS.  Hume,  Spain,i-^Q-y 
Irving,  Conquest  of  Granada,  chs.  xc-xcix.  —  (n)  FALL  OF  CONSTANTI- 
NOPLE. Lodge,  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  509-510 ;  Oman,  Byzantine  Empire, 
336-350;  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  Ixviii.  —  (12)  THE  OTTOMAN  TURKS. 
Lodge,  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  498-500;  Freeman,  Ottoman  Power  in 
Europe,  chs.  iii,  iv. 

General  Reading.  —  Lodge's  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  the  best  general 
sketch  of  this  period.  Kirk's  Charles  the  Bold  (3  vols.)  is  a  brilliant  ac- 
count of  its  subject.  The  Golden  Bull  is  translated  in  Henderson's  Docu- 
ments of  the  Middle  Ages  and  in  Thatcher  and  McNeal's  Source  Book  for 
Medieval  History.  Gardiner's  Houses  of  Lancaster  and  York  is  the  best 
short  book  on  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  The  growth  of  Parliament  may  be 
traced  in  Montague,  Elements  of  English  Constitutional  History,  ch.  vii, 
or  Taswell-Langmead,  English  Constitutional  History,  chs.  viii  and  ix.  For 
Switzerland,  see  McCrackan,  Rise  of  the  Swiss  Republic,  or  Hugg  and  Stead, 
Switzerland. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  CHURCH  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  AND  FIFTEENTH 
CENTURIES 

A.  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY  AND  GREAT  SCHISM 

THE  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  saw  a  great  decline 

in  the  power  and  influence  of  the  Popes.     The  chief  events  in 

318.  The        church  history  in  this  period  were :    (i)  a  seventy  years' 

"Babylo-       '' Babylonian    Captivity"    of    the    papacy    to    France; 

ity1"  (1305-"   (2)  a  schism  which  divided  the  nations  of  western  Europe  in 

1377)  their  church  allegiance  for  forty  years ;  and  (3)  a  series  of 

great  church  councils,  which  sought  to  wrest  power  from  the 

hands  of  the  Pope  and  to  remedy  a  number  of  church  abuses. 

The  "Babylonian  Captivity"  was  a  result  of  the  triumph  of 
Philip  IV  of  France  over  Pope  Boniface  VIII  (§§  263,  264).  It 
lasted  from  1305  to  1377,  during  most  of  which  time  the  Popes 
resided  at  Avignon  on  the  river  Rhone.1  The  fact  that  all  of 
the  Popes  and  most  of  the  cardinals  during  this  period  were 
Frenchmen,  and  under  the  influence  of  the  French  king,  inevi- 
tably injured  the  papacy  in  other  countries.  When  England 
entered  upon  its  long  war  with  France,  it  treated  the  papacy 
as  a  French  ally.  It  refused  the  tribute  which  John  had  agreed 
to  pay,  and  also  passed  statutes  forbidding  papal  appointments 
to  English  benefices  (Statute  of  Provi'sors)  and  appeals  to  papal 
courts  (Statute  of  Praemuni're). 

1  The  first  four  years  of  the  Babylonian  Captivity  were  spent  in  various  parts  of 
France.  In  1309  the  papacy  fixed  its  seat  at  Avignon.  This  city  was  not  then  in- 
cluded within  the  limits  of  France,  but  was  a  fief  of  the  Empire.  It  was  held  in 
1309  by  the  son  of  that  French  prince,  Charles  of  Anjou,  who  had  secured  the  throne 
of  Sicily  (§  137).  Avignon  was  purchased  by  the  papacy  in  1348.  It  was  not 
formally  annexed  to  France  until  1791. 

288 


BABYLONIAN   CAPTIVITY   AND    GREAT   SCHISM        289 

In  Germany  a  similar  conflict  with  the  papacy  arose.  The 
resistance  there  was  notable  on  account  of  the  appearance  of 
certain  writings  (by  Marsiglio  of  Padua)  which  contained  the 
ideas  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  and  the  right  of  nations 
to  govern  themselves  in  both  church  and  state  affairs.  Later 
these  ideas  were  to  prove  fruitful  of  momentous  changes;  at 
the  time,  however,  the  papacy  was  able  to  triumph  over  the 
opposition  in  Germany  and  to  a  less  degree  in  England  also. 

But  the  outcry  against  the  Pope's  residence  at  Avignon  still 
continued.  There  was  also  great  danger  that  the  long  absence 


PAPAL  PALACE,  AVIGNON 
Built  1336-1364.    One  of  the  best  specimens  of  medieval  military  architecture 

of  the  Popes  from  Italy  would  result  in  a  loss  of  the  Papal  States, 
through  municipal  revolts  and  the  seizure  of  territory  by  Italian 
tyrants.  In  1377,  therefore,  the  Pope  returned  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  the  following  year. 

In  the  election  which  followed,  the  Roman  mob  demanded 
"a  Roman  Pope,  or  at  least  an  Italian  !"     The  majority   319-  The 
of  the  cardinals  were  French,  but  their  own  dissensions    g^sm 
and  the  fear  of  mob  violence  led  them  to  choose  a  Nea-   (1378-1417) 


2QO         THE    CHURCH   IN  THE   LATER   MIDDLE  AGES 


politan,  Urban  VI.  Within  a  few  months,  Urban's  rough  vio- 
lence and  obstinacy  led  the  cardinals  to  repent  of  their  choice ; 
and  on  the  ground  of  mob  intimidation,  they  then  tried  to  set 
aside  this  election.  They  chose  in  place  of  Urban  a  cardinal 
who  took  the  name  of  Clement  VII,  and  who  set  up  his  court 
at  the  former  papal  residence  in  Avignon. 

A  schism  in  the  church  was  thus  produced  which  lasted  for 
forty  years.     "All- our  West  land,"  wrote  the  Englishman  Wyc- 
lif,  "is  with   that  one  Pope  or  that 
Arnold,  JiBk  other,  and  he  that  is  with  that  one, 

hateth  the  other  with  a11  his>  Some 

men   say   that   here  is   the   Pope  in 


PISA  :  BAPTISTERY,  CATHEDRAL,  AND  LEANING  TOWER 
Erected  1063-1350.    The  meetings  of  the  council  were  held  in  the  cathedral 

Avignon,  for  he  was  well  chosen;  and  some  say  that  he  is 
yonder  at  Rome,  for  he  was  first  chosen."  France  and  the 
Spanish  kingdoms  supported  the  Avignon  Popes;  Germany, 
England,  and  Scandinavia  adhered  to  Urban  VI  and  his  succes- 
sors. But  earnest  men  everywhere  were  shocked  at  the  spec- 
tacle of  two  rival  Popes,  each  claiming  to  be  the  representative 
of  God  on  earth,  and  each  denouncing  the  other  as  antichrist. 

B.  THE  GREAT  CHURCH  COUNCILS 

The  failure  of  the  Popes  themselves  to  find  a  way  to  heal  the 
schism  produced  a  revival  of  the  idea  of   action  through  a 


THE  GREAT  CHURCH  COUNCILS        2QI 

representative  council  of  the  whole  western  church  (§  93).    But 
according  to  the  canon  law,  only  a  Pope  could  summon  a  gen- 
eral council.     The  cardinals  of  the  two  Popes,  however,  320.  Revi- 
solved   that   difficulty   by  abandoning  both   Popes  and  Church 
uniting  in  the  call  for  a  council,  which  met  at  Pisa  in   councils 
1409.      This  body  declared  both  Popes  deposed,  and  elected 
a  new  one  who  took  the  name  of  Alexander  V. 

Instead  of  ending  the  schism  this  course  only  added  a  third 
claimant  to  the  papacy,  for  neither  of  the  old  Popes  recog- 
nized the  act  of  deposition.  On  the  death  of  Alex-  321.  Coun- 
ander  V  the  cardinals  chose  as  his  successor  John  XXIII,  a  stenceC°n~ 
man  of  infamous  life,  but  one  who  seemed  to  them  to  have  (1414) 
the  needed  political  vigor  to  make  good  his  position.  In  1413 
the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  king  of  Naples  forced  Pope  John 
to  appeal  for  aid  to  the  Emperor  Sigismund.  The  latter  then 
demanded,  as  the  price  of  his  assistance,  the  summoning  of  a 
council  on  German  soil,  so  as  to  be  free  from  the  Pope's  control. 
The  result  was  the  important  Council  of  Constance  summoned 
by  Pope  John  to  meet  on  the  borders  of  Switzerland,  where  it 
sat  from  November,  1414,  to  April,  1418. 

The  Council  of  Constance  was  one  of  the  most  imposing  as- 
semblages of  the  Middle  Ages.     "Princes  and  prelates,  nobles 
and    theologians,    from    every    court    and   every    nation   Creighton, 
of  Europe"  nocked  to  the  little  Alpine  lake  town.     With  H"^y°f 

the  Papacy, 

them  came  throngs  of  attendants,  sightseers,  and  ad-  i,  132-134 
venturers  of  every  sort.  The  number  of  strangers  present  during 
the  council  varied  from  50,000  to  100,000.  An  enumeration  of 
its  members  will  show  something  of  the  pomp,  magnificence,  and 
importance  of  this  assembly.  The  number  of  prelates  (i.e. 
higher  clergy)  was :  29  cardinals,  3  patriarchs,  33  archbishops, 
about  150  bishops,  and  100  abbots.  In  addition  there  were 
present  50  provosts  (representatives  of  cathedral  chapters),  300 
doctors  of  theology,  and  1800  priests.  More  than  100  dukes 
and  earls,  and  2400  knights,  are  also  recorded  as  attending,  to- 
gether with  1 1 6  representatives  of  cities.  All  the  states  of  Europe 
recognized  this  assembly,  and  it  was  thus  enabled  to  succeed 


2Q  2         THE  CHURCH  IN  THE   LATER   MIDDLE  AGES 

where  the  Council  of  Pisa  had  failed.  It  asserted  its  authority 
in  the  most  far-reaching  terms.  It  declared  that  it  had  power 
"immediately  from  Christ,"  and  that  all  men,  "of  every  rank 
and  dignity,  even  the  Pope,"  were  bound  to  obey  it  "in  matters 
pertaining  to  (i)  the  faith,  (2)  the  extirpation  of  the  present 
schism,  and  (3)  the  general  reformation  of  the  church  of  God  in 
head  and  members."  % 

In  carrying  out   this   threefold  program,   the   council   con- 
demned the  heresies  of  Wyclif,  and  burned  at  the  stake  John 

322.  John       Hus  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  who  had  started  a  movement 
Hus  burned   in  Bohemia  similar  to  that  of  Wyclif  in  England.     Hus 

had  come  voluntarily  to  Constance  under  a  safe-conduct 
from  the  Emperor  Sigismund;  but  the  violation  of  this  was 
excused  on  the  plea  that  faith  should  not  be  kept  with  those 
who  are  unfaithful  to  God.  It  is  said  that,  as  Hus  was  being 
degraded  and  the  paper  cap  of  the  condemned  heretic  was 
placed  upon  his  head,  he  looked  fixedly  at  Sigismund,  who 
blushed  with  shame.  Both  Hus  and  Jerome  of  Prague  met 
their  deaths  with  heroic  constancy.  The  action  of  the  council, 
instead  of  stamping  out  heresy  in  Bohemia,  kindled  a  religious 
war  there,  in  which  the  Hussites  not  merely  long  maintained 
themselves,  but  carried  destruction  into  the  heart  of  Germany. 
In  healing  the  schism  the  council  was  more  successful  than 
in  dealing  with  heresy.  The  Pope  who  represented  the  line  of 

323.  The        Urban  VI  sent  envoys  from  his  refuge  in  northern  Italy 
Schism          to  offer  his  abdication.     The  successor  to  Clement  VII  was 
ended  deposed  and  left  without  a  following.     John  XXIII,  who 

had  opened  the  council  as  its  president,  was  confronted  by  a 
long  list  of  charges  against  his  character  and  life;  and  after 
ineffectual  efforts  to  avoid  his  fate,  he  submitted  to  deposition 
as  "unworthy,  useless,  and  harmful."  Representatives  from 
the  five  "nations"  into  which  the  council  was  divided  were  then 
added  to  the  cardinals,  and  the  united  body  chose  as  Pope  a 
Roman  cardinal  who  took  the  name  of  Martin  V.  All  western 
Christendom  recognized  him,  and  the  schism  thus  came  to  an 
end  (1417)- 


THE    GREAT   CHURCH   COUNCILS  293 

Of  the  reform  question  at  Constance,  a  Catholic  historian  says : 
"The  great  majority  of  the  assembly  were  of  one  mind  as  to  the 
need  of  reform;    but  the  members  of   the  council  were  324.  xhe 
neither  clear  nor  unanimous  in  their   views  as  to  the   question  of 
scope  and  nature  of  the  reform."     During  the  period  of  the 
papal  residence  at  Avignon,  and  the  Great  Schism,  the  expenses 
of  the  papacy  had  greatly  increased.     As  a  result,  the  Pastor,  His- 
Popes  had  resorted  to  numerous  and  ingenious  methods  of  p^jf  *i* 
enlarging  their  revenues,  which  often  seriously  limited  the   202-209 
rights  of  the  bishops.     The  reform  movement  at  Constance, 
therefore,  was  in  part  an  attempt  of  the  bishops  to   safeguard 
their  interests  against  the  encroachments  of  the  papacy.     In 
part  also  it  was  an  attempt  to  check  worldliness,  greed,  igno- 
rance, and  immorality  among  the  clergy.     Unfortunately  for  its 
success,  Henry  V  of  England  had  just  reopened  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  with  France  (§  282),  and  bitter  national  antago- 
nisms appeared  in  the  council  between  French  and   English, 
Orleanists    and    Burgundians.     A   further  obstacle  to   success 
was  the  selfishness  and  lack  of  statesmanship  among  the  mem- 
bers of  the  council.     This  reform  movement  at  Constance  was 
the  most  promising  of  many  attempts  to  reform  the    church 
from  within,  but  it  ended  in  almost  total  failure. 

One  of  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  provided 
for  the  regular  summoning  of   councils  in  the  future.      As  a 
result  of  the  continued  demand  for  reform  and  the  rout      s   coun- 
of  successive  armies  of  crusaders  sent  against  the  heretical  cil  of  Basel 
Bohemians,  a  third  council  was  assembled  in  1431  in  the   (I43i-i449) 
German  city  of  Basel   (ba'zel).     This  council  sat  for  eighteen 
years,  and  laid  the  basis  for  a  restoration  of  the  Catholic  faith 
in    Bohemia.     But  it  too  showed  little  real  statesmanship  in 
dealing  with  the  reform  question.     It  was  hampered  by  persist- 
ent conflicts  with  the  Pope,  in  which  the  sober  sense  of  Europe 
turned  more  and  more  against  the  council. 

The  period  of  the  great  church  councils  closed  with  the 
Pope's  supremacy  over  the  church  unshaken,  and  the  plan  of 
summoning  councils  at  regular  intervals  abandoned.  Never- 


2Q4         THE   CHURCH  IN  THE   LATER   MIDDLE   AGES 

theless,  the  memory  of  these  gatherings  long  persisted;  and 
again  and  again,  in  the  time  of  the  Protestant  Reformation, 
we  find  the  proposal  made  to  deal  with  religious  questions  by 
holding  another  great  council, — overriding  the  papacy,  if  neces- 
sary, to  do  so. 

C.   PAPAL  DECLINE  AND  LOCAL  REFORMS 

After  the  ending  of   the  Council  of   Basel,  the  Popes  were 

engaged  for  some  years  in  recovering  the  ground  lost  during 

326  The        these  troubles.     Pope  Nicholas  V  (died  1455)  sought  to 

papacy  after  win  prestige  by  making   Rome   the   literary   and    artistic 

'    capital  of  Europe.     He  planned  a  reconstruction  of  the 

city  "which  should  to  all  time  appeal  to  the  imagination,  and 

kindle   the   enthusiastic    admiration    of    Christendom."     But 

Creighton,       the  shock  of  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (§  317)  delayed 

?heSpaypacy       the   execution  of  this  work.     Pope  Pius  II   (died  1464) 

III,  150, 161    turned  his  energies  to  stirring  up  a  crusade  against  the 

victorious  Turks;   but  his  efforts  only  revealed  more  clearly 

—  as  he  himself  once  said  —  that   Europe   looked  "  on  Pope 

and  Emperor  alike  as  names  in  a  story  or  heads  in  a  picture." 

The  papacy  as  a  political  world  power  was  as  dead  as  the 

medieval  empire. 

In  these  circumstances  the  Popes  confined  themselves 
more  and  more  to  looking  after  the  interests  of  the  Papal 
States.1  For  a  time  they  seemed  to  lose  sight  very  largely  of 
the  spiritual  side  of  their  office.  They  may  be  described  as 
Italian  princes  who  often  united  to  their  powers  as  head  of  the 
church  the  political  craft  and  perfidy  and  the  looseness  of 

1  The  Popes  immediately  following  Pius  II  were:  Paul  II  (1464-1471);  Sixtus 
IV  (1471-1484) ;  Innocent  VIII  (1484-1492) ;  Alexander  VI  (1492-1503) ;  Julius 
II  (1503-1513) ;  Leo  X  (1513-1521).  Alexander  VI  belonged  to  the  Borgia  family, 
whose  name  has  become  a  synonym  for  political  craft  and  wickedness.  Contem- 
poraries charged  him  and  his  son,  Caesar  Borgia,  with  poisoning  their  enemies ;  but 
modern  historians  disbelieve  many  of  these  stories.  Leo  X  belonged  to  the  Floren- 
tine house  of  Medici  (§  331).  He  was  made  archbishop  at  the  age  of  seven,  and 
cardinal  at  fourteen.  The  story  was  widely  believed  that  when  he  was  elected  Pope 
he  exclaimed,  "Let  us  enjoy  the  papacy,  since  God  has  given  it  to  us." 


PAPAL  DECLINE  AND   LOCAL   REFORMS  295 

morals  which  then  characterized  the  secular  rulers  of  Italy.    A 
Catholic   historian    quotes    approvingly    this    characterization 
of  Alexander  VI  (1492-1503),  one  of  the  worst  of  their  Pastor,  His- 
number:    "The  reign  of  this  Pope,  which  lasted  eleven  p^fy, 
years,  was  a  serious  disaster,  on  account  of  its  worldliness,   139 
openly  proclaimed  with  the  most  amazing  effrontery,  on  account 
of  its  equally  unconcealed  nepotism  [favoritism  to  relatives], 
lastly  on  account  of  his  utter  absence  of  all  moral  sense  both  in 
public  and  private  life,  which  made  every  sort  of  accusation 
credible,  and  brought  the  papacy  into  utter  discredit,  while  its 
authority  seemed  unimpaired." 

A  local  reformation  in  Spain,  called  the  "  Spanish  Awakening," 
testifies,  however,  to  the  continued  strength  of  the  demand  for 
reform.  King  Ferdinand  and  Queen  Isabella  worked  327.  The 
hand  in  hand  with  a  devoted  archbishop  of  Toledo  (Xime-  Awakening 
nes)  to  carry  out  a  sweeping  but  choroughly  Catholic  (1482-1517) 
purification  of  the  church.  The  measures  which  they  adopted 
limited  the  papal  control  over  the  Spanish  church,  and  greatly 
improved  the  character  and  training  of  the  clergy.  They  in- 
volved no  alteration,  however,  in  the  doctrine  or  worship  of  the 
church,  nor  in  the  form  of  its  government.  The  movement 
was  concerned  only  with  the  freeing  of  the  church  from  abuses 
by  enforcing  ancient  rules.  One  of  its  less  commendable  fea- 
tures was  that  it  was  accompanied  by  a  revival  and  reorgan- 
ization of  the  Inquisition,  that  powerful  engine  of  the  Middle 
Ages  for  crushing  freedom  of  thought  which  has  been  described 
in  a  previous  chapter  (§  219). 

At  Florence,  in  Italy,  a  moral  and  religious  revival  was  begun 
by  the  Dominican  friar  Savonaro'la.     He  felt  deeply  the  wicked- 
ness of  the  world  about  him,  and  foretold  a  swift  coming  32g.  ggvo. 
of  God's  judgment  on  earth.     His  vivid  eloquence   and  narola  at- 
commanding  personality  profoundly  stirred  the  people,  f^^ 
and  for  a  time  he  swayed  the  city  at  his  will.     But  un-   1498) 
happily  he  was  led  into  politics.     He    regarded   the   family 
of  the  Medici  (§  331),  who  ruled  over  Florence,  as  a  chief  cause 
of  the  city's  wickedness ;  he  therefore  took  a  prominent  part  in 


296         THE   CHURCH   IN  THE   LATER   MIDDLE   AGES 


SAVONAROLA 

From  the  portrait  by  Fra   Bar- 
tolommeo 


a  revolution  which  temporarily  cast  them  out.1  He  proclaimed 
that  the  French  king  Charles  VIII,  who  at  this  time  was  over- 
running the  peninsula  (§  297),  was  the  scourge  of  God,  to  afflict 
but  purify  Italy.  He  accordingly  turned  Florence  to  alliance 

with  the  French.  This  brought 
Savonarola  into  conflict  with  Pope 
Alexander  VI,  whose  designs  for 
advancing  his  family  were  endan- 
gered by  French  interference  in 
Italy.  Savonarola  persisted  in 
the  French  alliance,  and  in  preach- 
ing after  he  had  been  excommu- 
nicated by  the  Pope,  and  this  con- 
tributed to  his  downfall.  An 
ordeal  by  fire  was  arranged,  in 
which  a  hostile  monk  offered  to 
enter  the  flames  with  one  of  Sa- 
vonarola's disciples  to  test  the 
truth  or  falsity  of  Savonarola's  teaching.  After  all  arrangements 
were  made,  the  ordeal  was  given  up,  and  the  people  were  led  to 
believe  that  Savonarola  refused  the  test.  A  political  and  reli- 

1  The  following  extract  (somewhat  condensed)  from  a  sermon  delivered  in  1494 
shows  alike  his  burning  eloquence,  his  reasons  for  political  action,  and  his  expecta- 
tion of  a  martyr's  death:  "Oh,  my  Florence,  I  was  in  a  safe  haven,  the  life  of  a 
friar.  By  my  preaching  I  led  a  few  into  the  way  of  salvation.  As  I  took  pleasure 
therein,  the  Lord  drove  my  bark  into  the  open  sea.  Before  me  on  the  vast  ocean  I 
see  terrible  tempests  brewing.  Behind  I  have  lost  sight  of  my  haven.  The  wind 
drives  me  forward,  and  the  Lord  forbids  my  return.  On  my  right  the  elect  of  God 
demand  my  help;  on  my  left  demons  and  wicked  men  lie  in  ambush.  I  communed 
last  night  with  the  Lord,  and  said,  ' Pity  me,  Lord ;  lead  me  back  to  my  haven.'  'It 
is  impossible ;  see  you  not  that  the  wind  is  contrary  ? '  'I  will  preach,  if  so  I  must ; 
but  why  need  I  meddle  with  the  government  of  Florence  ? '  'If  thou  wouldst  make 
Florence  a  holy  city,  thou  must  give  her  a  government  which  favors  virtue.'  'But, 
Lord,  I  am  not  sufficient  for  these  things.'  'Knowest  thou  not  that  God  chooses  the 
weak  of  this  world  to  confound  the  mighty?  Thou  art  the  instrument,  I  am  the 
doer.'  Then  I  was  convinced,  and  cried, '  Lord,  I  will  do  Thy  will ;  but  tell  me,  what 
shall  be  my  reward  ? '  '  My  son,  the  servant  is  not  above  his  master.  The  Jews 
made  Me  die  on  the  Cross;  a  like  lot  awaits  thee.'  'Yea,  Lord,  let  me  die  as  Thou 
didst  die  for  me.'  Then  He  said,  'Wait  yet  a  while ;  let  that  be  done  which  must  be 
done,  then  arm  thyself  with  courage.'"  —  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  IV,  253. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  297 

gious  reaction,  meanwhile,  put  the  control  of  Florence  in  the 
hands  of  Savonarola's  enemies.  Through  the  use  of  torture 
they  now  obtained  from  him  whatever  confessions  they  wished. 
In  spite  of  the  fact  that  his  teachings  were  in  general  harmony 
with  the  doctrines  of  the  church,  he  was  condemned  as  a  here- 
tic, and  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  1498. 

In  spite  of  the  constancy  with  which  Savonarola  met  his  death, 
his  influence  practically  died  with  him.  The  puritanic  and 
ascetic  ideals  which  he  embodied  met  with  little  permanent  savo- 
acceptance  among  Italians.  The  fact,  too,  that  he  died  narola's 
under  the  condemnation  of  the  church  shook  the  faith 
even  of  many  who  had  been  his  zealous  followers.  The  failure  of 
this  movement  shows  the  difficulty  of  the  attempt  to  reform  the 
church  from  within.  The  next  notable  attempt  at  church 
reform  was  to  come  from  north  of  the  Alps,  and  was  to  grow 
into  a  revolt  which  forever  split  the  unity  of  the  church.  The 
ideas  which  underlay  it  were  not  the  medieval  ascetic  ideas 
which  Savonarola  attempted  to  apply.  They  were  the  new 
ideas  which  we  sum  up  in  the  word  Renaissance,  and  which  imply 
a  whole  new  intellectual  world,  alien  to  the  thought  of  men  like 
Savonarola.  To  the  origin  and  development  of  the  Renaissance, 
therefore,  as  a  preliminary  to  the  German  Reformation,  we  must 
turn  in  the  next  chapter. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1377.  Return  of  the  papacy  from  Avignon. 

1378-1417.  Great  Schism  in  the  church. 

1415.  John  Hus  burned  as  a  heretic  by  the  Council  of  Constance. 

1449.  The  Council  of  Basel  comes  to  an  end  without  reforming  abuses. 

1482.  The  Spanish  Awakening  begins. 

1498.  Savonarola  burned  as  a  heretic  at  Florence. 

TOPICS   AND    REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  How  did  the  Babylonian  Captivity  weaken  the 
papacy?  (2)  Was  Urban  VI  or  Clement  VII  the  true  Pope?  Give  your 
reasons.  (3)  Why  did  England  and  France  take  opposite  sides  in  the 
Great  Schism?  (4)  Compare  the  powers  claimed  by  the  Council  of  Con- 


298         THE   CHURCH  IN  THE  LATER   MIDDLE  AGES 

stance  with  the  powers  claimed  for  the  Popes  in  the  time  of  Gregory  VII. 
(5)  Was  the  council's  claim  constitutional  or  revolutionary  ?  Was  it  nec- 
essary or  unnecessary?  (6)  Why  did  the  councils  fail  to  reform  the 
church?  (7)  Compare  the  character  and  European  position  of  the  Popes 
after  the  councils  with  the  character  and  European  position  of  Innocent  III. 
(8)  Compare  the  aims  of  the  Spanish  Awakening  with  the  aims  of  Savona- 
rola. (9)  Was  Savonarola  a  heretic  in  the  same  sense  that  Wyclif  was  ?' 
(10)  Write  a  brief  estimate  of  Savonarola  in  your  own  words. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  PAPACY  AT  AVIGNON.  Poole,  Wyclif e  and 
Movements  for  Reform,  43-60;  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  I,  33-58; 
Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  502-504.  —  (2)  THE  PAPAL 
ELECTION  OF  1378.  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  I,  61-67.  —  (3)  THE 
OPENING  OF  THE  COUNCIL  OF  CONSTANCE.  Wylie,  Council  of  Constance, 
lectures  ii,  iii;  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  I,  299-327. —  (4)  JOHN 
Hus  AND  THE  BOHEMIAN  HERESY.  Poole,  Wyclijfe  and  Movements  for 
Reform,  151-165;  Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany,  209-220;  Wylie, 
Council  of  Constance,  lectures  v,  vi ;  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  II,  3-5 1 . 
—  (5)  THE  COUNCIL  OF  BASEL.  Poole,  Wyclijfe  and  Movements  for  Reform, 
170-179;  Van  Dyke,  Age  of  the  Renascence,  ch.  x.  —  (6)  CHARACTER  OF 
THE  PAPACY  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY.  Symonds,  Short 
History,  ch.  iv;  Van  Dyke,  Age  of  the  Renascence,  chs.  xii-xvi.  —  (7)  THE 
SPANISH  AWAKENING.  Walker,  Reformation,  ch.  ii ;  Creighton,  History  of 
the  Papacy,  VI,  122-127.  —  (8)  EXECUTION  OF  SAVONAROLA.  Symonds, 
Short  History,  ch.  v;  Lea,  Inquisition  of  the  Middle  Ages,  III,  209-237; 
Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  Bk.  V,  ch.  viii;  Milman,  Savonarola, 
Erasmus,  etc.;  Villari,  Life  and  Times  of  Savonarola,  chs.  vii-xi. 

General  Reading.  —  In  addition  to  the  general  church  histories  (ch.  v) 
Creighton's  History  of  the  Papacy  from  the  Great  Schism  to  the  Sack  of  Rome 
(6  vols.)  should  be  consulted  on  this  period.  Pastor's  History  of  the  Popes 
(6  vols.)  contains  a  temperate  and  scholarly  account  of  the  Popes  of  the 
time  from  a  Catholic  standpoint;  see  also  the  great  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 
The  best  short  books  are  Poole's  Wycliffe  and  Movements  for  Reform,  and 
Van  Dyke's  Age  of  the  Renascence. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  ITALIAN  CITIES  AND  THE  RENAISSANCE 
A.  ITALY  IN  THE  TIME  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE 

SINCE  the  overthrow  of  the  Hohenstaufen  Empire,  Italy- had 
become  so  disunited  politically  that  a  later  statesman  could 
speak  of  it  as  "merely  a  geographical  expression."  There  330  Three 
was  no  longer  any  authority  which  even  pretended  to  divisions  of 
exercise  control  over  the  peninsula  as  a  whole.  We  Italy 
can  distinguish  three  different  zones  or  divisions  of  the  country, 
each  having  a  distinct  character.  The  southern  half  of  the 
peninsula  comprised  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  which  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  sixteenth  century  was  united  with  Sicily  under  the 
name  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  was  ruled  by  the 
Spanish  king.  It  was  monarchical  in  government  and  feudal 
in  its  society,  though  there  was  an  active  city  life  in  Naples 
itself.  The  second  zone  was  made  up  of  the  Papal  States. 
In  this  region  were  numerous  and  active  cities,  over  which 
the  Pope's  political  authority  was  often  merely  nominal.  The 
third  zone  included  Tuscany  and  Lombardy,  and  was  the  seat 
of  the  vigorous  and  flourishing  city  states  with  which  we  are 
here  especially  concerned. 

By  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  Italian  cities  was  the 
Tuscan  city  of  Florence,  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  river 
Arno.     It  had  secured  rights  of  self-government  during  33I.  Rise  Of 
the  Investiture  Conflict,  and  had   then  fallen  into   the  F1<>rence 
throes    of     civil    discord.       Its    streets     bristled     with    tall, 
battlemented   towers,    the   strongholds   of    rival   clans.      The 
contemporary  Florentine  historian  Machiavelli  (ma-kya-veTle) 
says:    "At  first  the  nobles  were  divided  against  each  other, 

299 


300 


ITALY  IN  THE  TIME  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE 


301 


then  the  citizens  against  the  nobles,  and  lastly  the  citizens 
against  the  populace  ;  and  it  ofttimes  happened  that  when  one 
of  these  parties  got  the  upper  hand,  it  split  into  two.  And  from 
these  divisions  there  resulted  so  many  deaths,  so  many  banish- 
ments, so  many  destructions  of  families,  as  never  befell  in  any 
other  city  of  which  we  have  record."  The  constitution  of 
Florence  was  that  of  a  democratic  republic,  but  only  the  wealthier 
five  thousand  of  its  100,000  inhabitants  had  any  real  power. 
By  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  control  of  the  govern- 
ment was  in  the  hands  of  the  rich  mercantile  family  of  the  Medici 
(med'e-che)  ,  of  which  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  (died  1492) 
was  the  most  illustrious  member.  Without  assuming  the  signs 
of  princely  rank,  he  governed  Florence  at  will.  His  position 
has  aptly  been  compared  to  that  of  the  political  "boss"  of  an 
American  city. 

The  flourishing  commerce  and  manufactures  of  Florence  — 
together  with  its  banking  houses,  possessing  branches  all  over 
western  Europe  —  brought  wealth  and  leisure  to  the  great 
burgher  families.     Wealth  and  leisure  in  turn  enabled  the  preemi- 
citizens  to  take  an  interest  in  learning,  literature,  and  art,  nence 
which  soon  made  their  city  the  intellectual  and  artistic  capital  of 
Europe.      The  English  writer  Symonds  says:    "Florence  was 
essentially  the  city  of   intelligence  in  modern    times.      Other 
nations  have  surpassed  the  Italians  in  their  genius.     But  Age  of  the 


nowhere    except    at    Athens   has    the   whole   population   24 
of  a  city  been  so  permeated  with  ideas,  so  highly  intel-  densed) 
lectual  by  nature,  so  keen  in  perception,  so  witty  and  so  subtle, 
as  at  Florence.     The  fine  and  delicate  spirit  of  the  Italians 
existed  in  quintessence  among  the  Florentines.     And  of  this 
superiority  not  only  they,  but  the  inhabitants  of  Rome  and 
Lombardy  and  Naples,  were  conscious.     The  primacy  of  the 
Florentines  in  literature,  the  fine  arts,  law,  scholarship,  philoso- 
phy, and  science  was  acknowledged  throughout  Italy." 

In  Lombardy,  as  well  as  in  the  Papal  States,  tyrants  had 
made  themselves  masters  of  various  cities,  together  with  their 
surrounding  territory.  These  tyrants  were  an  especial  feature 


302       THE  ITALIAN  CITIES  AND   THE   RENAISSANCE 

of  Renaissance  Italy.  The  fifteenth  century  has  been  called 
the  age  of  adventurers,  —  when  any  man,  by  military  ability, 
333  The  cunning,  and  unscrupulous  statecraft,  might  rise  in 
Italian  des-  Italy  to  the  position  of  prince.  Usually  this  was  done 
through  the  formation  of  a  military  company,  whose 
services  were  sold  by  its  leader  (condottiere)  now  to  this  and  now 
to  that  employer,  until  he  saw  opportunity  to  seize  a  govern- 
ment for  himself.  The  Italian  tyrants  were  restrained  in  the 
pursuit  of  their  ends  by  no  consideration  of  religion  or  humanity. 
The  most  dreadful  crimes  were  committed  when  they  seemed 
likely  to  conduce  to  success.  On  the  other  hand,  the  typical 
Italian  despots  were  rarely  cruel  for  the  sake  of  cruelty.  Their 
methods  are  described  and  justified  by  the  contemporary 
Florentine  writer  Machiavelli,  in  his  work  entitled  The  Prince. 
In  this  he  says  that  "a  prudent  prince  neither  can  nor  ought 
to  keep  his  word  when  to  keep  it  is  harmful  to  him,  and  the 
causes  which  led  him  to  pledge  it  are  removed."  The  despots 
of  Milan  were  among  the  most  typical,  and  also  the  most 
powerful,  of  this  class  of  Italian  rulers. 

Because  the  despot  owed  everything  to  his  own    unaided 

ability,  he  naturally  became  the  patron  of  the  scholars  and  the 

viiiari  artists  of  the  Renaissance,  who  in  their  own  fields  repre- 

Macfcavelli,     sen  ted   the   same   triumph   of   individual   talent.     "The 

' Iq  museum  and  the  library,"  says  a  modern  Italian  writer, 

"were  to  the  despot  what  the  stable  and  the  wine-cellar  were 

to  many  feudal  lords  of  the  north."     The  courts  of  the  despots, 

therefore,  next   to  Florence  itself,  became  the  centers  of  the 

rising  Renaissance  movement. 

B.  THE  REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING 

The  term  Renaissance  means  literally  "  rebirth."  It  is  applied 
334.  The  especially  to  the  revival  of  learning  and  art  which  began 
Renaissance  m  Italy  about  the  year  1300,  and  went  steadily  on  through- 
medieval-  out  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth  centuries, 
ism  .  At  bottom  it  was  an  awakening  of  the  human  intellect  to 


THE   REVIVAL   OF   LEARNING  303 

wider  fields  of  activity;  it  was  a  recovery  of  the  freedom 
of  individual  thought  and  action.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
individual  was  nothing;  the  guild,  the  commune,  the  church, 
were  everything.  The  world  and  the  flesh  were  regarded  as 
evil,  and  their  influence  was  to  be  combated.  Curiosity  was 
repressed ;  hence  natural  science,  which  is  based  on  observation 
and  investigation,  made  little  progress.  The  learning  most 
worth  having  was  theology,  which  was  based  on  divine  revela- 
tion. With  it  flourished  philosophy  (the  handmaid  of  theology) 
and  law,  the  importance  of  which  was  due  to  the  incessant 
conflicts  of  papacy  and  empire,  of  church  and  state.  The 
English  writer  Symonds  thus  sums  up  the  medieval  atti-  short  History 
tude  :  "Beauty  is  a  snare,  pleasure  a  sin,  the  world  a  of  the  Ren- 
fleeting  show,  man  fallen  and  lost,  death  the  only  certainty ; 
ignorance  is  acceptable  to  God  as  a  proof  of  faith  and  sub- 
mission; abstinence  and  mortification  are  the  only  safe  rules 
of  life :  these  were  the  fixed  ideas  of  the  ascetic  medieval 
church." 

With   the    fourteenth    century    a   new   way   of   looking    at 
things   began   to  prevail.     Human  life  and  this  world  were 
viewed  as  things  good  in  themselves,   and  not  merely  335  The 
as  a  means  of  preparing  for  the  world  to  come.     Men  humanistic 
began  to  give  way  to  the  stirrings  of  curiosity  in  matters  spm 
hitherto    neglected.      A    new  interest  was    taken    in    ancient 
buildings    and    monuments.     Throughout    the    Middle    Ages,    , 
Vergil,  Cicero,  and  others  of  the  best  Latin  authors  were  read 
as  models  of  style,  however  imperfectly  they  were  followed; 
but  their  content  was  feared  as  pagan.     Now  they  began  to  be 
read  for  meaning  as  well  as  style.     To  these  new  studies,  as 
distinguished  from  scholastic  philosophy  and  theology,  the  Latin 
name  lit'terae  humanio'res  was  given,  from  which  we  derive  our 
terms  "humanism"  and  "humanists."     Two  ideas  were  implied 
in  humanism,  —  first,  the  development  of  man  as  man,  and 
not  merely  as  a  candidate  for  heaven ;    and  second,   that  in 
classical  literature  alone  was  human  nature  displayed   in  its 
full  intellectual  and  moral  freedom.     "Ancient  literature  was 


3°4 


THE   ITALIAN   CITIES  AND   THE   RENAISSANCE 


now  welcomed  not  only  as  supplying  standards  of  form,  but 

as  disclosing  a  new  conception  of  life ;  a  conception  freer,  larger, 

Cambrid  e       niore  rational,  and  more  joyous  than  the  medieval;  one 

Modem  His-    which  gave  unfettered  scope  to  the  play  of  the  human 

tory,  1, 538      feelings,  to  the  sense  of  beauty,  and  to  all  the  activities 

of  the  intellect." 

As  a  result  of  the  humanistic  spirit  a  new  and  exaggerated 
reverence  for  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity  sprang  up.  Because 
336  Revi-  the  classical  authors  were  now  understood,  men  prof- 
val  of  learn-  ited  by  their  style  as  never  before.  Better  Latin  began 
to  be  written;  and  Greek,  the  knowledge  of  which  had 
gradually  died  out  in  the  West,  was  relearned  from  Constanti- 
nople. "Greece  has  not  fallen,"  said  an  Italian  scholar  after 
the  fall  of  Constantinople,  "but  seems  to  have  migrated  to 
Italy."  Under  the  impulse  of  the  new  love  for  learning,  the 
libraries  of  the  monasteries  of  Europe  were  ransacked,  and  many 
lost  works  were  recovered.  Critical  scholarship  was  born  in 
the  task  of  identifying  and  edit- 
ing these  treasures;  and  gram- 
mars and  dictionaries,  of  which 
there  had  been  an  almost  total 
lack,  were  compiled  to  interpret 
them.  At  the  same  time  there 
took  place,  almost  incidentally,  a 
development  of  literature  in  the 
vernacular  tongues,  or  language  of 
the  people,  which  went  far  beyond 
the  simple  beginnings  traced  in  a 
preceding  chapter  (§  220). 

The  chief  originators  of  both  the 

revival  of  classical  learning  and 

337.  Dante,    the  development  of  vernac- 

me/ofthe'     u^ar    literature  were  three 

dawn"  great  scholars  and  literary 

men  of  the  fourteenth  century,  — 

* '  From  a  fresco  ascribed  to  Giotto,  in 

Dan'te,  Petrarch    (pe'trark),  and       the  Bargello  at  Florence  (restored) 


DANTE 


THE   REVIVAL  OF   LEARNING 


305 


Boccaccio  (bok-ka/cho).  All  three  were  Florentines;  but  each, 
owing  either  to  banishment  or  to  other  causes,  spent  most  of 
his  life  in  exile.  Dante,  the  oldest  of  the  three,  was  born  soon 
after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century;  he  died  (in  1321) 
when  Petrarch  was  aged  seventeen  and  Boccaccio  was  a  boy  of 
eight.  Dante  was. one  of  the  profoundest  scholars  of  his  day, 
as  well  as  one  of  the  noblest  poetic  geniuses  of  all  time.  His 
great  poem,  The  Divine  Comedy,  tells  of  his  fabled  descent  into 
hell,  and  of  his  visit  to  purgatory  and  to  paradise.  In  this 
work  he  used  the  Italian  dialect  of  Tuscany  instead  of  Latin, 
in  which  all  serious  literary  works  of  the  Middle  Ages  had 
been  written.  His  character  showed  many  of  the  traits  which 
distinguished  the  men  of  the  Renaissance  from  the  men  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Among  these  were  his  proud  self-conscious  spirit 
of  independence,  his  striving  for  the  development  of  his  own 
personality,  his  longing  for  poetic  fame.  But  if  we  take  him 
as  a  whole,  he  belongs  to  the  era  that  was  closing,  not  to  the 

one  that  was  opening.  His 
theology,  learning,  and  point  of 
view  were  medieval  and  scho- 
lastic. In  spite  of  some  modern 
traits  he  shows  only  "the  glim- 
mer of  the  dawn"  of  the  Ren- 
aissance. 

With  Petrarch  it  was  differ- 
ent. Though  he  was  inferior  to 
Dante  as  a  poet,  to  him  33g.  pe- 

belongs  the  special  credit  trarch.the 
.  ,     .        ,,   ,      r  i  initiator  of 

of  being     the  first  modern  a^  Renais- 

scholar  and  man  of  let-  sance 
ters."  He  was  born  near  Flor- 
ence, spent  his  boyhood  at  Avig- 
non, and  in  manhood  passed 

PETRARCH  fr°m   °ne    Italian   court    to   an~ 

From  a  miniature  by  Simone  Memmi       °ther'      He   lonSed   Passionately 
in  the  Laurentian  Library,  Florence        for  a  revival  of  the  glories  of  an- 


306       THE  ITALIAN  CITIES   AND   THE  RENAISSANCE 

cient  Rome,  and  was  the  first  who  zealously  collected  Latin 
manuscripts,  inscriptions,  and  coins.  The  writers  of  antiquity 
were  more  real  personalities  to  him  than  the  men  of  his  own  day. 
He  entered  more  completely  into  the  spirit  of  the  ancient  litera- 
ture than  any  man  before  him  since  the  fall  of  the  ancient  world. 
He  tried  to  learn  Greek  in  order  that  he  might  read  Homer,  but 
failed  because  of  the  lack  of  Greek  teachers.  Petrarch  was  the 
author  of  countless  letters,  each  of  them  an  essay  in  finished 
Latin  style.  Through  the  circulation  of  these  letters,  he  be- 
came the  chief  agent  in  arousing  throughout  Italy  a  cultured 
and  inquiring  spirit.  He  also  wrote  extensively  in  the  popular 
tongue.  His  Sonnets,  addressed  to  his  ladylove  Laura,  showed 
that  the  Italian  language  was  as  well  adapted  to  lyric  poetry, 
as  Dante  had  shown  it  to  be  for  sustained  epic  composition. 
Boccaccio  was  the  third  of  these  great  Florentines;  He  is 
noted  as  the  author  of  a  series  of  short  stories,  the  style 

339.  Boc-       of  which  is  so  excellent  that  it  has  gained  for  him  the  title 
thers°ther~      "the   fatner   of   Italian   prose."      More  important  than 
Renaissance  his  work  in  this  field  were  his  services  to  classical  scholar- 
ship.    A  great  difficulty  in  the  way  of  understanding  the  works 
of  the  ancients  was  the  almost  total  lack  of  dictionaries  and 
other  aids.     Boccaccio  remedied  this  defect  somewhat  by  com- 
piling valuable  dictionaries  of  classical  mythology  and  geogra- 
phy.     He    also,    though   with   great   difficulty,    gained    some 
knowledge  of  Greek,  and  was  the  first  Italian  for  seven  cen- 
turies who  could  boast  of  an  acquaintance  with  that  tongue. 

After  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio,  scores  of  humanists  of  lesser 
genius  but  greater  learning  carried  on  the  movement.     Among 

340.  Later      these  may  be  mentioned  a  learned  Greek  from  Constanti- 
tkms^the     n°P^e)  named  Chrysolo'ras,  who  for  some  years  taught 
revival  Greek  at  Florence  and  elsewhere.     He  prepared  the  first 

modern  grammar  of  the  Greek  language,  which  remained  in  use 
for  many  years.  Italian  scholars  soon  began  also  to  go  to  Con- 
stantinople to  study  Greek  there.  Before  the  fall  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  a  knowledge  of  Greek  had  become  common  among 
western  scholars.  This  was  of  much  importance;  for,  if  it 


THfc   REVIVAL  OF  LEARNING  307 

was  the  sounder  knowledge  of  the  great  Latin  classics  which 
chiefly  contributed  to  the  literary  revival  of  the  Renaissance, 
it  was  the  recovery  of  the  Greek  authors  in  their  original  tongue 
which  produced  the  rebirth  of  the  scientific  spirit,  which  was 
u  profounder  result  of  the  Renaissance. 

The  work  of  recovering  and  interpreting  the  lost  works  of 
antiquity  went  on  apace,  and  many  scholars  contributed  to  it 
in  different  ways.  Some  searched  out  —  in  the  dark  and  musty 
corners  of  the  monasteries  of  Italy,  Germany,  and  France  — 
manuscripts  of  works  the  very  existence  of  which  had  been 
forgotten.  Others  made  a  business  of  restoring,  editing,  and 
copying  these  manuscripts.  They  thus  made  possible  the 
founding  of  great  libraries,  —  by  the  Medici  at  Florence,  by 
Pope  Nicholas  V  at  Rome,  and  by  the  Venetians.  Other 
scholars  traveled  about  restlessly  from  city  to  city,  lecturing  in 
the  Italian  universities,  discussing  questions  of  scholarship  in 
the  learned  circles  of  Florence,  Rome,  and  Naples,  and  every- 
where spreading  the  Renaissance  spirit.  Others,  like  Lorenzo 
Valla,  who  exposed  the  forged  character  of  the  "Donation  of 
Constantine"  (§  91),  applied  the. tools  of  criticism  to  the  claims 
of  the  church.  But  in  the  main  the  Italian  humanists,  if  not 
loyal  sons  of  the  church,  were  at  least  not  hostile  to  it.  The 
dangers  to  the  church  which  lay  in  the  unrestricted  activity  of 
the  new  criticism  were  not  fully  revealed  until  its  transfer  to  the 
nations  north  of  the  Alps. 

The  spirit  of  the  Renaissance  showed  itself  also  in  criticism  of 
medieval  philosophy  and  medieval  science.      Scholastic   34I. 
philosophy  lost  its  hoki  upon  the  world.     The  writings  of  losophy  and 
Plato  were  now  read  along  with  those  of  Aristotle,  both  in 
the  original  Greek.     Medicine  profited  by  the  dissection  of  the 
human  body ;   but  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  an  English  physician  (Harvey)  completely  demon- 
strated the  circulation  of  the  blood.     Chemistry  made  important 
strides,  though  to  many  investigators  it  still  continued  to  be 
only  a  means  to  find  the  mythical  "philosopher's  stone,"  with 
which  to  turn  base  metals  into  gold.     Gunpowder  (§  272)  was 


308       THE  ITALIAN  CITIES   AND   THE  RENAISSANCE 

so  improved  in  composition  that  it  became  an  effective  instru- 
ment of  warfare.  Above  all,  the  study  of  the  stars  passed  from 
the  astrologer  to  the  astronomer.  For  centuries  the  teaching 
of  the  Greek  philosopher  Ptolemy  (t61'e-my)  had  prevailed. 
This  made  the  earth  the  center  of  the  universe,  about  which 
turned  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  Coper'nicus,  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  taught  that  the  sun  is  the  center  about  which 
the  earth  revolves,  together  with  the  other  planets.  Galileo 
(gal-i-le'o),  some  years  later,  with  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  which 
he  so  improved  as  to  make  it  practically  a  new  invention,  ex- 
plored the  heavens  and  made  discovery  after  discovery.  But 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  theologians,  he  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  as  heretical  the  teaching,  which  he  borrowed  from 
Copernicus,  that  the  earth  moves  both  around  the  sun  and  upon 
its  axis. 

In  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  there  was  a  general  accept- 
ance by  learned-  men  of .  the  view  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere, 
Geog-  a  view  which  had  been  held  by  ancient  Greek  and  Roman 
raphy  and  geographers  and  rejected  in  the  Middle  Ages  on  theologi- 
cal grounds.  Geographical  knowledge  received  some 
extension  in  the  thirteenth  century  through  the  commercial 
travels  of  a  few  Venetians  —  Marco  Polo  and  members  of  his 
family  —  in  China.  After  nearly  twenty  years'  sojourn  in  that 
country,  they  returned  to  Europe  by  way  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  the  Persian  Gulf,  thus  confirming  the  report  which  Roger 
Bacon  had  heard  of  a  sea  which  washed  the  other  shore  of  Asia. 
Marco  Polo's  story  of  their  travels  later  set  men  on  the  search 
for  an  ocean  route  to  India,  and  so  contributed  to  the  discoveries 
of  Vasco  da  Gama  and  Columbus. 

These  discoveries  were  also  assisted  by  the  development  of 
a  system  of  reasonable  maps,  which  took  the  place  of  the  fantastic 
and  mythical  representations  of  the  world  made  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  invention  of  Mercator's 
projection  —  a  form  of  map  in  which  all  meridians  and  parallels 
are  straight  lines  intersecting  at  right  angles  —  made  possible 
sea  charts  for  compass  sailing  on  courses  drawn  as  straight 


REVIVAL  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS  309 

lines.  The  instruments  of  navigation  also  were  greatly  improved. 
The  magnetic  needle,  which  was  known  to  Roger  Bacon,  was 
by  now  embodied  in  the  mariners'  compass,  and  was  in  general 
use  in  the  fifteenth  century.  That  century  saw  also  the  develop- 
ment of  instruments  for  ascertaining  latitude,  —  the  cross-staff 
and  astrolabe,  forerunners  of  the  modern  sextant.  Longitude, 
however,  could  not  be  reckoned  with  any  degree  of  accuracy 
until  the  invention  of  the  watch,  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
made  possible  its  calculation  by  differences  of  time. 

The  revolution  which  was  wrought  in  men's  minds  by  the 
discovery  of  the  New  World,  of  whose  existence  the  Old 
World  in  general  had  been  wholly  unconscious,1  was,  of  course, 
enormous.  With  such  discoveries  being  made  in  science  and 
in  geography  men  came  to  feel  that  anything  was  possible.  The 
limitations  on  thought  which  the  Middle  Ages  had  imposed  were 
cast  off  as  a  snake  discards  its  outgrown  skin. 

C.   REVIVAL  OF  THE  FINE  ARTS 

The  Italian  Renaissance  was  not  only  an  event  of  supreme 
importance  in  the  history  of  the  human  intellect;    it  was  an 
epoch-making  development  in  the  world  of  art  as  well.   343-  Factors 
Architecture,   sculpture,  and   painting  all    felt    the  new  ^ 
impulse,  and  flowered  into  masterpieces  such  as  the  world  arts 
had  not  seen  since  the  days  of  classical  Greece.     This  develop- 
ment was  due  especially  to  three  causes:     (i)  After  centuries 
of   conventionalized   treatment   of   the   human   figure,   artists 
began  again  to  study  nature  itself,  and  to  draw  from  the  living 
model.       Many  of  them  went  further    and    dissected    human 
bodies,  in  order  to  learn  anatomy  and  thus  be  enabled  better  to 
draw  the  human  form.     In  general,  artists  now  strove  to  depict 

1  Conflicts  with  the  natives  and  other  difficulties  had  prevented  the  Northmen 
from  following  up  their  discovery  of  North  America.  Knowledge  of  that  discovery 
never  penetrated  outside  Scandinavia,  and  indeed  seems  to  have  been  forgotten  by 
the  Scandinavians  themselves.  Iceland  and  Greenland  both  appear  on  maps  of  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  as  mere  peninsulas  projecting  from  northern 
Europe. 


310       THE   ITALIAN  CITIES   AND  THE  RENAISSANCE 


the  real  world  of  men  and  things  about  them,  and  were  no  longer 
satisfied  with  the  stiff  symbolical  representations  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  (2)  Along  with  the  study  of  nature  they  studied  also 
the  sculpture  and  other  artistic  remains  of  classical  Greece  and 
Rome.  What  they  gained  from  this  study  especially  was  new 
ideals  of  harmony,  grace,  and  beauty,  to  modify  the  harsh 
and  repulsive  realism  to  which  their  study  of  nature  tended. 
(3)  From  the  study  of  antiquity,  and  from  other  sources,  they 
learned  better  technical  methods  of  execution.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  the  discovery  of  the 
laws  of  perspective,  which  were  now 
worked  out  in  systematic  form,  and  the 
process  of  painting  in  oils,  which  had 
been  discovered  by  Flemish  painters  and 
possessed  many  advantages  over  the 
methods  of  painting  hitherto  used. 

The  revival  of  the  fine  arts  began  in 
Italy  with  Nicholas  of  Pisa  (died  about 

344.  Lead-     I27&)-     He  was  the  first  to  improve 

ing  Italian  sculpture  by  a  study  of  the  remains 
of  ancient  Rome,  and  also  by  copy- 
ing the  living  forms  of  nature.-  Giotto 
(jot'to;  died  1337),  a  Florentine  and 
friend  of  Dante,  began  the  movement 
in  painting.  In  this  field  there  were 
practically  no  models  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome  to  follow;  but  by  observing 
men  and  women  about  him,  Giotto  en- 
deavored to  free  painting  from  the  stiff 
conventional  treatment  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  make  his  figures  more  lifelike.1 


artists 


GIOTTO'S  TOWER 

The  bell  tower  of  the  ca- 
thedral of  Florence  (not 
shown  :  to  the  right) 


1  Most  of  Giotto's  paintings  were  "frescoes,"  made  by  a  process  extensively  used 
before  the  rise  of  oil  painting.  The  colors  were  mixed  with  water  and  applied  directly 
to  the  u>ct,  freshly  plastered  wall,  the  result  being  a  painting  in  highly  permanent 
colors.  To-day  the  term  "fresco"  is  applied  loosely  to  mean  any  sort  of  wall  o«- 
ceiling  painting,  even  when  done  in  oil  on  a  canvas  ground. 


REVIVAL  OF  THE   FINE   ARTS 


311 


Both  Nicholas  of  Pisa  and  Giotto  were  architects  also ;    and  it 
is  to  Giotto  that  we  owe  the  beautiful  bell  tower  (campanile) 
of  Florence.     The  English  critic  Ruskin,  in  speaking  of  Ruskin, 
power  and  beauty  in  architecture,  says  that  these  charac- 
teristics  in  their  highest  relative  degrees  exist  "only  in  one  ture,  ch.  iv 
building  in  the  world,  the  campanile  of  Giotto  at  Florence." 

The  fifteenth  century  saw  a  fuller  development  of  the  revival 
in  architecture,  when  men  adapted  the  style  of  ancient  Rome 
to  the  requirements  of  modern  building.  Bramante  (bra-man'ta ; 


1 


ST.  PETER'S  AT  ROME     (Present  condition ;  erected  1506- 


died  1514)  was  foremost  in  this  work,  and  to  him  Rome  owes 
the  original  plan  and  part  of  the  completed  structure  of  the  new 
church  of  St.  Peter's.  Michelan'gelo,  the  most  famous  of  the 
great  Florentine  artists  (died  1564),  illustrates  the  many-sided- 
ness of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  for  he  attained  preeminence 
alike  in  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting.  He  superin- 
tended the  building  of  St.  Peter's,  and  planned  its  towering 
dome.  He  sculptured  many  figures,  of  which  those  of  David  and 
Moses,  and  the  statues  for  the  Medici  monument  at  Florence, 


MICHELANGELO'S  TIIK  THINKKR 

One  of  the  statues  of  the  Medici  monument  at  Florence.  It  represents  Lorenzo  II,  grand- 
son of  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent,  and  typifies  "  the  mood  of  crafty  brooding  and  concent  rated 
inward  thought." 


SPREAD   OF   THE    RENAISSANCE  313 

are  perhaps  the  most  famous.  He  painted  a  series  of  biblical 
pictures  for  the  Sistine  chapel  at  Rome,  of  which  liis  fresco  of 
the  Last  Judgment  is  probably  the  most  famous  single  picture 
in  the  world.  In  addition  he  was  a  poet  of  no  mean  note. 

In  painting,  the  Italian  Renaissance  reached  its  height  in  the 
period  1470-1550,  which  saw  the  works  of  the  Florentine 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  (da  ven'che)  and  the  Florentine- taught 
Raphael  (raf'a-el),  as  well  as  those  of  Michelangelo.  In  Venice 
the  movement  was  of  somewhat  later  origin  than  elsewhere 
in  Italy ;  but  a  Venetian  school,  of  which  Titian  (tish'an ;  died 
1576)  was  foremost,  gained  fame  for  its  brilliant  and  accurate 
coloring. 

It  is  impossible  by  mere  description  to  give  any  idea  of  the 
beauty  and  splendor  of  the  great  paintings  executed  by  these 
artists.  In  art  even  more  than  in  letters  Florence  was  the  capital 
of  Italy;  and  it  is  in  its  museums  that  many  of  the  best 
paintings  of  the  period  are  still  to  be  found.  The  subjects 
painted  were  largely  drawn  from  mythological  and  religious 
sources;  but  the  landscapes  and  costumes  depicted  were  those 
of  the  artist's  own  time  and  place.  The  individualism  of  the 
Renaissance  manifests  itself  in  the  painting  of  portraits  of  real 
persons,  which  was  very  little  practiced  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  characters  depicted  in  religious  and  classical  scenes  we 
can  often  recognize  portraits  of  the  artist  himself,  his  patrons, 
and  his  friends. 


D.   SPREAD  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE 

The  Renaissance  art  of  Italy  was  carried  north  of  the  Alps, 
and  greatly  modified  German,  French,  and  Flemish  architecture, 
sculpture,  and  painting.  Dlirer  and  Holbein  (hol'bln)  34g  ^ 
were  the  great  German  painters  of  the  first  half  of  the  north  of 
sixteenth  century.  A  little  later  the  preeminence  in  the 
northern  Europe  passed  to  Rubens,  a  Fleming.  In  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  great  Dutch  painters  Frans 
Hals  (died  1666)  and  Rembrandt  (died  1669)  -transformed  the 


RAPHAEL'S  SISTINE  MADONNA 

This  masterpiece  was  painted  by  Raphael  for  an  Italian  church  dedicated  to  Saint  Sixtus. 
who  is  shown  kneeling  on  the  left  (hence  the  name  "Sistine  Madonna").  The  figure  on 
the  right  is  that  of  Saint  Barbara.  The  picture  was  sold  in  i7S3  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony, 
who  removed  it  to  Dresden,  where  it  has  since  remained.  In  the  countenances  of  the 
mother  and  child  the  art  of  Raphael  reaches  its  highest  point. 


SPREAD   OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  315 

humblest  subjects  by  the  magic  of  their  skill,  and  laid  the  founda-= 
tion  of  modern  art.  In  Spain  Velasquez  (va-las'kath ;  died 
1660)  and  Murillo  (died  1682)  created  a  Spanish  school  whose 
works  rank  in  excellence  with  the  best  productions  of  Italy 
and  the  Netherlands.  A  Fleming,  Van  Dyck  (van  dik' ;  died 
1641),  had  the  chief  part  in  introducing  the  Renaissance  style 
of  painting  into  England.  In  France,  Claude  Lorrain  (lo-ran' ; 
died  1682)  founded  modern  landscape  painting.1 

The  intellectual  awakening  also  spread  gradually  to  the  lands 
beyond  the  Alps.     The  great  church  councils  of  the  fifteenth 
century  were  an  important  help  in  this  work  by  bringing       6   spread 
the  scholars  of  Italy  into  touch  with  those  of  other  lands,   of  the  new 
In  addition,  traders  and  persons  going  on  church  or  other  leanuns 
business   to   Italy  aided  in  the  movement,  by  bringing  back 
new  ideas  of  many  sorts. 

The  greatest  aid  to  the  Renaissance,  however,  was  afforded 
by  the  invention  of  printing.     As  late  as  1350  practically-  all 
books  in  Europe  were  prepared   entirely  with   the   pen.   347  Inven. 
Some  time  after  that  date  the  practice  arose  of  printing,   tion  of 
from  engraved  blocks  of  wood,  tracts  and  short  books  for  pni 
which   there  was   a  large  sale.      Such    crude  "block  books" 
were  a  step  in  advance,  but  their  production  is  not  what  we 
mean  by  the  invention  of  printing.     This  consisted  in  the  iti- 

1  The  following  is  a  list  of  famous  paintings  by  the  artists  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter ;  prints  of  many  of  these  may  be  obtained  at  small  cost  in  the  Perry  Pictures, 
Elson  Prints,  and  other  collections:  (i)  GIOTTO  —  Frescoes  of  Arena  chapel, 
Padua.  (2)  MICHELANGELO '—  The  Last  Judgment;  The  Creation;  figures  of 
sibyls  and  prophets.  (3)  LEONARDO  DA  VINCI  —  The  Last  Supper.  (4)  RAPHAEL 

—  The  Sistine  Madonna ;  The  School  of  Athens ;  The  Disputation  of  the  Sacrament. 

(5)  TITIAN  —  The  Assumption;     Bacchus  and  Ariadne;    portrait  of  Francis  I. 

(6)  DURER  —  Portrait  of  himself;    Adoration  of  the  Magi;     numerous  engrav- 
ings.    (7)  HOLBEIN  —  Portrait  of  Erasmus,  and  many  other  portraits.     (8)  RUBENS 

—  Descent  from  the  Cross ;  Horrors  of  War ;  etc.     (9)  FRANS  HALS  —  The  Laugh- 
ing Cavalier;    corporation  pieces.     (10)    REMBRANDT  —  The  Night  Watch;  The 
Lesson  in  Anatomy ;  The  Windmill ;  portraits  of  himself ;  etc.     (n)  VELASQUEZ  — 
Portrait  of  Philip  IV,  and  other  portraits.     (12)  MURILLO  — The  Immaculate  Con- 
ception;  St.  John  and  the  Lamb;  groups  of  beggar  boys.     (13)  VAN  DYCK  —  Por- 
traits of  Charles  I,  and  other  portraits.     (14)  CLAUDE  LORRAIN  —  The  Queen  of 
Sheba ;  views  of  the  Roman  Campagna. 


316       THE   ITALIAN   CITIES   AND   THE   RENAISSANCE 

vention  of  the  type  mold,  by  which  separate  types  could  be  accurately 
cast  in  metal  in  large  quantities.  The  honor  of  this  invention  is 
usually  given  to  John  Gutenberg  (goo'ten-benc)  of  ,Mainz, 
in  Germany,  who  printed  from  movable  types  about  the  year 
1450;  but  the  date,  place,  and  original  discoverer  of  the  art 
are  all  disputed.  This  invention  cheapened  books  and  spread 
broadcast  the  means  of  culture.  By  the  end  of  that  century, 


SPREAD  OF  PRINTING  DURING  THE  FIFTY  YEARS  FOLLOWING  ITS  INTRODUCTION 

INTO  MAINZ 

The  boundaries  are  modern 

printers  had  established  themselves  in  more  than  two  hundred 
places  in  Europe,  and  books  and  pamphlets  were  multiplied 
at  an  unprecedented  rate.  Leaflets  containing  woodcut  pictures, 
illustrating  the  questions  of  the  day,  made  an  equally  powerful 
appeal  to  the  illiterate. 

In  Italy,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  scholars 
became  almost  pagan  in  their  devotion  to  the  learning  of  Greece 
and  Rome ;  and  frank  disregard  of  religion  and  morality  spread 


SPREAD   OF   THE    RENAISSANCE 


317 


among  all  classes.     North  of  the  Alps  a  more  serious  tone  char- 
acterized the  movement.     Without  neglecting  the  classical  au- 
thors, scholars  turned  more  to  the  study  of  early  Christian   348.  Char- 
writers.    In  England,  John  Colet  (coret),  dean  of  St.  Paul's  acter  .of  the 
cathedral  at  London,  labored  for  an  educational  and  religious  beyond  the 
revival.   In  Germany,  Reuchlin  (roiK/lin)  became  the  center  A1PS 
of  a  bitter  literary  and  theological  quarrel,  because  of  his  Hebrew 
studies  and  his  desire  to  save  the  books  of  the  Jews  from  burn- 
ing at  the  hands  of  bigoted  scholastics.     To  defend  him,  a  group 
of   younger  humanists,  of    whom  the  brilliant   but   dissolute 
Ulrich  von   Hutten  was   one,  published  a   series  of   satirical 
letters   entitled   Epistolae   Obscurorum  Virorum    ("Letters    of 
Obscure  Men")  purporting  to  be  written  by  Reuchlin's  oppo- 
nents, and  designed  to  cast  ridicule  upon  them  as  a  stupid  party. 
The  best  example  of  northern  humanism  is  offered  by  Eras- 
mus  (e-raz'mus)    of   Rotterdam   (1467-1536).     After  passing 

a  few  years  as  a  monk  in  34g  Eras_ 
the  Netherlands,  he  stud-  mus  of 
ied  at  Paris,  in  England,  Rotterdam 
and  in  Italy.  His  home  thence- 
forth was  wherever  there  were 
literary  friends,  books,  and  a 
printing  press.  He  was  ac- 
knowledged and  honored  as  the 
greatest  scholar,  both  in  Latin 
and  Greek,  north  of  the  Alps. 
To  these  attainments  was  added 
a  gift  for  wit  and  pungent 
satire  which  made  his  influ- 
ence throughout  Europe  almost 
unparalleled.  His  most  widely 
read  work  was  his  Praise  of 
Folly,  an  elegantly  written 
Latin  satire.  Folly  is  represented  as  singing  her  own  praises, 
and  showing  that  to  her  are  due  the  arrogance  and  hairsplit- 
ting subtleties  of  the  theologians,  the  ignorant  preoccupation 


ERASMUS 

From  the  painting  by  Holbein  in  the 
Louvre,  Paris 


318      THE  ITALIAN   CITIES   AND   THE   RENAISSANCE 

with  ceremonies  on  the  part  of  the  monks,  the  slavish  worship 
of  saints  and  images  by  the  common  people,  the  faith  in  in- 
dulgences on  the  part  of  unrepentant  sinners,  and  the  luxury 
and  neglect  of  duty  shown  by  heads  of  the  church.1  Scores 
of  other  books  were  written  by  Erasmus.  He  devoted  himself 
especially  to  editing  and  printing  works  of  the  early  church 
fathers,  and  thus  became  the  founder  of  a  more  learned  and 
comprehensive  theology.  The  most  important  of  his  books 
was  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament  (1516).  This  made 
accessible,  for  the  first  time  in  a  printed  volume,  the  original 
Greek  text  of  that  book.  Its  importance  lay  in  the  fact  that  it 
made  it  possible  thenceforth  for  scholars,  by  referring  to  the 
Greek  text,  to  test  for  themselves  the  accuracy  of  the  Vulgate 
(or  Latin)  version  used  by  the  church.2  Owing  to  the  knowledge 
of  Latin  possessed  by  all  educated  men,  Erasmus's  works  were 
everywhere  read. 

1  The  following  passage  concerning  monks  will  illustrate  the  spirit  and  style  of 
the  Praise  of  Folly:   "The  greater  part  of  them  have  such  faith  in  their  ceremonies 
and  human  traditions,  that  they  think  one  heaven  is  not  reward  enough  for  such 
great  doings.  .  .  .     One  will  show  his  belly  stuffed  with  every  kind  of  fish ;  another 
will  pour  out  a  hundred  bushels  of  psalms;   another  will  count  up  myriads  of  fasts, 
and  make  up  for  them  all  again  by  almost  bursting  himself  at  a  single  dinner.     An- 
other will  bring  forward  such  a  heap  of  ceremonies  that  seven  ships  would  hardly 
hold  them;   another  boast  that  for  sixty  years  he  has  never  touched  a  penny  except 
with  double  gloves  on  his  hands.  .  .  .     But  Christ  will  interrupt  their  endless  brag- 
ging, and  will  demand,  'Whence  this  new  kind  of  Judaism?'     They  do  all  things 
by  rule,  by  a  kind  of  sacred  mathematics ;  as,  for  instance,  how  many  knots  their 
shoes  must  be  tied  with,  of  what  color  everything  must  be,  what  variety  in  their 
garb,  of  what  material,  how  many  straws-breadth  to  their  girdle,  of  what  form  and 
of  how  many  bushels'  capacity  their  cowl,  how  many  fingers  broad  their  hair,  and 
how  many  hours  they  sleep."  —  In  Lindsay,  History  of  the  Reformation,  I,  182. 

2  Erasmus  favored  also  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the  language  of  the  people. 
''I  altogether  and  utterly  dissent,"  he  wrote,  "from  those  who  are  unwilling  that  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  translated  into  the  vulgar  tongue,  should  be  read  by  private  per- 
sons, as  though  the  teachings  of  Christ  were  so  abstruse  as  to  be  intelligible  only  to 
a  very  few  theologians,  or  as  though  the  safety  of  the  Scriptures  rested  on  man's 
ignorance  of  it.    It  may  be  well  to  conceal  the  mysteries  of  kings ;  but  Christ  willed 
that  his  mysteries  should  be  published  as  widely  as  possible.     I  should  wish  that 
simple  women  should  read  the  Gospels,  should  read  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul.     Would 
that  the  Scriptures  were  translated  into  all  languages,  that  it  might  be  read  and 
known  not  only  to  Scots  and  Irishmen,  but  even  by  Turks  and  Saracens."  —  Trans- 
lated in  Milman,  Savonarola,  Erasmus,  etc.,  p.  122. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  319 

Erasmus    desired    a    reformation    in    the    church    "without 
tumult,"  carried  through  by  education  and  by  appeal  to  the 
reason.     In  a  letter  to  a  schoolmaster  who  was  one  of  his  numer- 
ous correspondents  he  gave  this  advice:   "Stick  to  your  Froude 
teaching   work.     Do   not   be   crossing   swords   with   the  Erasmus, 
champions   of    the   old   ignorance.     Try   rather    to    sow   2QI 
better  seed  in  the  minds  of  the  young.     If  princes  are  blind,  if 
the  heads  of  the  church  prefer  the  rewards  of  this  world  to  the 
rewards  promised  by  Christ,  if  divines  and  monks  choose  to 
stick   to  their  synagogues,  if    the  world  generally  chooses  to 
preserve  the  forms  to  which  men  are  accustomed  —  well  then, 
we  must  put  new  wine  in  the  old  bottles.     The  seed  will  grow 
in  the  end,  and  the  opposition  is  more  from  ignorance  than  ill- 
will.     Teach  your  boys  carefully,  edit  the  writings  of  the  fathers, 
and  irreligious  religion  and  unlearned  learning  will  pass  away 
in  due  time."     Erasmus's  plan  of  orderly  reform,  as  it  proved, 
could  not  avert  the  uprising  against  the  church ;  but  his  Beard,  Ref- 
work  profoundly  affected  that  movement  as  well  as  the  ^^sfxteenth 
church  itself.     "The  Reformation  that  has  been,"  says   Century,  73 
a  writer  of  our  own  time,  "is  Luther's  monument :   perhaps  the 
Reformation  that  is  to  be  will  trace  itself  back  to  Erasmus." 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics. —  (i)  What  was  there  in  the  condition  of  Italy  to  cause 
the  Renaissance  to  begin  there  ?  (2)  Contrast  the  medieval  and  the 
modern  ways  of  looking  at  nature  and  the  world.  (3)  Did  the  Renaissance 
in  Italy  begin  before  or  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  ?  (4)  Was  it  the 
Revival  of  Learning  that  produced  the  humanistic  spirit,  or  was  it  the  human- 
istic spirit  that  produced  the  Revival  of  Learning  ?  (5)  Compare  the  parts 
played  by  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Boccaccio  in  the  Renaissance.  (6)  What  part 
did  princes  and  Popes  play  in  the  movement  ?  (7)  What  other  aspects  were 
there  to  the  Renaissance  besides  the  Revival  of  Learning  ?  (8)  From  what 
two  sources  came  the  influences  which  caused  the  development  of  the  fine 
arts  ?  (9}  Make  a  list  of  all  prints  and  photographs  of  Italian  paintings 
of  the  Renaissance  period  that  you  can  find.  (10)  Do  the  same  for 
sculptures.  (n)  How  did  printing  aid  the  spread  of  the  Renaissance? 
(12)  What  was  Erasmus's  part  in  the  Renaissance?  (13)  Why  were  the 
northern  humanists  more  serious  and  religious-minded  than  the  Italian? 


320       THE   ITALIAN   CITIES   AND    THE   RENAISSANCE 

Search  Topics. —  (i)  THE  ITALIAN  DESPOTS.  Symonds,  Short  History 
of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  ch.  iii ;  Age  of  the  Despots;  Sedgwick,  Short  History 
of  Italy,  ch.  xx.  —  (2)  MACHIAVELLI'S  ADVICE  TO  DESPOTS.  Robinson, 
Readings  in  European  History,  I,  516-520.  —  (3)  EARLY  HISTORY  OF 
FLORENCE.  Gardner,  Story  of  Florence,  chs.  i-ii ;  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(nth  ed.),  X,  530-534.  —  (4)  DANTE.  Symonds,  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  Dante,  chs.  ii-iii;  Lowell,  Literary  Essays  ("Dante");  Oliphant,  Makers 
of  Florence.  —  (5)  PETRARCH.  Symonds,  in  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
("Petrarch");  Robinson  and  Rolfe,  Petrarch,  Introduction  and  pages  84- 
97,  275-278,  307-320;  Robinson,  Readings,  I,  524-528;  Ogg,  Source  Book, 
462-473.  —  (6)  THE  SEARCH  FOR  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  THE  FOUNDING  OF 
LIBRARIES.  Van  Dyke,  Age  of  the  Renascence,  ch.  xi;  Cambridge  Modern 
History,  I,  549-553;  Robinson,  Readings,  I,  529-531. —  (7)  LORENZO  DE' 
MEDICI.  Dunn  Pattison,  Leading  Figures  in  European  History,  165-189; 
Armstrong,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  chs.  i,  viii-ix ;  Horsburgh,  Lorenzo  the  Mag- 
nificent, chs.  xii,  xvi.  —  (8)  FLORENTINE  LIFE  DURING  THE  RENAISSANCE. 
Oliphant,  Makers  of  Florence,  ch.  vi ;  Horsburgh,  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent, 
ch.  xx ;  Biagi,  Men  and  Manners  of  Old  Florence,  ii-iii;  Norton,  Church 
Building  in  the  Middle  Ages,  181-233.  —  (9)  How  BRUNELLESCHI  BUILT 
THE  DOME  OF  THE  CATHEDRAL  OF  FLORENCE.  Norton,  Church  Building 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  234-292.  —  (10)  MICHELANGELO.  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nua  ("Michelangelo");  Van  Dyke,  History  of  Painting;  Lilly,  Chapters  in 
European  History,  II,  ch.  i.  —  (n)  LEONARDO  DA  VINCI.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  ("Leonardo  da  Vinci") ;  Van  Dyke,  History  of  Painting.  —  (12) 
RAPHAEL.  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ("Raphael  Sanzio");  Van  Dyke,  His- 
tory of  Painting.  (13)  THE  VENETIAN  SCHOOL  OF  PAINTERS.  Symonds, 
Short  History,  229-233;  Van  Dyke,  History  of  Painting.  —  (14)  EXPLO- 
RATION AND  DISCOVERY.  Channing,  History  of  the  United  States,  I,  ch.  i ; 
Cheyney,  European  Background  of  American  History,  chs.  iii-iv;  Fiske, 
Discovery  of  America,  I,  ch.  iv.  —  (15)  COPERNICUS.  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica; Lodge,  Pioneers  of  Science.  —  (16)  THE  INVENTION  OF  PRINTING. 
De  Vinne,-  The  Invention  of  Printing;  Encyclopedia  Britannica  ("Typog- 
raphy").—  (17)  ERASMUS.  Seebohm,  Oxford  Reformers,  186-205;  Emer- 
ton,  Desiderius  Erasmus,  ch.  v;  Stone,  Reformation  and  Renaissance, 
ch.  v;  Robinson,  Readings,  II,  41-46; 

General  Reading.  —  Symonds's  Renaissance  in  Italy  (7  vols.)  is  the  best 
general  account  in  English;  his  Short  History  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy 
is  an  abridgment  of  the  larger  work.  Robinson  and  Rolfe's  Petrarch, 
the  First  Modern  Scholar  and  Man  of  Letters  is  valuable  and  interesting, 
as  also  is  Emerton's  Desiderius  Erasmus.  Van  Dyke's  History  of  Painting 
is  a  good  guide  for  the  fine  arts  of  the  Renaissance. 


CHAPTER  XVH 

THE  GERMAN  REFORMATION 

A.  THE  REFORMATION  PREPARED 

THE  Reformation  was  a  many-sided  movement,  —  political, 
economic,  intellectual,  and  religious.     Its  fundamental  cause  was 
a  general  reaction  against  the  life  and  religion  of  the  Middle  350   Causes 
Ages,  which  manifested  itself  independently  in  several  dif-  of  the  Ref- 
ferent  countries  at  about  the  same  time.     Among  the  chief  ( 
causes  which  in  Germany  contributed  to  produce  a  revolt  from 
the  Catholic  Church  we  may  note  the  following :  — 

(1)  There  was  widespread  dissatisfaction  with  abuses  in  the 
church,  and  with  the  failure  of  Popes  and  councils  to  reform 
them. 

(2)  A  spirit  was  arising  among  the  people  which  led  them  to 
oppose    the    exclusive    power  and    privileges  claimed  by  the 
clergy.     The  rise  of  strong  national  states,  the  heads  of  which 
followed  their  own  interests  and  desires,  was  one  manifestation 
of  this  spirit. 

(3)  There  was  a  deepening  sense  of  religion  among  the  people, 
which  made  them  dissatisfied  with  the  purely  formal  and  me- 
chanical religion  which  the  church  often  presented  to  them,   \valker 
"If  the  wider  interests  of  religion  are  had  in  view,"  says  Reformation, 
Walker,  "the  period  just   previous   to   the  Reformation 
witnessed  not  the  lowest  decline  but  the  highest  development 

of  medieval  Christianity  —  high  enough  to  be  dissatisfied  with 
its  state,  to  feel  dimly  the  inadequacy  of  its  institutions,  and 
the  need  of  their  improvement." 

(4)  In  addition  there  was  the  undermining  influence  of  the 

321 


322 


THE   GERMAN  REFORMATION 


spirit  of  the  Renaissance,  with  its  contempt  for  the  Middle 
Ages,  its  demand  for  freedom  of  inquiry,  its  appeal  to  reason 
instead  of  to  authority,  and  its  tendency  to  test  the  teachings 
of  the  church  by  the  Scriptures  and  early  church  fathers. 

(5)  Finally,  there  was  in  Germany  a  deep-seated  feeling  of 
social  and  economic  discontent,  which  for  one  or  another  reason 
made  all  classes,  from  princes  to  peasants,  dissatisfied  and  pre- 
disposed to  change.  In  part  the  discontent  was  due  to  a  rapid 
rise  of  prices  somewhat  similar  to  that  which  the  world  experi- 
ences in  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  century.  In  part  it 
was  due  to  injustices  inflicted  upon  knights  by  princes,  and  upon 
peasants  by  knights,  in  the  political  reorganization  then  taking 
place.  In  part  it  was  due  to  a  national  feeling  of  irritation  at 
the  failure  of  the  government  to  protect  the  land  against  the 
oppressive  taxes  which  on  one  pretext  or  another  the  papacy 
levied  upon  Germany  more  than  upon 
any  other  country.  Thus  Germany 
was  in  an  inflammable  condition,  and 
Luther  supplied  the  spark  which  set 
it  afire. 

Martin  Luther  was  born  in  1483  at 
Eisleben  (is'la-ben),  a  little  village  of 

351   Early      electoral  Saxony.     His  parents 

life  of  were  peasants,  and   his  child- 

hood was  one  of  grinding  pov- 
erty. His  father,  however,  was  de- 
termined that  Martin,  his  eldest  son, 
should  become  a  lawyer  and  rise  in 
the  social  scale.  Luther  became  a 
begging  student,  singing  for  his  bread, 
until  at  the  age  of  eighteen  his  father's 
labors  and  sacrifices  enabled  the 
young  man  to  go  to  the  University 
of  Erfurt,  and  devote  all  his  time  to 

study.     After   four   years    there,   Luther    took   his   degree   of 
Master  of  Arts  with  unusual  distinction.     He  was  just  ready  to 


Luther 


LUTHER 

From  the  painting  by  O. 
Brausewetter 


THE   REFORMATION   BEGUN  323 

begin  the  study  of  law,  when  suddenly  he  entered  a  monastery 
of  the  Augustinian  friars,  a  mendicant  order  similar  to  the 
Dominicans  and  Franciscans. 

Just  what  led  Luther  to  give  up  the  promise  of  a  successful 
career  and  turn  his  back  upon  the  world  we  can  never  know. 
In  the  monastery  he  was  tortured  by  an  agonizing  sense  3g2  Hig 
of  sin ;    and  he  strove  to  attain  inward  peace  through  a  life  in  a 
strict  observance  of  the  rules,  —  through  fasting,  vigils,   monastery 
and  mortification  of  the  flesh.     "If  ever  a  monk  got  to  heaven 
by  monkhood,"  he  said  afterward,  "I  should  have  attained  it.". 
But  the  much  desired  peace  of  mind  did  not  come.     At  last,  from 
his  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  from  mystical   teachers  and 
writings,  he  gradually  came  to  the  conviction  that  all  of  man's 
own  efforts  to  win  salvation  ("good  works")  are  useless,  and 
that  justification  (or  salvation)  is  a  divine  gift  which  comes 
only  as  a  result  of  personal  faith  in  the  power  of  Christ's  atone- 
ment to  remove  sin. 

This   doctrine    of  justification   by  faith   alone    became    the 
central  idea  of  Luther's  belief.     The  peace  which  it  gave  to 
him,  he  sought  to  impart  to  others  in  his  labors  as  preacher  353.  Pr0. 
and  theological  teacher.     In  1 508  he  became  a  professor  fessor  in 
in  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  newly  founded  by  the  elec-  sity  Of 
tor  of  Saxony.     Though  he  taught  his  new-old  view  of  the  Wittenberg 
way  of  salvation,  he  had  as  yet  no  idea  of  attacking  the  church. 
In  1511  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Rome,  where  his  piety  was 
shocked  by  the  worldliness  and  irreligion  of  the  clergy.     On  his 
return  he  speedily  became  the  most  influential  teacher  in  his 
university.      Students    flocked    to    his    lectures,    and    he    was 
generally  recognized  as  one  of  the  rising  men  of  Germany. 

B.  THE  REFORMATION  BEGUN 

In  1517  Luther  was  disturbed  by  the  coming  into  his  neighbor- 
hood of  Tetzel,  a  preacher  of  indulgences.  To  understand  the 
nature  of  an  indulgence,  you  must  know  that  in  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance  the  priest,  for  each  sin,  imposed  upon  the  sinner 


324  THE   GERMAN  REFORMATION 

various  penitential  acts,  —  such  as  fastings,  pilgrimages,  and 

the  like.     If  the  sinner  died  before  these  penitential  acts  were 

354.  Tetzel    completed,  his  soul  must  be  purified  and  prepared   for 

sells  indul-     heaven  by  long  years  of  suffering  in  purgatory.     But  a 

way  was  discovered  by  which  these  long  penances  could 

be  abridged  and  the  sojourn  in  purgatory  avoided.     Christ  and 

the  saints  were  supposed  by  their  holy  lives  and  deeds  to  have 

stored  up  vast  spiritual  treasures  in  heaven ;  and  this  "heavenly 

treasury"  (as  it  was  called)  was  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of  bank 

on  which  the  Pope  had  the  power  to  draw  checks  transferring 

its  spiritual  benefits  to  the  account  of  repentant  sinners.     An 

indulgence  was  such  a  check.     It  made  the  recipient  a  sharer 

in  "  the  prayers,  suffrages,  alms-deeds,  fastings,  and  all  other 

spiritual  benefits  "  of  the  Catholic  church. 

In  earlier  times  indulgences  could  be  obtained  only  by  taking 
part  in  a  crusade,  by  going  on  a  pilgrimage,  or  by  some  notable 
act  of  piety.  But  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  the  practice 
arose  of  granting  indulgences  for  a  money  contribution  to  some 
worthy  cause.  In  Luther's  time  it  was  especially  for  contribu- 
tions to  the  rebuilding  of  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome  that  indul- 
gences were  offered.  By  purchasing  letters  of  indulgence,  a  man 
might  procure  release  not  only  from  the  performance  on  earth 
of  wearisome  penitential  acts,  but  also  from  the  possibility  of 
years  of  suffering  in  purgatory.  Relatives  were  also  encouraged 
to  purchase  indulgences  for  the  dead.  Tetzel  is  even  reported  to 
have  said,  "As  soon  as  the  money  rattles  in  the  box,  the  soul 
flies  out  of  purgatory."  In  the  authoritative  teaching  of  the 
church,  indulgences  did  not  do  away  with  the  necessity  for 
repentance  on  the  part  of  the  sinner.  But  such  preachers  as 
Tetzel,  to  increase  the  sale  of  indulgences,  perverted  the  au- 
thorized theory,  and  gave  the  impression  that  an  indulgence 
wiped  away  the  penalties  of  sin  even  without  true  repentance.1 

1  Catholic  writers  admit  that  there  were  good  causes  for  complaint  of  the  traffic 
in  indulgences.  ''Grievous  abuses  there  certainly  were  in  the  proceedings  and  the 
behavior  of  the  indulgence  preachers,  and  the  manner  of  offering  and  extolling  the 
indulgence  caused  all  sorts  of  scandal."  —  Janssen,  History  of  the  German  People, 
III,  p.  92. 


THE   REFORMATION   BEGUN 


325 


Luther  felt  that  such  teachings  were  contrary  to  the  deepest 
truths  of   Christianity.     In   accordance   with   the  practice  of 
medieval  scholars,  he  posted  on  the  door  of  the  church  at  3Sg 
Wittenberg  in  1517  a  series  of  ninety-five  theses  (propo-  Luther's 
sitions  for  discussion)  setting  forth  his  views  concerning  Against  h> 
indulgences.     He  was  far  from  wishing  to  break  with  the   dulgenc^s 
ancient  church.     His  theses  merely  denounced  the  abuses   ^I517^ 
of  the  indulgence  system,  and  emphasized  the  necessity  of  faith 
in  order  to  attain  salvation.     He  declared  that  no  one  would 


WITTENBERG  EN  1645.     From  a  contemporary  engraving 

be  quicker  than  the  Pope  to  condemn  the  teachings  of  Tetzel. 
Much  to  Luther's  astonishment,  his  theses  when  printed  spread 
rapidly  throughout  Germany.  Pope  Leo  X  was  at  first  in- 
clined to  look  upon  tjie  whole  matter  as  a  mere  "  squabble  of 
monks."  But  to  give  up  indulgences,  as  then  used,  meant  a 
considerable  loss  to  the  papal  revenue.  Luther's  opinions, 
also,  if  carried  to  their  logical  conclusions,  attacked  the  whole 
mediatorial  power  of  the  priest. 

It  was  determined,  therefore,  to  silence  Luther.     In  1519  he 
was  prevailed  upon  to  make  a  qualified  submission.     But   356.  De- 
his  views  were  soon  attacked  by  Dr.  John  Eck ;  and  in  a   JJ  Luther's 
disputation  at  Leipzig,  Luther  went  far  beyond  his  earlier  views 
position.     He  now  declared  that  many  of  the  views  for  which 


326  THE  GERMAN    REFORMATION 

John  Hus  had  been  condemned  as  a  heretic  (§  322)  were  never- 
theless true.  His  opinions  developed  still  further  in  the  months 
that  followed.  In  a  series  of  writings  in  1520,  the  most 
important  of  which  was  his  Address  to  the  Christian  Nobility  of 
the  German  Nation,  he  taught  doctrines  which  put  him  entirely 
outside  the  Catholic  Church:  — 

1.  He  set  up  the  Bible  as  the  sole  source  of  Christian  truth,  before 

which  all  other  opinions  must  give  way. 

2.  He  rejected  the  headship  of  the  Pope  over  the  church.     The  Pope 

now  seemed  to  him  "not  the  most  holy,  but  the  most  sinful  of 
men,"  —  perhaps  even  the  antichrist  foretold  in  the  Bible. 

3.  He  denied  that  priests  had  any  power  that  Christian  laymen  do 

not  have,  and  taught  that  "all  Christian  believers  are  priests." 

4.  He  declared  that  the  vows  taken  by  monks  and  nuns  were  not  bind- 

ing, and  that  monasteries  ought  to  be  abolished. 

5.  He  rejected  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  though  he  believed 

that  the  body  of  Christ  was  physically  present  in  the  bread  and 
wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

6.  He  rejected  all  but  two  of   the  seven  sacraments,  —  the  Lord's 

Supper  and  baptism. 

These  views  Luther  set  forth  with  great  power  and  effect. 
It  must  be  said,  however,  that  in  the  heat  of  controversy  his 
peasant  blood  betrayed  him  into  coarse  and  intemperate  lan- 
guage, which  his  friends  in  vain  strove  to  check. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1520  the  Po'pe's  bull  of  excommunication 

was  published  against  Luther.     Forty-one  articles  selected  from 

Luther    n*s  writings  were  condemned,  his  books  were  ordered  to 

excommuni-  be  burned,  and  he  and  his  followers,  unless  they  recanted, 

cated  (1520)   were  threatened  with  the  punishment  of  heretics.     This 

bull,  together  with  some  books  of  canon  law  and  scholastic 

theology,  Luther  burned  before  the  city  gate  of  Wittenberg, 

Aizog  amid  great  popular  enthusiasm.      "My  meaning  is,"  he 

Church  His-     wrote,  "that   the   Papal   Chair,  its   false   teachings  and 

iry'      '  36     abominations,  should  be  committed  to  the  flames."     His 

breach  with  the  Catholic  Church  was  now  complete.     It  was 

difficult  to  see  what  fate  other  than  that  of  Hus  could  await  him. 


SPREAD    OF   THE   REFORMATION 


327 


Charles  v 


C.   SPREAD  OF  THE  REFORMATION 

Luther  was  able  to  continue  his  work  for  many  years,  and  to 
come  at  last  to  a  peaceful  death,  largely  because  of  three  favoring 
circumstances.     The  first  was  the  protection  given  him  358.  Cir- 
by  his  immediate  prince,  Frederick  the  Wise  of  Saxony,   f^ring0 
The  second  was  the  political  disorganization  of  Germany,   Luther 
which  prevented  the  central  government  from  taking  any  effective 
steps  against  him.     The  third  was  the  preoccupation  of  the 
Emperor,  Charles  V,  with  other  parts  of  his  vast  dominions,  — 
particularly  his  long  wars  for  Italy  with  the  king  of  France. 

The  young  Emperor  Charles  V  (§  314  )   had  inherited   the 
sovereignty  of  the  Netherlands,  of  Spain,  of  the  united  realms  of 

Naples  and  Sicily,  and  of  3gg  Em_ 
vast  possessions  in  the  New  peror 
World  and  the  Far  East 
(genealogy,  p.  283).  To  these 
was  added,  upon  the  death  of  his 
grandfather  Maximilian  (in  1519), 
the  Hapsburg  inheritance  in  Ger- 
many. Charles  also  secured  the 
imperial  crown,  but  only  after  a 
spirited  contest  against  the  can- 
didature of  Francis  I  of  France. 
These  possessions  made  Charles 
V  the  greatest  prince  of  his  age. 
Upon  the  course  taken  by  him 
in  Germany  would  depend  in 
large  measure  the  outcome  of  the 
Lutheran  movement. 

In  1521  the  young  Emperor  came  into  Germany,  for  the  first 
time,  to  hold  an  imperial  Diet  at  Worms.     To  this  meeting 
Luther,  as  a  special  concession  to  his  friends,  was  sum- 
moned  under  the  Emperor's  safe-conduct.     Charles  was,  Papacy,  VI, 
by  nature  and  education,  a  good  Catholic,  but  it  would   I 
never  do  to  condemn  the  German  heretic  unheard.     Even  the 


CHARLES  V 

Painting  in  Windsor  Castle,  showing 
the  famous  "Hapsburg  chin" 


328  .  THE   GERMAN   REFORMATION 

Pope's   legate  wrote:    "Nine   tenths   of    Germany  shouts  for 
Luther.     The  other  tenth,  if  it  does  not  crave  for  Luther's 
teachings,  at  least  cries  'Down  with  the  Roman  Court,'  and 
raises  the  further  demand  for  a  council  to  be  held  in  Germany." 
When  Luther  was  warned  of  the  danger  that  awaited  him 
at  the  Diet,  he  said,  "Though  there  were  as  many  devils  in 
360.  Luther    Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roof,  I  will  go  there." 
of  Worms*     ^±  ^e  ^et  ^e  was  cau*ed  uP°n  to  recant  the  opinions 
(1521)  expressed  in  his  books.     He  courageously  replied:    " Un- 

less I  am  convinced  by  witness  of  Scripture  or  plain  reason  (for 
I  do  not  believe  in  the  Pope  or  in  councils  alone,  since  it  is  agreed 
that  they  have  often  erred  and  contradicted  themselves),  I  am 
overcome  by  the  Scriptures  which  I  have  adduced,  and  my 
Beard  conscience  is  caught  in  the  word  of  God.  I  neither  can 

Martin  nor  will  recant  anything,  for  it  is  neither  safe  nor  right 

Luther,  441  ^  ^  against  one's  conscience."  Then  he  added  in  Ger- 
man:  "God  help  me!  Amen."  From  Pope  and  council, 
Luther  thus  appealed  to  the  Bible,  interpreted  by  individual 
judgment. 

All  efforts  to  procure  any  other  answer  from  him  proved  vain. 
It  is  to  the  honor  of  Charles  V  that  Luther  was  allowed  to  depart 
in  safety,  and  that  the  Emperor  did  not,  like  Sigismund  at  Con- 
stance, break  his  pledge  of  safe-conduct.  In  May,  1 5  2 1 ,  a  month 
after  Luther's  departure,  the  Edict  of  Worms  was  issued,  add- 
ing the  ban  of  the  empire  to  that  of  the  papacy :  — 

1.  Luther  was  to  be  seized  and  delivered  to  the  Emperor  for  execution. 

2.  All  persons  were  forbidden  on  pain  of  similar  ban  to  give  him 

"lodging,  food,  or  drink,"  or  in  any  way  to  assist  him. 

3.  His  friends  and  followers  were  to  be  seized  and  their  property 

confiscated. 

4.  The  writings  of  Luther  and  his  adherents  were  to  be  burned  or 

otherwise  destroyed. 

Immediately  after  this  Diet  Charles  left  Germany,  and  was 
continuously  absent  for  nine  years,  engaged  in  wars  with  France. 
Luther  for  a  time  was  secreted  by  the  Elector  Frederick 
in  the  strong  castle  of  the  Wartburg  (vart'boorK),  where  he 


SPREAD   OF   THE   REFORMATION 


329 


lived  in  disguise,  few  even  of  his  friends  knowing  what  had  be- 
come of   him.     He  occupied  his  leisure  with   translating   the 
Bible  into  the  German  tongue.     Earlier  translations  of  the     6j   Luther 
Bible  into  German  had  been  made,  but  these  were  crude  translates 
and  hard  to  understand.     Luther  sought  to  translate  the   the  Bible 
Scriptures  into  the  language  of  the  home  and  of  the  market 
place,  so  that  the  lowliest  might  read  with  understanding.     He 


LUTHER'S  ROOM  IN  THE  WARTBURG     (Photograph) 

succeeded  so  well  that  his  version  became  the  most  widely  read 
book  in  Germany.  He  thus  established  a  literary  standard 
for  the  German  language,  in  much  the  same  way  that  the  King 
James's  version  of  the  Bible  did  later  for  the  English  tongue. 

In  spite  of  the  danger  which  still  threatened,  Luther  left  his 
retreat  in  the  Wartburg,  in  1522,  and  returned  to  Witten-   362   Prog_ 
berg.     The  object  of  his  return  was  to  quiet  disturbances  ress  of  the 
caused  by  more  radical  reformers  in  his  absence.     Luther  Reformatlon 
had  been  forced  against  his  will  into  the  position  of  a  rebel 


330  THE   GERMAN   REFORMATION 

against  the  church.  At  heart  he  was  a  conservative,  and  wished 
to  preserve  all  of  the  old  worship  that  was  not  positively  con- 
trary to  the  Scriptures,  as  he  interpreted  them.  Under  his 
guidance  a  moderate  reform  of  the  church  services  and  organiza- 
tion in  Saxony  was  now  carried  out.  The  mass  service  in  Latin 
was  replaced  by  a  service  in  the  German  tongue,  in  which  preach- 
ing and  congregational  singing  were  given  prominent  places. 
Luther  himself  composed  some  of  the  finest  hymns  in  the  German 
language.  Bishops  and  archbishops  were  replaced  by  officers 
called  "superintendents,"  whose  functions  were  wholly  ecclesias- 
tical. The  doctrines  of  the  Lutheran  Church  were  ably  set 
forth  by  Luther's  friend  and  Wittenberg  colleague,  Philip 
Melanchthon  (me-lank'thun).  From  Saxony  the  movement 
'  spread  to  most  of  the  states  of  North  Germany.  Even  South 
Germany  was  for  a  time  profoundly  affected.  Wherever  the 
Reformation  was  established,  monasteries  and  nunneries  were 
dissolved,  and  the  church  property,  beyond  what  was  needed 
for  the  support  of  the  new  faith,  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
secular  rulers.  The  opportunity  which  the  Reformation  afforded 
to  princes  and  cities  to  despoil  the  church  was  undoubtedly 
one  cause  of  its  rapid  spread. 

D.  THE  REFORMATION  CHECKED 

The  further  spread  of  the  Reformation  was  checked,  and  many 

nobles  alienated  from  it,  by  the  outbreak  (in  1524)  of  a  great 

363.  Revolt    revolt  of  the  peasants  in  southern  and  western  Germany. 

of  the  Ger-    jn  part  this  revolt  was  due  to  the  general  unsettling 

man  peas-  .... 

ants  (1524-    caused  by  the  religious  agitation.     Its  fundamental  cause, 

1525)  however,  was  the  long-standing  grievances  of  the  peasants 

and  of  the  lower  classes  in  the  towns.  Their  demands  were 
formulated  in  a  series  of  Twelve  Articles,  which  may  be  summed 
up  as  follows :  — 

1.  Each  parish  should  have  the  right  to  choose  its  own  minister,  and 

to  dismiss  him  when  it  wished. 

2.  The  peasants  should  be  freed  from  the  personal  bondage  of  serfdom. 

3.  The  dues  to  their  lords  and  to  the  clergy  should  be  reduced. 


THE  REFORMATION  CHECKED  331 

Luther,  to  whom  religious  reform  was  of  first  importance, 
feared  to  see  it  complicated  with  questions  of  social  and  political 
revolution.  Moreover,  he  denied  the  right  of  men  under  any 
circumstances  to  revolt  against  their  lawful  rulers.  Accordingly, 
he  urged  the  nobles  to  root  out  the  rebellion  by  the  sword.  The 
revolt  was  put  down  in  1525  with  pitiless  cruelty,  more  than 
a  hundred  thousand  peasants  being  slain  in  battle  or  executed. 
The  peasants  of  Germany  then  sank  into  a  state  of  oppression 
exceeding  anything  known  elsewhere  in  western  Europe.1 

In  the  same  year  (1525)  Luther,  the  ex-monk,  showed  his 
disbelief  in  the  binding  nature  of  monastic  vows  by  marrying 
Catherine  von  Bora,  an  ex-nun.  This  step  marks  Luther's  364- 
definite  rejection  of  the  requirement  of  celibacy  for  the 
clergy.  Ultimately  this  proved  an  advantage  to  his  (1525) 
cause,  but  at  the  time  this  marriage  of  a  monk  shocked  many 
sober  minds. 

Erasmus,  who  had  been  accused  of  "laying  the  egg  that 
Luther  hatched,"  persisted  in  maintaining  an  attitude  of  neu- 
trality   toward    the    Reformation.     He    disapproved    of  36g  Atti_ 
Luther's  violence  of  language  and  action,  and  had  little  tude  of 
sympathy  with  Protestant  dogmatism.     "I  dislike  these  Erasmus 
gospelers  on  many  accounts,"  he  wrote  in  1528,  "but  chiefly 
because  through  their  agency  literature  everywhere  languishes, 

1  In  part  Luther's  attitude  is  to  be  explained  by  the  violent  proclamations  issued 
by  some  of  the  more  reckless  peasant  leaders.  "Arise!  fight  the  battle  of  the 
Lord!"  reads  one  of  these.  "On!  On!  On!  The  wicked  tremble  when  they  hear 
of  you.  On  !  On  !  On  !  Be  pitiless  !  although  Esau  gives  you  fair  words  (Genesis, 
xxxiii).  Heed  not  the  groans  of  the  godless;  they  will  beg,  weep,  and  entreat  you 
for  pity  like  children.  Show  them  no  mercy,  as  God  commanded  Moses  (Deut. 
vii),  and  as  He  has  revealed  the  same  to  us.  Rouse  up  the  towns  and  villages; 
above  all  rouse  the  miners.  On  !  On  !  On  !  while  the  fire  is  burning ;  let  not  the 
blood  cool  on  your  swords !  Smite  pinkepank  on  the  anvil  of  Nimrod !  Overturn 
their  towers  to  the  foundations ;  while  one  of  them  lives  you  will  not  be  free  from  the 
fear  of  man  !  While  they  reign  over  you  it  is  of  no  use  to  speak  of  the  fear  of  God  ! 
On!  while  it  is  day!  God  is  with  you!"  —  (Lindsay,  Luther  and  the  German 
Reformation,  184-185.)  But  in  general  we  may  say  with  Lindsay  that  the  peasants' 
"moderation  in  revenging  wrongs  by  bloodshed  forms  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
horrible  blood  bath  into  which  the  conquering  princes  plunged  almost  every  district 
of  Germany  when  the  revolt  was  overcome."  (Luther,  178.) 


332  THE   GERMAN   REFORMATION 

disappears,  lies  drooping,  and  perishes.  They  love  good  cheer 
and  a  wife,  and  for  other  things  they  care  not  a  straw."  The 
bitterness  of  contending  sects  and  the  clash  of  arms  overbore 
his  plea  for  reason,  moderation,  and  toleration.  He  died  in 
1536,  out  of  harmony. with  all  parties.  Other  scholars  also, 
who  had  led  in  attacking  the  abuses  in  the  church,  returned  to 
the  ancient  fold  when  reform  became  revolution. 

From  1521  to  1530,  as  has  been  said,  Charles  V  was  con- 
tinuously absent  from  Germany.     He  was  engaged  in  a  series 

366.  Wars      of  wars  with  the  king  of  France  for  the  duchy  of  Milan,  to 
of  Charles      which  both  laid  claim.     The  Pope  feared  Spanish  rule 
France  m  Milan  more  than  French,  because  Charles  V  already 
(1521-1529)    possessed    the    kingdom    of    Naples.     Accordingly,    he 

actively    aided    Francis     I,    and    Charles    thereupon     cooled 

in   his   zeal   to   crush   the  Lutheran   movement.     In    1525   a 

great  victory  at  Pavia  (pa-ve'a)  gave  Charles  possession  not 

only  of  Milan  but  also  of  the  person  of  his  rival,  the  French  king. 

Francis  I  then  agreed  to  a  treaty  in  which  he  surrendered  his 

claims  in  Italy  as  the  price  of  his  release.     But  no  sooner  was 

he  freed  than  he  repudiated  the  treaty,  and  war  was  renewed.   ; 

In  1527  the  Emperor's  army  in  Italy,  which  was  unpaid  and 

largely  composed  of  Germans  of  Lutheran  sympathies,  revolted 

Walker  anc^    plundered    Rome.     The    destruction    wrought    was 

Reformation,    enormous.     The  agony  of  this  event  "marked  the  end 

of  the  gay,  easy-going,  artistic,  pleasure-loving  Rome  of 

the  Renaissance."     It  forced  the  Pope  to  abandon  the  French 

alliance  and   to  adopt  a  policy  more  favorable  to  Charles  V. 

In  a  second  peace  (1529)  Francis  again  renounced  his  claims 

in  Italy  and  paid  a  heavy  indemnity. 

Each  principality  and  city  of  Germany,  meanwhile,  dealt 
with  the  question  of  religion  in  its  own  way.     Some  held  fast 

367.  Origin    to  the  old  faith,  some  adopted   the  new.     As  a  result 
of  Protes-mB  °^  Charles's  success  in  Italy,  the  representatives  of  the 
tant  (1529)     Catholic  faith  were  able  to  take  a  more  decided  stand  at  a 

Diet  held  at  Spires  in  1529.  A  decree  was  there  passed  which 
demanded  the  carrying  out  of  the  Edict  of  Worms.  Against 


THE   REFORMATION   CHECKED  333 

this  decree  the  Lutheran  princes  and  cities  issued  the  protest 
that  won  for  them  the  familiar  name  of  " Protestant."  For- 
tunately for  them,  the  Turks,  who  had  overrun  Hungary,  now 
advanced  (in  1529)  to  the  siege  of  Vienna.  Charles  had  to 
call  upon  both  Protestants  and  Catholics  to  resist  this  foe, 
and  the  followers  of  Luther  thus  obtained  a  longer  tolerance. 

In  1530  Charles  appeared  in  person  at  a  Diet  which  met  in 
Augsburg.     The  Protestants,  in  their  attempt  to  justify  their 
innovations,  presented  to  him  the  Augsburg  Confession,  —  368.  The 
the  first  great  Protestant  creed.     It  was  the  work  of   coSesTio 
Luther's  colleague,  Melanchthon.     It  attempted  to  show   (1530) 
that  in  fundamental  beliefs  the  Protestants  were  at  one  with 
the  Roman  Church,  dissenting  only  from  its  abuses. 

1.  It  repudiated  clerical  celibacy,  confession,  fasts,  penances,  monastic 

vows,  the  temporal  power  of  the  clergy,  and  the  sacrificial  char- 
acter of  the  mass  (that  is,  .the  doctrine  that  Christ's  sacrifice  on 
the  cross  is  renewed  each  time  the  mass  is  celebrated). 

2.  It  affirmed  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  and  implied  a 

rejection  of  the  power  of  the  priest  as  a  mediator  between  God 
and  man. 

3.  It  distinguished  sharply  between  the  views  of  Luther  and  those  of 

the  more  radical  reformers,  rejecting  the  latter. 

4.  It  sought  to  conciliate  the  Roman  party  by  nowhere  expressly 

denying  the  headship  of  the  Pope  or  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation. 

It  was  impossible,  however,  to  reconcile  the  differences  be- 
tween the  two  parties.     The  Catholics  being  in  the  majority, 
it  was  ordered  that  the  Protestants  must  make  their  369.  Sup- 
submission  within  five  months.     The  long-expected  reli-  j^Q^stant 
gious  war  again  seemed  about  to  begin,  and  in  anticipation  delayed 
of  it  the  Protestants  formed  an  alliance  called  the  League  of 
Schmalkalden.       But    again    Charles    found    his    hands    tied 
by  troubles  with  the  Turks  and  by  renewed  war  with  France. 
It  was  not  until  1 546  —  twenty-five  years  after  the  issuing  of 
the  Edict  of  Worms  —  that  Charles  found  himself  free  to  attempt 
the  forcible  suppression  of  the  new  beliefs. 


334 


THE   GERMAN   REFORMATION 


Four  months  before  the  final  struggle  began,  Luther  passed 
peacefully  away,  at  Eisleben,  the  place  of  his  birth  (February, 

370.  1546).     The    Schmalkaldic    War,     as    Charles's    attack 
die  War  *       upon  the  Protestants  was  called,  ended  with  the  battle 
(1546-1547)    of  Miihlberg   (April,  1547),  in  which  the  elector  of  Sax- 
ony and   the  landgrave   of   Hesse  were   defeated   and   taken 
prisoners.      The  collapse  of  Protestantism  seemed  complete. 

But  again  Charles's  hand  was  stayed  in  dealing  with  German 
heresy.     This  time  the  check  was  administered   by  the  Pope 

371.  New       himself,  who  was  filled  with  alarm  at  the  Emperor's  too 
djfl^ulties      rapid  victories.     He  adjourned  the  church  council  (which 
V  (1547-        at  Charles's  request  had  been  assembled  at  Trent  to  hear 
1552)  the  Protestant  demands)  to  the  papal  city  of  Bologna, 

where  it  might  be  more  fully  under  the  Pope's  control  (1547). 
After  four  years  of  diplomatic  struggle,  Charles  secured  the 
return  of  the  council  to  Trent,  but  was  then  suddenly  con- 
fronted by  a  dangerous  political  and  religious  combination. 
Besides  the  chief  Protestant  princes  of  Germany,  the  alliance 
included  the  Catholic  king  of  France,  Henry  II,  who  promised 
financial  aid  to  the  rebels  on  condition  that  he  be  allowed  to 
take  possession  of  certain  German  fortresses  on  the  border  of 
France.  Charles  was  taken  unprepared  at  Innsbruck,  in  the 
Tyrolese  Alps,  and  saved  himself  only  by  a  hasty  flight. 

Wearied  by  a  lifetime  of  struggle,  Charles  now  gave  up  the 
contest.     A  truce  was  concluded,  which  in  1555  was  converted 
into  the  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg.     Catholics  and 
of  Augsburg  Protestants  alike  longed  for  peace,  and  were  ready  to  pur- 
(1555)  chase  it  at  the  cost  of  some  sort  of  toleration  for  the  opposite 

party.  The  principle  adopted  was  that  expressed  in  the  Latin 
phrase  cujus  regie,  ejus  religio,  which  meant  that  the  rulers 
of  each  principality  and  free  city  might  establish  at  their  option 
either  the  Catholic  or  the  Lutheran  worship,  leaving  to  dissen- 
tients the  right  to  emigrate.  For  more  than  half  a  century 
this  treaty  gave  repose  to  Germany.  It  contained  two  fatal  de- 
fects, however,  which  ultimately  brought  about  a  new  reli- 
gious war :  (i)  There  was  no  protection  promised  to  Protestants 


THE  REFORMATION  CHECKED 


335 


EXTENT  OF  THE  PROTESTANT  MOVEMENT  IN  GERMANY,  1555 

other  than  Lutherans,  although  Calvinism  (§  381)  was  already 
beginning  to  be  of  importance.  (2)  There  was  still  room  left, 
as  time  passed,  for  bitter  disputes  concerning  the  ownership  of 
church  lands  secularized  by  Protestants. 

In  the  negotiation  of  this  peace  Charles  V  took  no  personal 
part.      In  1555  and  1556  he  abdicated  his  many  crowns  and 
retired  to  a  monastery  in  Spain,  where  he  died  in  1558.   373-  Ab- 
He  was  cold,  calculating,  far-sighted,  patient.     It  was  his   Charies  V 
fate  to  rule  two  diverse  lands,  Spain  and  Germany,  at  the   (1556) 
most  difficult  moment  of  European  history.     His  son  Philip  II 
(1556-1598)   succeeded  him  as  king  of  Spain  and   the  Two 
Sicilies,  and  lord  of  Milan,  the  Netherlands,  and  the  Spanish 
colonies,  —  but  not  (in  spite  of  Charles's  efforts)  as  Emperor. 

The  office  of  Emperor,  by  choice  of  the  electors,  passed  to 
Charles's  brother,  Ferdinand  I  (1556-1564).  He  united  to  the 
archduchy  of  Austria  the  kingdoms  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary, 
which  he  acquired  by  election  of  the  nobles  and  in  fulfillment 


336  THE   GERMAN   REFORMATION 

of  ancient  treaties.     After  1556  there  were  thus  two  Hapsburg 

houses,  —  the  one  in  Spain,  lasting  until  the  extinction  of  its 

374.  Divi-      male  line  in  1700,  and  the  other  in  Germany,  which  con- 

Hansbfurg6      tinues  in  tne  Austrian  rulers  to  the  present  time.     The 

possessions    imperial  dignity  and  the  elective  kingships  of   Bohemia 

and  Hungary  made  the  Austrian  Hapsburg  house  one  of  the 

greatest  of  European  powers. 

The  extent  to  which  Protestantism  by  1555  had  spread  in 
Germany  and  neighboring  lands  is  indicated  on  the  map  on 
Re_  page  335.  In  many  respects  the  Reformation  age  was 
suits  of  the  "the  most  striking  period  in  religious  history  since  the 
Reformation  days  of  the  early  cmircn.»  Doubtless  the  causes  of  the 
reform  movement  are  not  entirely  to  be  found  in  laudable 
instincts  for  higher  spiritual  life  and  the  cultivation  of  the 
human  intellect ;  and  its  course  does  not  show  all  zeal,  holiness, 
and  religion  on  one  side,  and  tyranny,  ignorance,  and  relic 
worship  on  the  other.  The  immediate  effects  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, too,  were  not  altogether  what  the  reformers  had  ex- 
pected. Luther's  later  life  was  embittered  by  the  excesses  of 
radical  reformers,  and  by  the  moral  decay  and  theological  bicker- 
ings which  Protestant  Germany  experienced.  Nevertheless, 
for  Protestants  the  movement  brought  independence  of  religious 
thought,  individual  responsibility,  and  a  freer  life.  For  Catho- 
lics it  developed  more  zeal  and  love  for  the  old  faith,  and  hastened 
the  adoption  of  the  reformatory  measures  within  the  church 
which  we  shall  see  enacted  in  the  Council  of  Trent. 

It  should  be  noted,  finally,  that  although  the  Reformation 
rests  on  an  appeal  to  the  right  of  private  judgment  as  against 
,  the  authority  of  the  church,  the  reformers  were  far  from  willing 
to  concede  this  right  to  others.  Religious  freedom,  there- 
fore, followed  only  indirectly  from  the  Reformation.  Tolera- 
tion in  religion,  "the  noblest  gift  of  four  centuries,"  came 
in  spite  of,  and  not  because  of,  the  intentions  of  the  reform- 
ers. It  was  a  natural  result  of  the  existence  of  conflict- 
ing sects,  no  one  of  which  was  strong  enough  to  overcome 
the  others. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  337 

IMPORTANT   DATES 
1517.  Luther's  theses  against  indulgences. 

1519.  Charles  V  elected  Emperor. 

1520.  Luther  burns  the  Pope's  bull  of  excommunication. 

1521.  The  Diet  of  Worms  condemns  Luther. 

1529.  Their  "  protest "  gives  Lutherans  the  name  Protestants. 

1530.  The  Augsburg  Confession. 
1546-1547-  The  Schmalkaldic  War. 

1555.  Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg. 

1556.  Abdication  of  Charles  V. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Did  the  cause  of  the  Reformation  lie  more  in 
Luther  or  in  the  general  state  of  things?  (2)  What  caused  the  develop- 
ment of  Luther's  views  from  the  position  he  held  in  the  Ninety-five  Theses 
to  that  shown  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  ?  (3)  Was  the  cause  of  the  peasants 
in  their  revolt  just  or  unjust  ?  (4)  Is  Luther  to  be  blamed  for  opposing  them  ? 
(5)  Why  did  Erasmus  refuse  to  join  Luther?  (6)  How  did  Charles's 
foreign  wars  aid  the  Reformation  ?  (7)  How  did  the  Turks  aid  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation  ?  (8)  What  is  the  place  of  Melanchthon  in  the  history 
of  the  German  Reformation?  (9)  How  far  was  the  Reformation  directed 
against  observances  and  how  far  against  doctrines?  (10)  What  was  the 
condition  in  which  Germany  was  left  by  the  peace  of  Augsburg  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  RELIGIOUS  LIFE  IN  GERMANY  ON  THE  EVE  OF  THE 
REFORMATION.  Lindsay,  History  of  the  Reformation,  I,  127-157;  Beard, 
Martin  Luther,  54-65 ;  Robinson,  Readings  in  European  History,  II,  ch. 
xxvi.  —  (2)  LUTHER'S  EARLY  LIFE  (TO  1517).  Lindsay,  Luther,  9-52 ;  Beard, 
Luther,  116-165;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  IX,  438-442.  —  (3)  INDULGENCES 
AND  LUTHER'S  THESES.  Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy,  Bk.  VI,  ch.  iii; 
Lindsay,  Luther,  53-74;  Lindsay,  Reformation,  I,  216-233;  Catholic  En- 
cyclopedia, VII,  783-788.  —  (4)  THE  DIET  OF  WORMS.  Lindsay,  Luther, 
127-132;  Jacobs,  Luther,  186-197;  Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany, 
I,  263-284.  —  (5)  LUTHER'S  MARRIAGE  AND  HOME  LIFE.  Lindsay,  Luther, 
190-212;  Jacobs,  Luther,  263-267,  394-406. —  (6)  THE  PEASANTS'  WAR. 
Seebohm,  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution,  Pt.  II,  ch.  v ;  Lindsay,  Luther, 
169-189;  Lindsay,  Reformation,  I,  324-339;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  XI, 
597-599. —  (7)  LUTHER  AND  MELANCHTHON.  Walker,  Reformation,  100- 
106,  172-176,  182-188;  Henderson,  Short  History,  I,  285-289. 

General  Reading.  —  Lindsay's  Luther  is  the  best  brief  life  of  the  re- 
former; the  lives  by  McGiffert  and  Preserved  Smith  are  also  excellent. 
The  volumes  by  Lindsay  and  by  Walker  are  the  best  general  histories  in 
English  of  the  Reformation.  Janssen's  Germany  at  the  Close  of  the  Middle 
Ages  is  an  excellent  work  written  from  the  Catholic  standpoint. 


EUBOPE  Itf  1556 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0      50    .100   150   200    250 


Spanish  Hapsburg  Territories 
Austrian  Hapsburg  Territories 
Boundary  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire 


338 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE  REFORMATION  IN  SWITZERLAND  AND  GREAT  BRITAIN, 
AND  THE  COUNTER  REFORMATION 

A.  THE  REFORMATION  IN  SWITZERLAND 

THE  Reformation  in  German  Switzerland  began,  independently 
of  Luther,  with  the  labors  of  Ulrich  Zwingli  (tsvmg'le;     born 

376.  Char-      1484).     The  son  of  a  prosperous  peasant,  he  received  a 
Swiss°Ref-     S°°d  education,  and  grew  into  his  reform  views  without 
ormation         either  the  material  or  the  spiritual  struggle  which  shaped 

Luther's  character.  He  represents  the  humanistic  culture  de- 
rived from  Erasmus  more  than  does  Luther.  The  reformation 
which  he  carried  out  was  more  logical,  and  also  more  radical, 
than  that  of  the  Saxon  reformer.  Whereas  Luther  wished  to  pre- 
serve all  that  was  not  positively  contrary  to  Scripture,  Zwingli 
rejected  everything  which  was  not  commanded  by  the  Bible. 
Zwingli  —  anticipating  Calvin  —  also  introduced  a  rigid  church 
discipline,  under  which  playing  games,  swearing,  and  tavern 
frequenting  were  severely  punished. 

Zwingli's  work  as  a  reformer  began  in   1518  with  an  attack 
upon  indulgences  and  pilgrimages.     His  appointment,  late  in 

377.  the  same  year,  as  preacher  at  the  cathedral  of  Zurich, 
Zwingli's       enabled  him  to  secure  a  wider  hearing  for  his  "  evangelical " 
Zurich           views.     Because  the  Swiss  cantons  were  self-governing  re- 
(1518-1529)  publics,  every  step  of  the  Reformation  there  was  accom- 
panied by  public  debates  between  the  Catholics  and  reformers, 
with  the  people  sitting  as  judges.     After  such  a  debate  between 

Walker  Zwingli  and  his  opponents,  in  1523,  the  magistrates  of 

Reformation,    Zurich  gave  their  approval  to  his  work.     "Pictures,  cruci- 
fixes, and  images  were  removed  from  the  city  churches, 
relics  were  burned,  holy  water  was  done  away  with,  organs 

340 


THE   REFORMATION   IN   SWITZERLAND  341 

silenced,  and  frescoed  walls  whitewashed,  as  an  effective  method 
of  making  a  tabula  rasa  [clean  sweep]  of  the  symbols  of  the  older 
worship."  Extensive  changes  were  also  made  in  the  services  and 
government  of  the  church.  From  Zurich  the  reformation  spread 
to  the  cities  of  Bern  and  Basel,  and  to  other  Swiss  cantons. 

Zwingli  was  more  of  a  statesman  than  Luther.     His  mind 
formed  projects  of  a  union  of  all  the  opponents  of  Charles  V. 
Luther  had   no  liking  for  such  political  alliances,   and  378.  Con- 
moreover  distrusted  Zwingli's  theological  views,  especially  ^^ifuth 
on  the  Lord's  Supper.     Both  rejected  transubstantiation   (1529) 
(§87);    but  Luther  believed  that   the   body   of    Christ  was 
physically  present  in  the  sacrament  along  with  the  bread  and 
wine  (consubstantiation),  while  Zwingli,  interpreting  the  words 
of  Christ  "This  is  my  body"  to  mean  "This  signifies  my  body," 
taught  that  Christ  was  present  only  in  a  symbolical  sense. 

In  1529  a  conference  between  the  parties  was  held  at  Marburg, 
with  a  view  to  bringing  about  a  union  between  them.  Luther 
took  his  stand  on  the  letter  of  the  text,  and  with  chalk  wrote 
the  words  of  Christ  (in  Latin)  on  the  table  before  him,  Hoc  est 
corpus  meum.  From  their  literal  meaning  he  would  not  budge. 
He  even  refused  to  take  Zwingli's  hand  in  token  of  fellowship, 
saying  that  the  Swiss  reformers  were  "of  another  spirit."  This 
failure  to  agree  was  unfortunate,  for  a  union  of  all  Protestants 
was  sorely  needed  to  meet  threatening  dangers.  A  lack  of 
political  insight,  a  hasty  temper,  and  some  measure.of  intolerance 
were  weaknesses  intertwined  with  Luther's  strength. 

The  wealthy  and  populous  Swiss  cantons  embraced  the  cause 
of  the  reformers ;  but  the  five  forest  cantons  remained  zealously 
Catholic.     In  1531  war  broke  out  between  the  Catholic  37Q  The 
and  the  Protestant  cantons.     At  Cappel  the  troops  hastily   Swiss  war 
levied  by  Zurich  were  totally  defeated  by  a  larger  force   ^I53l) 
from  the  forest  cantons,  and  among  the  slain  was  numbered 
Zwingli  himself.     A  peace  was  then  made  whereby  each  canton 
was  left  free  to  do  as  it  liked  in  religious  matters.     This  was 
really  a  victory  for  the  Catholic  party,  which  soon  secured  a 
majority  in  the  federal  Diet. 


342 


THE   REFORMATION 


JOHN  CALVIN 
From  an  old  print 


The  work  which  Zwingli  began  at  Zurich  was  continued  by 
John  Calvin  at  Geneva.1  As  organizer  and  systematizer, 

380  Early      Calvin   was  the  greatest  of 

life  of  the  reformers  and  his  influ-  ^^^^^ 

Calvm  ence   was  most  widespread.  ^ 

Calvin  was  born  in  northern 
France,  in  1509;  he  was  thus  a 
generation  younger  than  Luther 
and  Zwingli.  He  was  prepared  at 
French  universities  for  the  profes- 
sion of  law,  but  determined  to  de- 
vote himself  to  a  life  of  scholarship. 
Then  he  fell  under  the  influence  of 
certain  French  reformers ;  and  in 
1535  he  was  forced  to  leave  the 
French  kingdom,  a  fugitive  and  an 
exile. 

A  year  later  (1536)  Calvin  hap- 
pened to  pass  through  the  French-speaking  city  of  Geneva, 
which  had  recently  thrown  off  the  control  of  its  feudal  lords  and 

381  Calvin    accepted  the  Reformation.     The  urging  of  the  Protestant 
at  Geneva      leaders  induced  him  to  remain  and  take  up  the  active 
(1536-1564)   duties  of  reformer  in  that  turbulent  little  republic.     With 

the  exception  of  two  years  of  exile,  Geneva  was  thenceforth  the 
scene  of  Calvin's  labors,  until  his  death  in  1564.     For  a  quarter 
of  a  century  he  controlled  almost  completely  its  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical government.    Two  important  features  of  his  system  were  : 
(i)  the  republican  constitution  which  he  gave  to  the  church; 
and  (2)  the  rigid  supervision  exercised  over  manners  and  morals. 
In  the  Calvinistic  or  Presbyterian  system  of  church  govern- 
ment, as  it  was  fully  developed  in  France,  Scotland,  and  the 
382.  Pres-     Netherlands,  control  of  the  church  is  vested  in  represent- 
byterianism    atjve    COUncils    called     "synods"    and     "presbyteries," 

1  Although  Geneva  did  not  finally  enter  the  Swiss  Confederation  until  1815,  it 
was  for  centuries  in  alliance  with  leading  Swiss  cantons.  The  history  of  its  reforma- 
tion belongs  naturally,  therefore,  with  that  in  Switzerland. 


THE  REFORMATION  IN  GREAT   BRITAIN  343 

which  are  made  up  of  the  " ministers"  and  of  " elders"  (pres- 
byters) elected  by  the  entire  church  membership.  Calvin's 
ideas  of  church  discipline  were  extremely  severe.  From  him  and 
his  predecessor,  Zwingli,  come  those  "Puritan"  ideals  of  worship 
and  life  which  influenced  so  profoundly  Scotland,  England,  and 
America.  Neglect  of  public  worship,  luxury  in  dress,  gambling 
and  dancing,  became  crimes  severely  dealt  with.  Blasphemy 
was  regarded  as  worthy  of  capital  punishment.  In  one  in- 
stance a  child  was  beheaded  at  Geneva  for  having  struck  his 
parents.  In  dealing  with  what  he  considered  to  be  heresy, 
Calvin  was  as  uncompromising  as  the  Church  of  Rome.  The 
greatest  blot  on  his  fame  is  the  burning,  with  his  approval,  of  a 
brilliant  but  unbalanced  writer  named  Servetus,  on  a  charge  of 
heresy  and  blasphemy.  This  act,  though  strongly  condemned 
by  modern  opinion,  was  in  harmony  with  the  views,  both 
Catholic  and  Protestant,  of  that  age. 

Under  Calvin's  leadership  the  Genevan  church   became  the 
model  for  Protestant  churches  in  many  lands.     His  views  were 
embodied  in  a  book  call   the  Institutes  of  the  Christian  3g3    spread 
Religion,  which  became  the  leading  theological  work  of  of  Calvin's 
the  age.     The  reformation  in  France,  the  Netherlands,   ldeas 
and  Scotland  was  thoroughly  Calvinistic.     In  England,  and  the 
English  colonies  in  America,  civil  as  well  as  religious  institu- 
tions were  greatly  affected  by  Calvin's  teachings. 

B.   THE  REFORMATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

The  English  Reformation  was  largely  the  work  of  the  Tudor 
dynasty,  which  ascended  the  throne  in  1485  at  the  close  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses.    Henry  VII,  the  first  of  the  Tudor  line,  384.  Eng- 
was  able,  as  we  have  seen  (§  311),  to  make  the  crown  Hg^r^vn 
almost  despotic.     His  son,  Henry  VIII  (1509-1547),  was  and  Henry 
educated  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  Renaissance,  but  turned  VI11 
his  attention  as  king  to  plans  of  foreign  war.     His  alliance  was 
eagerly  sought  by  both  Francis  I  and  Charles  V ;  and  his  minis- 
ter, Cardinal  Wolsey,  by  playing  off  one  against  the  other, 


344  THE  REFORMATION 

raised  England  to  a  position  of  importance  among  European 
nations.  A  book  which  Henry  wrote  against  Luther  led  the 
Pope  to  give  him  the  title  (still  borne  by  English  sovereigns) 
of  " Defender  of  the  Faith."  A  few  years  later  Henry  embarked 
upon  a  course  which  ended  in  separating  England  as  a  nation 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

The  English    Reformation  differs  from  that  in  continental 

countries  in  two  ways:  (i)  It  was  begun  and  its  course  con- 

385.  Char-     trolled  by  the  government,  the  people  for  the  most  part 

Refo'rmation  Passively  following.    (2)  The  English  Church  after   the 

in  England     Reformation  was  more  of  a  compromise  between  the  old 

and  the  new  religions,  its  doctrine  being  Protestant,  while  its 

ritual  and  government  were  largely  Catholic. 

The  ground  for  the  Reformation  in  England  had  long  been 
prepared.  Political  resistance  to  the  papacy  was  embodied  in 
386  The  the  Statutes  of  Provisors  and  Praemunire  (§  318).  The 
ground  long  labors  of  Wyclif  had  weakened  the  hold  of  the  church 
upon  the  people.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  Renaissance 
was  a  powerful  influence.  Printing  was  introduced  by  William 
Caxton  in  1477.  John  Colet  (died  1519;  §  348),  the  son  of  a 
wealthy  London  merchant,  played  the  chief  part  in  introduc- 
ing a  sounder  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature.  Owing, 
perhaps,  to  the  influence  of  Savonarola,  whom  he  may  have 
met  in  Italy,  Colet  advocated  a  moderate  and  enlightened 
reform  of  the  church.  He  furthered  this  by  his  sermons  as 
dean  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral  in  London,  and  by  a  school  for 
boys  which  he  founded  in  connection  with  the  cathedral. 
Erasmus,  the  great  Dutch  scholar  (§  349),  spent  some  years  in 
England,  and  was  influenced  by  Colet  to  take  up  his  studies 
on  the  New  Testament  and  the  church  fathers.  Sir  Thomas 
More,  one  of  the  wittiest  and  most  lovable  Englishmen  of  his 
day,  was  also  a  member  of  this  group  of  scholars  and  Catholic 
reformers.  His  advanced  ideas  on  social  reform  are  shown  in 
his  Utopia,  a  book  in  which  he  describes  an  ideal  commonwealth. 
Many  factors  thus  cooperated  to  prepare  England  for  a  religious 
change. 


THE   REFORMATION  IN   GREAT   BRITAIN 


345 


The  actual  separation  from  Rome  came  from  the  desire  of 
Henry  VIII  to  have  his  marriage  with  Catherine  of  Aragon, 
with  whom  he  had  lived  for  eighteen  years,  declared  void,   387.  The 
in  order  that  he  might  marry  Anne  Boleyn  (booTin),  Reformation 
with  whom  he  was  infatuated.     When  the  Pope  refused  Henry  viil 
to  grant  the  annulment  of  his  marriage,  Henry  obtained   (I529-i547) 
his  divorce  from  a  court  of  the  English  Church,  presided  over 
by  Cranmer,  his  archbishop  of  Canterbury.     In  1533  he  pro- 
claimed Anne  queen,  in  defiance  of  the  Pope. 

In  November,  1534,  the  separation  from  Rome  was  made  com- 
plete by  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  passed  by  Parliament.  This 
declared  the  English  king  to  be  "  the  only  supreme  head  in  earth 
of  the  Church  of  England,"  the  authority  which  the  Pope  had 
exercised  being  divided  between  the  king  and  the  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  The  clergy  had  already  been  induced  by  threat 
to  acknowledge  Henry  as  head  of  the  English  Church.  Par- 
liament at  the  same  time  reformed  many  practical  abuses  in 
the  church.  Also,  the 
Bible  was  translated  into 
English,  and  printed 
copies  were  placed  in  the 
churches. 

Another  important 
step  was  taken  in  the  dis- 
solution of  the  monas- 
teries and  the  confisca- 
tion of  their  property, 
carried  out  from  1536  to 
1540.  Two  important 
results  followed  from 
this:  (i)  The  abbots 
were  removed  from  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  ARMOR  OF  HENRY  VIII 

power  of  the  CCClesiasti-    In  Tower  of  London.     Belongs  to  period  of  feudal 
™\     r»PPrc    WQC    r^Hiirprl          decadence,  when  armor  was  largely  for  show, 

cal   peers   was   reduced.       and  tournamenta  were  usually  harmless  spec- 
(2)     The     nobles     and      tacles. 


346  THE  REFORMATION 

gentry  who  received  grants  of  monastic  land  became  zealous  sup- 
porters of  the  Reformation. 

While  repudiating  the  Pope's  headship,  Henry  clung  tenaciously 
to  Catholic  doctrine.  He  put  to  death  impartially  those  who 
388  Tyr-  denied  his  supremacy  in  the  church,  and  those  who  held 
anny  of  Protestant  views.  Sir  Thomas  More  was  perhaps  the 
noblest  of  those  who  were  sent  to  the  block  for  refusing 
to  acknowledge  the  king's  supremacy.  Henry  was  equally 
ready  to  punish  other  offenders  against  his  arbitrary  will.  Cardi- 
nal Wolsey,  who  had  been  deprived  of  power  because  of  his  ina- 
bility to  secure  a  papal  annulment  of  the  king's  first  marriage, 
escaped  imprisonment  in  the  Tower,  and  probably  execution, 
only  by  his  timely  death.  His  successor  in  the  government 
was  beheaded  for  negotiating  an  unsatisfactory  marriage  for 
his  royal  master.  Henry  was  six  times  married,  two  of  his 
queens  being  divorced,  and  two  (including  Anne  Boleyn)  exe- 
cuted for  misconduct.  He  was  a  strong  monarch,  under  whom 
England  prospered.  But  he  was  tyrannical  and  cruel,  and 
many  thousand  persons  —  rebels,  Protestants,  and  defenders 
of  the  papal  headship  —  perished  by  his  orders. 

Henry  VIII  left  one  son  and  two  daughters,  each  by  a  dif- 
ferent marriage  (see  genealogy,  p.  349).     His  son  Edward  VI, 
380  Fur-       aged  nine  years,  succeeded  him.    In  this  reign  the  Reforma- 
ther  refor-      tion  was  carried  by  the  ministers  of  the  government  into 
underEd-      ^e  field  of  doctrine  and  worship.     Under  the  guidance  of 
ward  VI         Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  Book  of  Common 
(1547-1553)    praver  jn  English  was  prepared,  to  take  the  place  of  the 
Catholic  "mass  book"  in  Latin.     Church  doctrine  was  formu- 
lated in  forty-two  articles.     The  clergy  were  permitted  to  marry, 
church  images  were  pulled  down,  stained  glass  windows  in  the 
churches  were  broken,  pictures  of  saints  and  angels  were  white- 
washed over,  and  many  of  the  old  customs  and  holy  days  were 
suppressed.     These  changes  went  beyond  the  desires  of  the 
nation,  and  rebellions  broke  out,  which  were  easily  suppressed. 
The  young  king,  from  whose  precocious  intelligence  much  was 
expected,  died  at  the  age  of  fifteen. 


THE   REFORMATION   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN  347 

By  hereditary  right,  and  by  a  will  left  by  Henry  VIII,  Edward's 
half-sister  Mary,  daughter  of  Catherine  of  Aragon,  was   next 
in   succession.     She   was  a  Catholic,  and  certain  nobles  390.  Lady 
plotted  to  secure  the  succession  for  Lady  Jane  Grey,  a   Jane  Grey, 
Protestant  girl  of  noble  character,  who   was   a   grand-   days 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII's  younger  sister.     The  attempt   aueen" 
failed,  and  those  implicated  in  it,  including  Lady  Jane  and  her 
young  husband,  were  executed. 

When  Queen  Mary  secured  the  throne,  in  1553,  she  restored 
the  Catholic  religion  and  the  authority  of  the  Pope  over  the 
English  Church.  She  found  it  impossible,  however,  to  3QI  catho- 
restore  to  the  church  the  monastery  lands  which  were  lie  restora- 
in  private  hands.  She  was  greeted  at  her  accession  with  Q^een 
great  rejoicing ;  when  she  died  five  years  later,  she  was  Mary  (1553- 
hated  by  almost  all  her  subjects.  This  was  due,  not  to  I5s8) 
the  fact  that  she  restored  the  Catholic  religion,  for  the  majority 
of  the  English  people  were  willing  to  accept  the  old  worship,  the 
old  belief,  and  even  the  authority  of  the  Pope.  It  was  very 
largely  due  to  her  marriage  with  a  foreigner,  Philip  II  of  Spain, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Charles  V.  National  feeling  was  ex- 
ceedingly strong  in  England,  and  Englishmen  were  foolishly 
jealous  of  all  foreigners.  But  stronger  than  jealousy  was  the 
fear  that  the  Spanish  alliance  wonld  make  England  merely  a 
province  of  Philip's  vast  dominions,  and  that  thereby  English- 
men would  lose  their  liberties  and  England  her  independence. 
Another  cause  of  Mary's  unpopularity  was  her  persecution  of 
Protestants,  which  appeared  to  her  unbalanced  mind  to  be  a 
sacred  duty.  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  had 
played  the  chief  part  in  divorcing  her  mother,  was  among  the 
288  Protestant  martyrs.  In  foreign  affairs  Mary  sided  with 
Spain  against  France.  Through  delay  in  sending  aid,  she 
allowed  the  French  (in  1558)  to  take  Calais,  —  the  last  of  the 
English  possessions  in  France.  A  few  months  later  her  unhappy 
life  ended,  and  her  half-sister  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Anne 
Boleyn,  came  to  the  throne. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth  (1558-1603),  alike  in  its  economic 


348 


THE   REFORMATION 


legislation,  its  foreign  policy,   and  its  religious  interest,  was 
one  of  the  most  important  in  English  history.     Its  success  was 
392.  Reli-      due  in  part  to  the  ability  of  her  councilors,  especially  Lord 
gious  settle-   Burghley  (or  Burleigh).     Still  more  was  it  due  to  Eliza- 
beth's own  character.     She  had  her  father's  strength  and 


Elizabeth 
(1558-1603) 


imperious  will,  with  her  mother's  vanity  and  fondness  for 
display.     Above  all,  she  was  devoted  to  England's  interest. 

Elizabeth  was  without  strong  religious  feeling  either  way. 
She  had  been  educated  as  a  Protestant,  but  had  conformed  to 
the  Catholic  religion  during  her  sister's  reign.  When  she  her- 


GREAT  SEAL  OF  QUEEN  ELIZABETH 

'Elizabeth  by  God's  grace  queen  of  England,  France,  and  Ireland;  Defender  of  the 

Faith  " 

self  came  to  power,  she  repealed  Mary's  Catholic  statutes,  al- 
though she  refused  to  restore  unmodified  her  brother's  religious 
legislation.  The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  and  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles,  in  which  are  embodied  the  ritual  and  much  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England,  were  issued  by  Elizabeth. 
They  were  based  on  the  similar  works  of  Edward  VI,  but  so 

History  of       altered  as  to  give  less  offense  to  religious  conservatives. 

England,  Elizabeth  sought  to  include  Catholics  and  Protestants 
in  one  national  church,  shaped  by  the  royal  will.  "To 
this  day,"  says  the  historian  Macaulay,  "the  constitution, 
the  doctrines,  and  the  services  of  the  [English]  church  re- 


ch.  i 


THE   REFORMATION  IN  GREAT   BRITAIN  349 

tain  the  visible  marks  of  the  compromise  from  which  she 
sprang.  She  occupies  a  middle  position  between  the  churches 
of  Rome  and  Geneva.  Her  doctrinal  confessions  and  dis- 
courses, composed  by  Protestants,  set  forth  principles  of  the- 
ology in  which  Calvin  and  Knox  [§§  380,  393]  would  have 
found  scarcely  a  word  to  disapprove.  Her  prayers  and  thanks- 
givings, derived  from  the  ancient  breviaries,  are  very  generally 
such  that  Cardinal  Fisher  or  Cardinal  Pole  [leaders  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  party]  might  have  heartily  joined  in  them." 

Outward  conformity  to  Elizabeth's  settlement  was  enforced 
upon  all  classes  by  two  great  statutes  passed  by  Parliament,  — 
the  Statute  of  Supremacy,  and  the  Statute  of  Uniformity.  In 
large  measure  this  settlement  met  with  acceptance,  though 
extremists  of  both  communions  caused  trouble.  Extreme  Catho- 
lics claimed,  on  the  ground  of  the  nullity  of  Henry's  marriage  to 
Anne  Boleyn,  that  the  crown  should  go  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,1 
and  plotted  Elizabeth's  overthrow.  More  than  175  Catholic 
priests  and  laymen  were  put  to  death  in  her  reign  for  refusing 
to  conform  to  the  new  religion.  Protestant  extremists,  called 
Puritans,  on  the  other  hand,  were  intensely  loyal,  but  were  dis- 
satisfied that  Elizabeth  did  not  go  further  in  religious  change. 
Many  of  them  had  fled  to  the  Continent  during  Mary's  perse- 
cutions, and  now  returned  filled  with  the  ideas  of  Calvin  and  the 
Genevan  Reformation.  In  spite  of  Elizabeth's  attempts  at 
repression,  their  number  and  importance  increased,  until  at 
the  end  of  the  reign  they  constituted  a  considerable  party. 


1  The  claims  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  which  she  transmitted  to  the  Stuart  line, 
are  shown  in  the  following  genealogy  :  — 

(i)  HENRY  VII  (1485-1509) 

Margaret  (2)  HENRY  VIII  (1509-1547)  Mary 

(m.  James  IV  of  Scotland)  (grandmother  of 

Lady  Jane  Grey) 


j  ames  v  01  scotiana 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots 

(6)  JAMES  I 
of  England 
(1603-1625) 

(4)  MARY 

d553-i558) 
(daughter  of 
Catherine 
of  Aragon  ) 

(5)  ELIZABETH 
(1558-1603) 
(daughter  of 
Anne  Boleyn) 

(3)  ED  WARD  VI 
(1547-1553) 
(son  of 
Jane  Seymour) 

350 


THE   REFORMATION 


In  Scotland  (unlike  England)  the  Reformation  was  the  work 

of  the  people,   in  opposition  to  the  government.     It  was  ac- 

393   Ref-       complished,   and   a   Presbyterian   settlement   established 

ormation        (about  1560),  largely  through  the  efforts  of  John  Knox. 

He  was  a  man  of  intense  force  and  fearlessness,  who  had 

adopted  rigidly  Calvinistic  views  during  several  years  spent  in 

exile  at  Geneva.     The  ruler  of  Scotland  at  this  time  was  Mary 

Queen  of  Scots.  After  being 
reared  in  France,  and  becoming 
for  a  short  time  the  bride  of  a 
French  king,  she  had  returned 
after  her  husband's  death  to  her 
own  kingdom  (1560).  •  The  Scots 
at  this  time  were  rude,  ignorant, 
and  backward  in  civilization; 
while  Mary  was  pleasure-loving  J 
vivacious,  and  an  ardent  Catho- 
lic. Her  second  marriage,  with 
her  cousin  Darnley,  a  Scottish 
nobleman,  proved  unhappy ;  and 
within  two  years  he  was  mur- 
dered. Whether  Mary  was  con- 
cerned in  the  deed  or  not,  she  al- 
lowed herself  in  a  few  months  to 

marry  the  chief  author  of  the  crime.  A  revolt  followed,  in 
which  Mary  was  forced  to  abdicate,  and  her  infant  son  became 
King  James  VI.  Less  than  a  year  later  (in  1568)  Mary  escaped 
from  captivity,  fled  to  England,  and  threw  herself  upon  the  gen- 
erosity of  Elizabeth. 

The  English  queen,  although  she  disliked  to  countenance 
rebellion,  could  not  forego  the  advantage  which  this  step  gave 
394.  Eliza-     her  against  one  who  was  a  claimant  of  her  throne.     For 
Mary^f         nineteen  years  Mary  was  kept  in  England  in  honorable 
Scotland        captivity.     Plots  were  on  foot  with  the  purpose  of  de- 
throning Elizabeth  and  setting  Mary  on   the  English  throne, 
through   the  aid  of  a   Spanish  invasion.     The   complicity  of 


MARY  STUART,  QUEEN  OF  SCOTS 
From  a  painting  in  Edinburgh 


THE   REFORMATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 


351 


Reformation 
in  Ireland 

little 


Mary  in  one  of  these,  which  English  law  made  a  capital  offense, 
was  at  last  proved.  Elizabeth  reluctantly  signed  Mary's 
death  warrant,  and  early  in  1587  the  Queen  of  Scots  was  be- 
headed. She  went  to  her  death  with  the  courage  of  a  martyr. 
"  Cease  to  lament,"  said  she  to  one  of  her  weeping  attendants, 
"for  you  shall  now  see  a  final  end  to  Mary  Stuart's  troubles. 
I  pray  you  take  this  message  when  you  go  —  that  I  die  true  to 
my  religion,  to  Scotland,  and  to  France." 

In  Ireland  the  Reformation  failed  to  secure  a  hold  upon  the 
people.     This  was  largely  due  to  an  antagonism  between  the 
native  Irish  and  the  English  government,  which  intro-   3gg  The 
duced  the  Reformation.     Ireland  had  been  annexed  to 
England  by  King  Henry  II.     But  until  the  time  of  the 
Tudor  sovereigns,   the  English    government    had  made 
effort  to  exercise  authority 
there,  save  in  a  narrow  dis- 
trict about  Dublin,  known 
as  the  English  Pale,  where 
the  land  was  held  by  nobles 
of  English  descent.     Out- 
side the  Pale  most  of  Ire- 
land was  in  the  hands  of 
half -barbarous  Irish  tribes 
under  native  chiefs;    and 
strife     between     different 
tribes    and    between    the 
English  and  Irish  was  in- 
cessant.    Henry  VIII  for 
the    first    time    extended 
English  authority  over  the 
whole  of   the   island,  and 
attempted  to  enforce  upon 
Ireland   English   law   and 
habits,    together  with  his 
supremacy  over  the  church. 
The   Irish    monasteries, 


CROSS   AT    MONASTERBRICE,    IRELAND 

Erected  in  gth  or  xoth  century.  Part  of  the 
carving  on  the  cross  represents  Scriptural 
scenes. 


352  THE   REFORMATION 

which  were  peaceful  centers  of  religion  and  industry  in  a  turbu- 
lent country,  were  suppressed.  In  the  disturbances  which  fol- 
lowed many  deeply  venerated  relics  and  images  were  de- 
stroyed. The  great  mass  of  the  Irish  people  regarded  the 
changes  in  the  church  as  only  a  part  of  the  tyranny  of  the  Eng- 
lish government,  and  clung  tenaciously  both  to  their  religion 
and  their  native  practices.  Rebellions,  followed  by  confisca- 
tions of  Irish  land  and  its  colonization  by  English  settlers, 
occurred  under  both  Edward  and  Mary;  and  it  was  not  until 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth  that  the  subjugation  of  Ireland  was  com- 
pleted. Ferocious  methods  were  employed  in  accomplishing 
this.  During  six  months  (in  1582)  30,000  men,  women,  and 
children  perished  in  the  province  of  Munster  alone,  chiefly  from 
starvation;  and  half  a  million  acres  of  land  was  seized  and 
granted  to  Englishmen,  who  largely  remained  absentee  landlords. 
The  introduction  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  policy  of  settling 
English  landlords  in  Ireland,  sowed  the  seeds  of  bitterness  and 
strife  which  have  lasted  to  the  present  day. 

Chief  among  Elizabeth's  foreign  enemies  was  her  erstwhile 
brother-in-law,  Philip  II  of  Spain.     Religious  differences  were 

396.  Causes   only  one  of  a  number  of  causes  for  this  hostility.      Mary 
of  war  be-      Queen  of  Scots,  just  before  her  execution,  had  made  Philip 
land  and        the  avenger  of  her  death  and  heir  to  her  claims  to  the  Eng- 
Spain  Hsh  throne.     Bold  sailors  such  as  Sir  Francis  Drake  —  the 

first  Englishman  to  circumnavigate  the  globe  —  had  long  been 
preying  upon  Spanish  commerce  in  the  New  World.  Finally 
there  was  the  assistance  sent  to  the  Dutch  by  Elizabeth,  in  a 
revolt  in  which  they  were  engaged  against  Spain  (§  426).  This, 
indeed,  was  the  chief  factor  in  leading  to  open  war  between 
Philip  and  the  English  kingdom. 

The  first  expedition  prepared  by  Philip  II  to  attack  England 
was  prevented  from  sailing  by  Drake's  daring  raid  into  Cadiz 

397.  The        harbor.     There  he  "singed  the  king  of  Spain's  beard"  by 
Armada         burning  the  ships  and  stores  gathered  for  the  expedition. 
(1588)  Next    year    (1588)    the    Great   Armada   set  sail/    This 

expedition    numbered  about   130   ships,   nearly   half   of   them 


THE  COUNTER  REFORMATION          353 

large,  high-decked  vessels,  crowded  with  soldiers.  The  Eng- 
lish fleet,  though  greater  in  numbers,  was  composed  of  much 
smaller  vessels,  but  these  were  swifter  and  more  easily  managed. 
A  running  fight  occurred  in  the  English  Channel  and  off  the 
Netherlands.  The  superior  seamanship  of  the  English,  together 
with  their  greater  daring,  gave  them  the  advantage ;  and  a  tem- 
pest completed  the  work  which  they  began.  Out  of  Spain's  vast 
Armada,  only  sixty-seven  vessels  returned  home.  This  victory 
ended  the  danger  of  a  Catholic  restoration  in  England  by  Span- 
ish arms.  By  weakening  Spain's  power  of  interference,  it  also 
made  possible  English  colonization  in  America. 

In  many  directions,  Elizabeth's  reign  witnessed  an  outburst 
of  energy  such  as  the  world  had  never  seen.     In  no  line  was  this 
more  true  than  in  literature.     The  poet  Spenser,  the  phi-   398.  Lit- 
losopher  Sir  Francis  Bacon,  and  the  dramatists  Shake-   JJJJie^Eliz- 
speare,   Marlowe,  and   Ben    Jonson,  with  many  others,    abeth 
made  this  the  golden  age  of  English  letters.     Such  activity 
was  the  result  of  many  causes,  long  in  preparation.     One  of 
these  was  certainly  the  freedom  of  thought  and  the  intellectual 
stimulus  which  came  with  the  religious  Reformation. 

C.   THE  COUNTER  REFORMATION 

While  Protestantism  was  becoming  systematized  under  the 
influence  of  Calvin,  and  spreading  into  France,  England,  Scot- 
land, and  the  Netherlands,  the  Catholic  Church  began    399-  Origin 
to  reform  the  practical  evils  in  its  organization,  and  pre-   counter 
pared  to  take  the  aggressive.     The  model  for  this  reforma-   Reformation 
tion  within  the  church  was  found  in  the  Spanish  Awakening 
(§  327)  carried  out  in  Spain  more  than  a  half  century  before. 
After  the  sack  of  Rome  by  the  soldiers  of  Charles  V,  in  1527, 
the  political  activity  of  the  papacy  was  diminished.     Under  a 
series  of  reforming  Popes  a  sincere  effort  was  then  at  last  made,  to 
do  away  with  the  long  accumulation  of  abuses. 

One  of  the  chief  agencies  of  the  Counter  Reformation  was  the 
Council  of  Trent  (§371).     This  council  first  assembled  in  1545, 


354  THE  REFORMATION 

and  lasted  (with  an  intermission  of  ten  years)  until  1563.  It 
rejected  private  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  and  declared 
that  only  the  highest  authority  in  the  church,  and  not  individ- 
ual members,  could  determine  the  meaning  of  its  texts.  The 
council  also  declared  that  the  tradition  of  the  church,  equally 
with  the  Bible,  should  be  used  in  settling  religious  doctrines, 
because  it  was  held  that  not  all  the  teachings  of  Christ  are 
contained  in  the  Bible.  Moreover,  the  council  made  the  Vul- 
gate (Latin)  version  the  standard  in  the  church.  In  the  matter 
of  reform,  the  council  increased  the  authority  of  the  bishops, 
and  strengthened  the  whole  discipline  over  the  clergy.  It  made 
preaching  a  more  important  function  for  both  bishops  and  parish 
priests.  It  also  issued  decrees  requiring  seminaries  to  be  estab- 
lished in  every  diocese,  for  the  better  education  and  training  of 
candidates  for  the  priesthood.  The  result  of  the  council's  labors 
was  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  could  thenceforth  appeal 
to  a  modern,  clear,  and  authoritative  statement  of  its  faith,  and 
was  thus  put  in  a  position  to  present  a  united  front  to  Protes- 
tantism.1 

The  most  aggressive  force  in  checking  the  revolt  from  Rome 

was  the  Order  of  Jesus,  popularly  called  the  "  Jesuits."     This 

400.  The        order  was  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyo'la,  and  sanctioned 

Jesuits          ky  fae  Pope  in  1540.     Loyola  was  a  high-minded  Spanish 

(1540)  nobleman,  whose  dreams  of  military  glory  were  cut  short 

by  a  wound  which  permanently  lamed  him.     Thenceforth  he 

1  We  may  .here  note  a  reform  of  the  calendar  which  was  discussed  at  this  council, 
but  was  not  authorized  until  1582,  when  Pope  Gregory  XIII  embodied  it  in  a  papal 
decree.  The  "Julian"  calendar,  arranged  by  Julius  Caesar,  —  in  which  every  fourth 
year  was  a  leap  year,  —  made  the  year  eleven  minutes,  fourteen  seconds  too  long ; 
and  by  the  sixteenth  century  the  difference  accumulated  since  the  year  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea  (325  A.D.)  amounted  to  nearly  ten  days.  The  reformed  or  "  Gregorian" 
calendar  not  merely  struck  out  ten  days  (from  October  5  to  October  14,  inclusive) 
from  the  calendar  of  the  year  1582,  but  directed  the  omission  of  three  leap-year  days 
in  every  four  centuries  thereafter.  It  thus  provided  for  keeping  the  calendar  year 
for  the  future  in  approximate  harmony  with  the  solar  year.  England  did  not  accept 
the  reformed  calendar  until  1752.  Russia,  owing  to  its  adherence  to  the  .Greek 
Church,  has  not  yet  accepted  it,  and  is  now  thirteen  days  behind  the  other  nations 
in  its  reckoning  of  dates.  The  two  calendars  are  distinguished  as  "old  style"  (O.  S.) 
and  "new  style"  (N.  S.). 


THE   COUNTER   REFORMATION 


355 


turned  his  energies  to  the  service  of  the  church.  He  sought  to 
found  an  organization,  the  members  of  which  should  be  bound  by 
the  three  vows  of  poverty,  chastity, 
and  obedience,  as  the  monks  were, 
but  who  should  not  be  tied  down 
by  minute  monastic  regulations. 
At  the  same  time  he  adopted  cer- 
tain features  of  military  organi- 
zation, —  requiring  instant  and 
implicit  obedience  to  the  commands 
of  superior  officers,  and  drilling  and 
disciplining  his  members  by  spirit- 
ual exercises  as  soldiers  are  drilled 
in  the  handling  of  their  weapons. 
The  members  were  bound  by  a 
special  vow  of  unquestioning  obe- 
dience to  the  Pope.  They  also 
renounced  the  holding  of  all  ecclesi- 
astical dignities  such  as  bishop- 
rics. No  special  dress  was  prescribed,  thus  permitting  dis- 
guise in  hostile  ^  lands.  Room  was  found  in  the  organization 
for  the  exercise  of  the  most  varied  talents,  and  the  order  en- 
listed in  its  services  some  of  the  ablest  men  of  the  time.  One 
of  its  chief  functions  was  missionary  work  in  heathen  countries ; 
and  its  missionaries  did  heroic  work  in  carrying  Christianity 
to  the  natives  of  America,  and  to  the  East  Indies,  Japan,  and 
China.  Saint  Francis  Xavier  (zav'i-er),  who  worked  especially 
in  the  Far  East,  represents  the  highest  type  of  missionary  spirit. 
Preaching  and  educational  work  in  Europe  were  also  carried  on. 
The  centralized  organization  of  the  society,  together  with  an 
elaborate  system  of  reports  to  its  general  or  head,  made  its  work 
extremely  effective.1 

1Even  in  Catholic  countries  a  strong  opposition  to  the  Jesuits  arose.  In  part 
this  was  based  on  economic  grounds,  in  part  on  opposition  to  their  moral  teach- 
ings, and  in  part  on  their  political  activity  and  power.  In  iysg  Portugal  expelled 
the  members  of  the  order  from  all  Portuguese  territory ;  and  France,  Spain,  and 
Naples  soon  followed  suit.  In  1773  the  Pope  was  obliged,  as  a  result  of  this  united 


IGNATIUS  LOYOLA 
From  a  painting  in  Venice 


356  THE   REFORMATION 

A  darker  side  to  the  Counter  Reformation  was  the  work  of 
the  Inquisition.     This  court  for  suppressing  heresy  had  been 
401.  Work     revived  and  reorganized  in  Spain,   during  the  Spanish 
of  the  In-       Awakening ;    and  after  the  rise  of  Lutheranism  it  was 
quisition        carried  to  other  countries.     Political  conditions  and  the 
temper  of  the  French  and  German  people  prevented  its  getting 
any  great  hold  in  their  lands;    but  it  held  despotic  sway  in 
Portugal  and  Italy,  and  in  the  widespread  Spanish  territories. 
The  methods  of  this  terrible  court  became  more  arbitrary  than 
ever.     It  did  its  work  so  thoroughly  that  it  kept  heresy  out 
of  Italy,  Spain,  and  other  lands  of  southern  Europe.     Its  tri- 
umphs, however,  were  secured  only  at  the  cost  of  great  intel- 
lectual, economic,  and  political  backwardness. 

Closely  connected  with  the  Inquisition  was  the  censorship 
of  printing.     This  was  gradually  established  through  legislation 
402   Cen-      kv  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  through  papal  edicts.     Strict 
sorship  of       supervision  was  provided  in  Catholic  countries  over  the 
printing  and  sale  of  books.     In  the  case  of  all  books  deal- 
ing with  religion  or  morals  the  permission  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  was  required  previous  to  printing.     A  list  of  books 
called  the  Index  of  Prohibited  Books  was  drawn  up,  in  which  were 
placed  titles  of  books  which  good  Catholics  were  not  allowed 
to  read.     From  time  to  time  this  list  has  been  revised,  the  last 
revision  being  published  in  1900.     Some  of  the  most  eminent 
philosophers,  historians,  and  scientists  have  had  their  books 
"placed  in  the  Index"     Protestant  governments  also  estab- 
lished a  censorship  of  the  press,  the  one  in  England  lasting  until 
near  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  results  of  the  Counter  Reformation  in  strengthening 

and  reinvigorating  the  Catholic  Church  may  be  summed  up 

403.  The        in  the  following  passage  from  the  work  of  a  modern  Eng- 

stren°#h-        lish  historian:    "By  the  end  of  the  century  the  tables 

ened  had  been  completely  turned.     Zeal,  devotion,  learning, 

Catholic  opposition,  to  decree  the  dissolution  of  the  Jesuit  Order.  In  1814,  however, 
the  bull  dissolving  the  order  was  revoked,  and  the  Jesuits  were  once  more  restored 
to  favor  in  Catholic  countries. 


SUMMARY   VIEW    OF   THE   REFORMATION  357 

self-sacrifice,  religious  enthusiasm,  were  now  on  the  side  of  the 
church.     Superior  in   concentration,   the   church   presented  a 
united  and  effective  front  to  her  enemies,  and  was  pre-  Wakeman, 
pared  when  the  opportunity  should  come  to  initiate  a 
crusade  by  the  help  of  the  Jesuits  against  Protestantism  43 
in  Europe,  while  a  new  world  was  being  won  for  her  across  the 
ocean  by  their  missionary  efforts." 

D.   SUMMARY  VIEW  or  THE  REFORMATION 

In  the  Protestant  Reformation  it  was  mainly  the  Teutonic 
nations  —  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  England,  Scotland, 
and  parts  of  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  —  that  re-  404 
jected  the  authority  of  the  Pope.  The  nations  which  had  of  the  revolt 
most  successfully  withstood  the  power  of  imperial  Rome  of 
old  were  the  ones  which  now  broke  away  from  papal  Rome. 
The  Romance  nations  —  France,  Spain,  and  Italy,  which  were 
most  affected  in  language  and  habits  by  the  Roman  Empire  — 
remained  true  to  the  papal  allegiance.  The  Slavic  nations 
which  had  received  Roman  Christianity,  such  as  Poland  and 
Bohemia,  accepted  Protestantism  for  a  time,  but  were  later 
won  back  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Russia  and  southeastern 
Europe,  which  were  Greek  Christian  or  Mohammedan,  were 
unaffected  by  the  movement. 

We  have  considered  the  Reformation  chiefly  as  an  event  in 
religious  history.     But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  was 
also  a  political  change ;  it  was  a  revolt  of  the  new  national  405.  Its 
spirit  against  the  control  by  Rome  of  ecclesiastical  per-  J^ifferent 
sons,  property,  and  trials.     In  countries  where  the  Ref-  countries 
ormation  was  established,  the  civil  power  claimed  those  rights 
of  taxation,  jurisdiction,  and  the  like  which  the  papacy  had  before 
exercised.     Where  the  governing  power  was  a  monarchy,  the 
crown  was  strengthened;    but  in  Switzerland,  where  the  gov- 
ernment of  each  canton  was  republican,  it  was  the  power  of 
the  people  that  was  increased.     The  political  condition  of  the 
different  countries  also  determined  the  course  which  the  Ref- 


358  THE   REFORMATION 

ormation  took.  In  Germany  and  Switzerland,  where  there  was 
practically  no  central  authority,  a  period  of  division  and  civil 
wars  was  followed  by  the  definite  establishment  of  Protestant- 
ism in  some  districts,  and  its  rejection  in  others.  In  England, 
Denmark,  and  Sweden,  where  the  central  power  was  strong 
enough  to  carry  the  nation  with  it,  the  revolt  from  Rome  was 
completely  established.  In  France,  in  spite  of  its  strong  mon- 
archy, a  series  of  religious  wars  followed,  ending  in  a  limited 
toleration  for  Protestants.  But  a  century  later  this  settle- 
ment was  overturned,  and  Catholicism  completely  triumphed. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1518.  Zwingli  begins  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland. 

1534.  Henry  VIII  separates  the  English  Church  from  Rome. 

1536.  Calvin  takes  up  the  work  of  the  Reformation  at  Geneva. 

1540.  The  Jesuit  Order  founded. 

i553«  Catholic  reaction  in  England  begun  under  Queen  Mary. 

1558.  Accession  of  Elizabeth;  permanence  of  Reformation  in  England 

assured. 
1563.  End  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

1587.  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  beheaded. 

1588.  The  Spanish  Armada  defeated. 
1603.  Death  of  Elizabeth. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  How  did  the  fact  that  Germany  was  a  confedera- 
tion of  sovereign  principalities,  Switzerland  a  league  of  republican  cantons, 
and  England  a  centralized  monarchy,  affect  the  outcome  of  the  Reformation 
in  each?  (2)  Why  were  the  forest  cantons  of  Switzerland  more  likely  to 
remain  Catholic?  (3)  Who  was  to  blame  for  the  failure  of  the  Swiss  and. 
German  reformers  to  unite  ?  (4)  Compare  Calvin's  ideas  of  church  govern- 
ment with  those  of  Luther.  (5)  Was  Luther's  or  Calvin's  work  in  the 
Reformation  the  more  important?  Why?  (6)  Was  the  English  Church 
Catholic  or  Protestant  at  the  death  of  Henry  VIII  ?  At  the  death  of  Ed- 
ward VI?  At  the  death  of  Mary  ?  At  the  death  of  Elizabeth  ?  (7)  Char- 
acterize Henry  VIII  in  your  own  words.  (8)  Compare  the  persecution  of 
Protestants  under  Queen  Mary  with  the  persecution  of  Catholics  under 
Elizabeth.  (9)  In  what  ways  was  Elizabeth  a  great  ruler?  (10)  What 
other  things  besides  the  personality  of  the  queen  contributed  to  make  her 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  359 

reign  memorable?  (n)  Was  Elizabeth's  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
justifiable?  (12)  How  did  the  defeat  of  the  Armada  aid  England's  colo- 
nization of  America  ?  (13)  Why  did  the  Council  of  Trent  succeed  in  carry- 
ing through  reform  measures  which  had  failed  at  Pisa,  Constance,  and 
Basel?  (14)  What  advantages  did  the  Jesuit  Order  have  over  earlier 
religious  orders  ? 

Search  Topics. —  (i)  ZWINGLI'S  LIFE  AND  WORK.  Lindsay,  History 
of  the  Reformation,  II,  24-38;  Walker,  Reformation,  149-152;  Jackson, 
Zwingli,  ch.  i-v;  Simpson,  Zwingli,  chs.  i-v. —  (2)  CALVIN  IN  GENEVA. 
Walker,  Calvin,  ch.  viii;  Lindsay,  Reformation,  II,  102-124.  —  (3)  CALVIN 
AND  SERVETUS.  Walker,  Reformation,  266-269;  Walker,  Calvin,  ch.  xii; 
Schaff,  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  VII,  ch.  xvi.  —  (4)  COMPARISON 
OF  LUTHER,  ZWINGLI,  AND  CALVIN.  Walker,  Reformation,  166-181,  246; 
Jacobs,  Luther,  281;  Schaff,  Christian  Church,  VII,  257-260;  Henderson, 
Short  History,  I,  356-357.  —  (5)  ENGLAND  UNDER  HENRY  VIII.  Terry, 
History  of  England,  512-559.  —  (6)  SUPPRESSION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  MON- 
ASTERIES. Gairdner,  English  Church  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  ch.  xi;  Gas- 
quet,  Henry  VI 1 1  and  the  English  Monasteries  (Catholic).  —  (7)  QUEEN 
MARY'S  RELIGIOUS  POLICY.  Green,  Short  History,  364-368;  Lindsay, 
Reformation,  368-384;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  IX,  766-767.  —  (8)  THE 
REFORMATION  IN  SCOTLAND.  Walker,  Reformation,  313-334;  Lindsay, 
Reformation,  II,  274-314.  —  (9)  ELIZABETH'S  RELIGIOUS  POLICY.  Creigh- 
ton,  Age  of  Elizabeth,  128-148;  Green,  Short  History,  ch.  vii,  sec.  3; 
Lindsay,  Reformation,  II,  385-420.  —  (10)  ELIZABETH  AND  MARY  QUEEN 
OF  SCOTS.  Green,  Short  History,  382-392,  415-41 7 ;  Creighton,  Age  of  Eliz- 
abeth, 62-79,  100-104;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  IX,  764-766.  —  (n)  THE 
SPANISH  ARMADA.  Green,  Short  History,  ch.  vii,  sec.  6 ;  Channing,  History 
of  the  United  States,  I,  130-140,  142;  Motley,  History  of  the  United 
Netherlands,  II,  ch.  xix.  —  (12)  THE  ENGLAND  OF  ELIZABETH.  Creigh- 
ton, Age  of  Elizabeth,  199-226;  Green,  Short  History,  ch.  vii,  sec.  5. — 
(13)  ORGANIZATION  AND  POWER  OF  THE  JESUITS.  Lindsay,  Reformation, 
II,  549-563,  606-611;  Walker,  Reformation,  375-392;  Catholic  Encyclo- 
pedia, XIV,  81-84.  —  (14)  JESUITS  AS  EXPLORERS  AND  MISSIONARIES 
Parkman,  Pioneers  of  France,  chs.  v  and  vi ;  Parkman,  Jesuits  in  North 
America,  chs.  ii,  xviii.  —  (15)  THE  COUNCIL  OF  TRENT.  Lindsay,  Reforma- 
tion, II,  564-596;  Walker,  Reformation,  392-400;  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 
XV,  30-35- 

General  Reading.  —  The  second  volume  of  Lindsay's  History  of  the  Ref- 
ormation contains  the  best  account  of  the  movement  outside  of  Germany. 
Froude's  History  of  England  from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Defeat  of  the 
Spanish  Armada  (12  vols.)  is  a  brilliant  but  somewhat  unreliable  work. 
Creighton's  and  Beesly's  lives  of  Elizabeth  are  the  best  short  biographies. 


CHAPTER  XIX  * 

THE  PERIOD   OF  RELIGIOUS  WARS    (1562-1648) 
A.  THE  HUGUENOT  WARS  IN  FRANCE 

BY  the  time  that  the  Council  of  Trent  closed,  in  1563,  the 
Reformation  had  crystallized  into  permanent  form.      Protes- 

406.  A  tantism  had  developed  its  characteristic  doctrines ;    Ca- 
reHgious         tholicism  had  established  its  Counter  Reformation.     An 
warfare          armed   struggle   for   the   mastery   followed,   manifesting 

itself  especially  in  France,  in  the  Netherlands,  and  in  Germany. 
Political  motives  entered  into  each  of  these  contests,  but  re- 
ligion played  a  leading  part.  The  period  may  be  considered 
as  beginning  with  the  Huguenot  wars  in  France  in  1562,  and 
ending  with  the  peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648. 

The  Reformation  had  an  independent  beginning  in  France, 
but  its  development  and  organization  were  largely  the  work  of 

407.  The        Calvin  and  other  Genevan  reformers.     By  the  middle  of 
Reformation  the  sixteenth  century,  the  French  Protestants,  or  "Hugue- 
nots," possessed  2000  places  of  worship,  and  are  said  to 

have  numbered  400,000  persons.  They  were  drawn  mainly 
from  the  middle  and  higher  classes,  for  the  lower  classes,  unlike 
those  of  Germany,  remained  intensely  loyal  to  the  Roman 
Church.  King  Francis  1 1  for  a  time  showed  toleration  to  the 

1  Charles  VIII  (§  297)  was  succeeded,  upon  his  death  without  children,  by  his 
father's  second  cousin,  Louis  XII  (1498-1515),  the  representative  of   the  nearest 
collateral  line  of  the  house  of  Valois.    The  death  of  Louis  XII  without  male  children 
gave  the  throne  to  his  cousin's  son,  Francis  I,  whose  successors  were  as  follows :  — 
fi)  FRANCIS  I  (1515-1547) 


(2)  HENRY  II  (1547-1559) 
m.  Catherine  de'  Medici 

I 

(3)  FRANCIS  II 
(1559-1560) 
first  husband  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots 

(4)  CHARLES  IX 
(1560-1574) 

(5)  HENRY  III 

(1574-1589) 

1 
Francis,  Duke  of  Alencon 
and  Anjou  (d.  1584) 

360 


THE  HUGUENOT  WARS  IN  FRANCE       361 

reformers,  but  in  1535  a  policy  of  persecution  was  begun,  which 
was  continued  in  the  reign  of  his  son,  Henry  II. 

Under  the  three  weak  sons  of  Henry  II,  who  reigned  one  after 
another,  the  power  of  the  Huguenots  grew  to  such  a  point  that 
they  were  prepared 'to  take  up  arms.  Their  leaders  were  408.  Hugue- 
great  nobles  like  the  prince  of  Conde  (coN-da/)  and  Ad-  begun 
miral  Gaspard  de  Coligny  (co-len'ye).  Members  of  the  (1562) 
able  but  upstart  house  of  Guise  (gii-ez')  headed  the  Catholic 
party.  The  queen  mother,  Catherine  de'  Medici,  who  was  a 
thoroughly  unscrupulous  Italian,  held  aloof  from  the  Guises 
for  a  time  on  account  of  political  jealousies ;  but  in  the  end  she 
supported  their  policies.  The  wars  began  with  an  attack  by 
the  duke  of  Guise,  in  1562,  on  a  congregation  of  Huguenots 
assembled  in  a  barn.  Eight  separate  wars  are  counted  in  the 
struggle,  separated  by  formal  treaties  of  peace.  With  the  first 
three  of  these  we  need  not  concern  ourselves. 

The  peace  which  followed  the  third  war  was  broken,  in  1572, 
by  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  the  most  dreadful  of  the 
many  crimes  which  mark  this  era  .of  religious  warfare.  It  409.  Mas- 
derived  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  began  in  the  night 
preceding  that  saint's  festival.  The  causes  of  this  slaugh-  mew 
ter  are  to  be  found  as  much  in  political  struggles  for  control  as 
in  religious  hatred.  For  a  time  the  weak-minded  king,  Charles 
IX,  had  cast  off  the  sway  of  his  mother,  and  had  come  under  the 
influence  of  Admiral  de  Coligny.  To  recover  her  power  the 
queen  mother  joined  the  Guises  in  a  plot  to  murder  Coligny. 
He  was  fired  at  from  a  window  and  seriously  wounded,  though 
not  killed.  In  desperation,  Catherine  then  played  upon  the 
fears  and  weaknesses  of  her  son  to  procure  the  seizure  and  exe- 
cution of  Coligny  and  other  Huguenot  leaders.  She  claimed 
that  a  plot  was  on  foot  for  a  great  Huguenot  uprising,  which 
would  involve  the  most  serious  consequences  to  the  crown  and 
the  country.  When  Charles  IX  at  last  yielded,  he  demanded 
that  not  only  the  leaders,  but  all  Huguenots  should  be  slain,  in 
order  that  none  might  remain  to  reproach  him  with  the  deed. 

The  opportunity  for  the  massacre  was  offered  by  the  fact  that 


362  THE  PERIOD    OF   RELIGIOUS  WARS 

large  numbers  of  the  Protestants  had  assembled  in  Paris  to  cele- 
brate the  marriage  of  the  king's  sister  with  Conde's  nephew, 
Henry  ,of  Navarre  (na-var').1  The  hatred  of  the  Parisian 
populace  for  all  Protestants  gave  the  means  for  carrying  it  out. 
On  the  night  of  August  23,  1572,  more  than  2000  of  the  Hugue- 
nots were  slain,  including  Coligny  himself.  The  massacres 
in  the  provinces  added  at  least  8000  more  to  this  number.  Per- 
sonal enmities  and  opportunities  for  plunder  were  not  forgotten 
Ranke,  by  the  fanatical  mobs.  "It  was  a  combination  of  pri- 

CandManS  vate  vengeance  an^  public  condemnation,"  says  a  modern 
archyin  historian,  "such  as  the  world  had  never  seen  since  the 
France,  277  days  of  Sulla's  proscriptions." 

A  renewal  of  the  religious  war  followed  immediately.  Re- 
publican ideas  now  began  to  appear  in  Huguenot  writings ;  for 
against  the  monarchy  which  had  wronged  them  they  raised  the 
idea  of  the  sovereignty  of  Jhe  people.  The  Catholics  themselves 
were  divided.  The  extreme  party,  under  a  new  duke  of  Guise, 
turned  more  and  more  to  Philip  II  of  Spain,  from  whom  came 
money,  men,  and  leaders  for  their  "Catholic  League." 

The  situation  became  more  acute  under  Henry  III.     The 
death  (in  1584)  of  the  last  intervening  heir  then  opened  up  to 
410.  Henry    Henry  of  Navarre,  the  Protestant  head  of  the  French 
house  of  Bourbon,  the  prospect  of  succeeding  to  the  throne 
(1589)     of  France.     His  claims  were   strongly  opposed  by  the 
Catholic  League,  backed  by  Spain  and  the  Pope.     In  the  eighth 
civil  war,  which  followed,   the  duke  of   Guise  showed  himself 
more   king   than   Henry   III   himself.     Henry  III,   therefore, 
caused   Guise  to  be  murdered  in  the  royal  council  chamber 
(1588).     To  escape  a  just  vengeance,  the  king  allied  himself 
with  Henry  of  Navarre,  and  aided  him  in  laying  siege  to  the 
rebellious  city  of  Paris.     In  August,  1589,  Henry  III  was  him- 
self assassinated  by  a  fanatical  monk. 

'The  kingdom  of  Navarre  (§312)  at  first  included  land  on  both  sides  of  the 
Pyrenees  Mountains,  but  the  portion  lying  south  of  that  chain  had  been  con- 
quered by  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  in  1513.  The  small  part  which  lay  north  of  the 
Pyrenees  became  a  center  of  Protestant  opinions.  It  had  passed  to  the  French  house 
of  Bourbon  through  the  marriage  of  Henry's  father  with  its  heiress. 


THE  HUGUENOT  WARS  IN  FRANCE 


363 


o 

BEGINNING  OF  THE  EDICT  OF  NANTES 

Henry  of  Navarre   now  became  king  of 
France   by   the   same    hereditary   right   to 
which  the  Valois  kings  owed  their  sue-  4".  Edict 
cession.1    Against  his  brilliant  leader-  ?I59jan 
ship  the  league  struggled  in  vain.     By  the  wars 
becoming  a  Catholic  in  1593,  Henry  IV  re- 
moved the  last  obstacle  to  his  acceptance  by 
the  French  people.     The  religious  question  was 
then  settled  for  the  time  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
issued  in   1598,  which  gave  the  Huguenots  the 
following  rights :  — 
Equal  political  rights  with  Catholics. 
The  right  to  reside  anywhere  in  France  without  mo- 
lestation. 
Freedom  of  private  worship  in  their  houses,  and  of 


His  claim  to  the  throne  is  shown  by  the  following  table :  — 

HUGH  CAPET 

(Seven  generations) 

Louis  IX  (Saint  Lcuis,  1226-1270) 


PHILIP  III  (1270-1285) 


PHILIP  IV  (1285-1314), 
father  of  Louis  X  (1314- 
1316),  PHILIP  V  (1316- 
1322),  and  CHARLES  IV 
(1322-1328),  with  whom 
the  (i)  direct  Capetian 
line  ends. 


Charles,  Duke  of  Valois, 
ancestor  of  the  (2)  main 
Valois  line,  which  begins 
with  PHILIP  VI  (1328- 
1350)  and  ends  with 
CHARLES  VIII  ( 1483- 
1498);  of  (3)  Louis  XII 
(1498-1515);  and  of  the 
(4)  line  of  Francis  I 
(see  p.  360). 


Robert  (married  heiress  of 
Bourbon),  ancestor  of  the 
(5)  Bourbon  line  of  kings, 
which  ascended  the  throne 
in  HENRY  IV  (1589-1610) 
and  continued  to  the  French 
Revolution  (1792). 


THE  PERIOD   OF   RELIGIOUS   WARS 


public  worship  in  places  where  it  had  been  enjoyed  within  the  past 
two  years.  No  Protestant  services,  however,  might  be  held  at 
the  king's  court,  or  within  five  leagues  of  Paris. 

4.  The  Huguenots  were  given  La  Rochelle  and  other  strong  places 
as  cities  of  refuge. 

The  Edict  of  Nantes  completed  the  pacification  of  France. 
With  the  aid  of  his  minister,  the  duke  of  Sully,  Henry  IV  then 

restored  the  monarchial  power, 

J^^%  which  had  been  seriously  im- 

paired in  the  religious  wars. 
He  also  carried  out  a  series 
of  reforms  to  improve  the  fi- 
nances and  promote  prosperity. 
"My  wish,"  said  he,  "is  that 
every  peasant  in  the  kingdom 
should  be  able  to  have  a 
chicken  in  the  pot  for  his 
Sunday  dinner."  He  was  af- 
fable, witty,  wise,  and  coura- 
geous, and  became  the  most 
popular  king  France  has  ever 
had.  Extreme  Catholics,  how- 
ever, remained  irreconcilable;  and  in  1610,  as  his  carriage  was 
passing  through  the  streets  of  Paris,  Henry  was  stabbed  to  death 
by  a  religious  fanatic. 

Fifteen  years  of  anarchy  and  disorder  followed,  for  Henry's 
son,  Louis  XIII,  was  but  nine  years  old,  and  the  queen  mother 
412.  Riche-    was  a  vain,  weak,  and  selfish  woman.     The  restoration  of 
chief       order  at  the  end  of  that  period  was  due  to  the  rise  to  power 
France  of  the  great  statesman,  Richelieu  (re-she-lyu').     Through 

(1624-1642)  powerful  patronage  he  became  a  bishop  at  the  age  of 
twenty-one  and  a  cardinal  at  thirty-seven.  From  the  first,  how- 
ever, he  devoted  himself  to  securing  political  advancement,  and 
succeeded  so  well  that  in  1624  he  became  chief  minister.  When 
he  entered  the  royal  service  (as  he  once  told  Louis  XIII)  "the 
Huguenots  divided  the  state  with  you,  the  nobles  conducted 


HENRY  IV.    From  an  old  print 


THE  HUGUENOT  WARS  IN  FRANCE 


365 


RICHELIEU 


themselves  as  though  they 
were  not  subjects,  and  the 
most  powerful  governors  of 
provinces  as  if  they  were 
sovereign  in  their  charges. 
I  may  add  that  foreign  al- 
liances were  disdained.  I 
promised  your  Majesty  to 
employ  all  my  efforts  and  all 
the  authority  which  it  might 
please  you  to  give  me,  (i)  to 
ruin  the  Huguenot  party,  (2) 
to  lay  low  the  pride  of  the 
nobility,  and  (3)  to  raise  your 
renown  among  foreign  nations  to  the  point  at  which  it  ought 
to  be." 

What  Richelieu  planned  he  achieved.     In  1625  a  new  revolt 
of  the  Huguenots  broke  out,  and  after  three  years'  struggle  La 
Rochelle,  the  chief  of  their  towns,  was  taken.     The  prac-  4I3  Hugue 
tice  of  granting  them  fortified  towns  as  places  of  refuge  not  power 
was    then    abandoned.     Although    freedom    of    worship  c 
and  civil  liberty  were  left  them,  they  were  no  longer  to  hold  the 
position  of  a  state  within  the  state. 

The  struggle  with  the  turbulent  nobility  was  of  greater  diffi- 
culty and  longer  duration,  but  it  was  no  less  successful.     Once 
(in  1630)  the  king  yielded  for  a  moment  to  the  outcry  4I4  The 
against  Richelieu,  and  dismissed  him.     But  after  a  few  nobles 
hours  of  this  so-called  "Day  of  Dupes,"  King  Louis's 
good  sense  and  patriotism  reasserted  themselves.     "  Continue 
to  serve  me  as  you  have  done,"  said  he,  "and  I  will  maintain 
you  against  all  who  have  sworn  your  ruin." 

Thenceforth,  to  the  day  of  his  death,  there  was  no  time  when 
Richelieu's  power  was  seriously  endangered.  Revolt  and  in- 
trigue did  not  cease,  but  they  injured  only  their  authors.  Five 
dukes,  four  counts,  and  a  marshal  of  France  perished  from  this 
cause  on  the  scaffold.  The  subjection  of  the  nobility  to  the 


humbled 


366  THE  PERIOD  OF   RELIGIOUS   WARS 

crown  —  for  the  time,  at  any  rate  —  was  complete.  The  de- 
struction of  feudal  fortresses  not  needed  for  national  defense, 
and  the  introduction  of  royal  officers  (called  "intendants  ")  as  a 
check  upon  the  governors  of  provinces,  helped  to  make  perma- 
nent the  political  abasement  of  the  nobles.  In  internal  affairs, 
Richelieu's  efforts  were  bent  to  two  special  objects,  —  the  es- 
tablishing of  a  civil  service  directly  under  control  of  the  crown, 
and  the  organization  of  the  army  on  a  professional  basis. 

Richelieu's  promise  to  raise  the  renown  of  France  abroad  was 
also  fulfilled.  The  crowning  principle  of  his  foreign  policy, 
like  that  of  Henry  IV,  was  resistance  to  the  Hapsburg  houses 
of  Austria  and  Spain.  He  sought  especially  to  expand  France 
to  the  limits  of  ancient  Gaul.  To  this  end  he  concluded  alli- 
ances with  Protestant  states  (England,  Sweden,  and  the  Nether- 
lands) as  readily  as  with  Catholic  Venice  and  Savoy.  To  cut 
off  land  communications  between  the  Spanish  Hapsburgs  in 
northern  Italy  and  their  Austrian  brethren,  he  used  all  hir  arts 
of  diplomacy  and  war.  He  did  not  hesitate,  as  we  shall  see, 
openly  to  take  the  Protestant  side  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  Richelieu  gave  to  France  na- 
tional unity,  secured  for  her  religious  peace,  strengthened  the 

415.  Sum-     monarchy,  and  raised  it  to  the  first  position  among  the 
mary  of  ^      powers  of  Europe.     The  weakness  of  his  policy  was  that 
administra-    he  cared  too  much  for  the  state,  too  little  for  the  people. 
tion  Hence  gross  abuses  in  the  finances  and  internal  admin- 
istration   were    allowed    to    remain   unchecked.     Beneath   the 
glamour  of  a  brilliant  court  and  military  glory  was  the  misery 
of  a  suffering  nation. 

B.  THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS 

The  Netherlands,  as  we  find  them  in  the  hands  of  Charles  V 
(§  359)>  were  a  group  of  seventeen  distinct  provinces  loosely  bound 

416.  Condi-  together.   The  northern  were  Dutch  in  speech  and  race;  the 
tion  of  the      southern    were    chiefly    Flemish.      The    States-General, 
Netherlands    a  fe(jeral  legislature  which  met  from  time  to  time,  had 


THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS       367 

little  real  power;    everything  rested  with  the  separate  prov- 
inces. ' 

The  wealth  and  prosperity  which  had  marked  the  Flemish 
cities  in  the  Middle  Ages  now  characterized  the  Netherlands  as 
a  whole.  Their  land  was  undisturbed  by  war ;  their  ports  were 
well  situated  for  ocean  commerce ;  capital  accumulated  rapidly. 
Far  more  than  Spain  itself,  the  Netherlands  profited  by  the 
enormous  influx  of  gold  and  silver  from  Mexico  and  Peru. 
From  the  Portuguese  discovery  of  India  they  drew  large  com- 
mercial gains.  Flemish  and  Dutch  fleets  were  found  on  every 
sea.  Antwerp,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  occupied  the  place 
that  Bruges  had  held  in  the  fourteenth.  .Often  two  hundred 
and  fifty  vessels  lay  at  one  time  at  its  dock.  Its  bankers  suc- 
ceeded to  the  financial  leadership  left  vacant  by  the  decline  of 
the  great  banking  houses  of  Florence  and  Augsburg.  Every 
city  of  the  Netherlands  was  noted  for  some  branch  of  manu- 
facture,—  as  Lille  (leel)  for  its  woolen  cloth,  Brussels  for  its 
tapestries  and  carpets,  etc.  Well-watered  meadows,  protected  by 
dikes  from  the  encroaching  sea,  enabled  the  northern  provinces 
to  produce  butter  and  cheese  famous  for  their  good  quality. 
Agriculture  was  improved  by  careful  cultivation;  the  fisheries 
flourished. 

Charles  V  was  himself  Flemish  born,  and  cherished  the  Neth- 
erlands more  than  any  other  part  of  his  dominions.     Neverthe- 
less, he  adopted  measures  of  rigid  repression  when  Prot-  4i7.  GOV- 
estantism  crept  in  from  Germany  and  France.      These   ernment  °f 

J   .     .  Charles  V 

measures,   however,   caused   no    stirring    of   revolt,   for  and 
Protestantism  as  yet  was  not  widespread,  and  political  phiKp  H 
grievances  were  lacking  to  swell  the  religious  discontent. 

A  change  came  when  Charles,  in  1556,  resigned  the  govern- 
ment to  his  son,  Philip  II.  With  characteristic  obstinacy  and  big- 
otry, Philip  throughout  his  long  reign  sought  to  put  down  heresy 
everywhere,  —  in  France,  in  England,  in  Germany,  as  well  as 
in  his  own  dominions.  The  edicts  against  heresy  were  enforced 
with  greater  severity ;  Spanish  troops  were  kept  in  the  land  con- 
trary to  promise ;  and  it  was  proposed  to  reorganize  the  church 


368 


THE   PERIOD   OF   RELIGIOUS   WARS 


in  such  a  way  as  would  increase  the  power  of  the  crown  and 
strengthen  the  Inquisition.     Protestants  and   Catholics  alike 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


6    i'o    20 


40     50      60 


Republic  of  the  United  Netherlands, 
commonlj  called  Holland. 
Spanish  Netherlands  (Austrian  after  1714, 
with.extent  somewhat  diminished.) 


THE  NETHERLANDS,  ABOUT  1650 

united  in  opposing  this  measure,  and  at  their  head  appeared 
one  of  the  greatest  statesmen  produced  by  that  age. 

William  of  Orange-Nassau  was  born  a  Lutheran  and  a  Ger- 
man;  but  upon  succeeding,  at  the  age  of  eleven,  to  the  prin- 


THE  REVOLT  OF  THE  NETHERLANDS 


369 


WILLIAM  THE  SILENT 
From  an  old  print 


cipality  of   Orange  (in  southern  France)  and  the  possessions 
of  his  family  in  the  Netherlands,  he  was  educated  as  a  Catho- 
lic.     He  won  his  sur-      -  w., 
410.  wn- 

name,  "the  Silent,"  liam  of 
from  the  skill  with  Orange 
which  he  masked  his  indig- 
nation when  the  French  king 
at  one  time  began  to  speak 
to  him  (as  to  one  fully  in- 
formed) of  an  agreement 
made  with  Philip  II  for 
rooting  out  heresy  in  the 
Netherlands.  "From  that 
hour,"  wrote  William  later, 
"I  resolved  with  my  whole 
soul  to  do  my  best  to  drive 
this  Spanish  vermin  from  the  land." 

At  first  Philip's  measures  called  forth  only  peaceable  resist- 
ance, in  which  both  Catholics  and  Protestants  joined.  Philip 
was  obliged  to  promise  a  redress  of  some  grievances;  Con_ 

but  he  accompanied  this  with  a  secret  protest  before  a  stitutional 
notary  that  he  should  not  feel  bound  by  his  promise,  resistance 
because  the  concessions  were  not  granted  of  his  free  will.     The 
opposition  gradually  became  more  widespread,  and  the  name 
"the  Beggars"  was  adopted   from  a  slighting  remark  of   one 
of  Philip's  ministers.     Protestant  preachers  used  the  oppor- 
tunity to  spread  their  teachings.     The  result  was  popular  riots, 
in  which  churches  were  stripped  of  their  rich  images  and  shrines, 
and  irreparable  damage  was  done  to  art  treasures. 

In  1567  Philip  sent  to  the  Netherlands  as  governor  the  duke 
of  Alva,  —  a  stern,  narrow-minded  bigot.     William  of  Orange 
withdrew  for  a  time  to  Germany.     A  tribunal,  popularly  420.  Tyr- 
known  as  the  "Council  of  Blood,"  was  appointed  to  hunt  ^Juke 
down  all  persons  suspected  of  heresy  or  of  participation  in  of  Alva 
the  late  disorders.     One  of  its  members,  it  is  said,  usually  slept 
during  the  proceedings ;   but  when  aroused,  without  inquiring 


370  THE  PERIOD   OF  RELIGIOUS   WARS 

who  was  on  trial  or  for  what,  he  would  cry  out :  "To  the  gallows, 
Cambridge  to  the  gallows  ! "  A  modern  writer  says :  "  From  one  end 
Modem  f  ^  Netherlands  to  the  other  the  executioners  were 

History,  III, 

217  busy  with  stake,  sword,  and  gibbet,  until  the  whole  land 

ran  red  with  blood."  Many  of  the  inhabitants  emigrated  to 
England  and  Germany,  enriching  those  lands  with  their  indus- 
trial skill.  The  climax  of  tyranny  was  reached  when  Alva  im- 
posed a  tax  of  ten  per  cent  on  all  sales  of  goods,  —  a  measure 
which  caused  shops  to  close  and  trade  to  come  to  a  standstill. 

Even  before  Alva's  tyranny  had  reached  its  climax,  constitu- 
tional resistance  had  grown  into  armed  revolt.  In  1568  William 

421.  Armed    °^  Orange  took  the  field,  at  the  head  of  an  army  of  German 
revolt  be-       mercenaries,  French  Huguenots,  and  Netherlander  exiles. 

But  if  the  duke  of  Alva  was  tyrannical,  he  was  also  able. 
During  the  first  four  years  of  the  struggle,  "the  Beggars"  waged 
a  losing  fight.  William  was  defeated  and  was  again  obliged 
to  retire  from  the  land.  His  feet  were  dogged  by  misfortunes, 
but  he  did  not  despair.  "With  God's  help,"  he  wrote,  "I  am 
determined  to  go  on." 

At  last  the  tide  turned.  Many  of  the  exiles  had  taken  to 
the  sea,  and  under  the  name  of  "Beggars  of  the  Sea"  were 

422.  Ex-        preying  on  Spanish  commerce.     In  1572  a  band  of  these 
the1*"  Sea       freebooters  seized  the  town  of  Brill,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Beggars"       river  Meuse;    and  soon  after  they  took  by  assault  the 

important  seaport  of  Flushing.  With  this  event  was  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  free  Netherlands.  Town  after  town  there- 
after rose  in  revolt.  The  movement  centered  especially  in  the 
provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand,  where  William  of  Orange 
was  strongest.  Among  the  novelties  of  the  war  was  the  use  of 
skates  in  winter  attacks  and  maneuvers.  Places  retaken  by 
the  Spaniards  were  treated  with  ferocious  cruelty,  but  this  only 
nerved  the  Netherlanders  to  greater  efforts. 

Alva  was  recalled  in  1573.  His  immediate  successors  carried 
on  the  war  with  greater  moderation,  but  with  no  greater  success/ 
In  1574  the  Spaniards  laid  siege  to  Leyden,  situated  on  low 
ground,  six  miles  from  the  sea.  Under  the  leadership  of  its 


THE   REVOLT  OF  THE   NETHERLANDS  371 

heroic  burgomaster,  the  citizens  held  out  for  four  months.     For 
seven   weeks   there  was  no   bread  within   the  city,  and  the 
people  died  by  hundreds.     At  last  William  ordered  the   423.  The 
dikes  to  be  cut.     The  sea  swept  over  the  land,  drown-   fege  of 

Leyden 
ing  about    1000   of   the    besiegers;  and    Dutch    barges,    (1574) 

loaded  with  men  and  supplies,  relieved  the  town. 

In  1578  a  new  regent  arrived  who  followed  a  policy  of  sowing 
distrust  between  the  northern  and  southern  provinces.     A  per- 
manent division  of  the  Netherlands  on  racial  and  religious  424  Union 
lines  was  the  result.     The  ten  southern  provinces  (now  formed  and 
Belgium)  were  restored   to  Catholicism   and   to   Spain.   e^P^" 
The  seven  northern  provinces  remained  Protestant,  and   clared 
united  in  the  Union  of  Utrecht  (u'trekt ;  1579).    Finally,  in   teTfr-isSx) 
1581,  a  formal  declaration  of  independence  was  issued,  and  the 
Dutch  Netherlands  (now  Holland,  or  the  Netherlands)  emerged 
as  a  separate  nation  under  William  of  Orange.     This  is  said  to 
be  "the  first  great  example  of  a  whole  people  officially  renouncing 
allegiance    to    their    hereditary    and    consecrated    monarch." 
It  was  two  generations  in  advance  of  the  English  Common- 
wealth (§  488),  and  two  centuries  before  the  founding  of  the 
American  and  French  republics. 

King  Philip,  meanwhile,  had  taken  the  despicable  step  of 
putting  a  price  on  William's  head.     In  1584  an  assassin,  ani- 
mated by  religious  fanaticism  no  less  than  by  hope  of  425.  wil- 
reward  for  his  family,  shot  and  mortally  wounded  that  Uam  of 
heroic  leader.     As  the  struggle  with  Spain  had  developed,   saTstoated 
William  threw  off  Catholicism  and  accepted  Calvinism.   (is84) 
''Throughout  he  acted  as  politician,  not  as  theologian.     He  was 
a  diplomatist,  not  a  reformer;    a  statesman,  not  a  preacher; 
a  man  of  the  world,  not  a  saint.     As  he  passed  into  middle   Harrison 
life  and  the  terrific  struggle  which  absorbed  and  killed   William  the 
him,  he  grew  to  a  deeper  conscience  and  a  more  spiritual   Stlent>  32 
temper."     His  place,  like  that  of  Washington,  is  firmly  fixed 
among  the  creators  of  nations. 

In  spite  of  the  death  of  William  of  Orange,  the  Dutch  con- 
tinued their  struggle.     But  now  there  was  less  statesmanship 


372  THE   PERIOD   OF   RELIGIOUS   WARS 

in  their  counsels.     The  different  provinces  were  jealous  of  one 
another;  opposite  political  and  religious  parties  arose  among 
426   Close      tne  people;  and  the  leaders  engaged  in  desperate  quar- 
of  the  rels.     One  party  wished  to  offer  the  crown  of  the  Neth- 

erlands to  France,  and  another  to  England.  Both  coun- 
tries were  jealous  of  the  overgrown  power  of  Spain  and  sent 
aid  to  the  Dutch,  but  neither  dared  to  accept  the  perilous  offer. 
The  destruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  by  England,  and  the 
accession  of  Henry  IV  to  the  throne  of  France,  destroyed  Spain's 
chance  of  reconquering  the  revolted  provinces.  Nevertheless, 
Philip  II  doggedly  protracted  the  struggle  until  his  death  in 
1598;  and  it  was  not  until  1609  that  his  successor,  Philip  III, 
would  agree  to  terms.  A  truce  for  twelve  years  was  then  ar- 
ranged. Before  this  expired  the  Thirty  Years'  War  had  begun 
in  Germany,  and  the  Dutch  no  longer  stood  alone.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  seven  United  Provinces  was  formally1  recognized 
by  Spain  in  1648,  just  before  the  peace  of  Westphalia. 

C.  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR  (1618-1648) 

In  1618  there  broke  out  in  Germany  the  last  great  religious  con- 
test.   From  the  length  of  time  that  it  lasted  it  is  known  as  the 
427.  Na-        Thirty  Years'  War.     In  the  beginning  it  was  a  war  within 
c&uses  of       ^he  Empire,  growing  out  of  religious  and  political  con- 
the  contest     flicts  in  Germany.     As  it  progressed,  Spain  took  an  active 
part  in  it,  Sweden  at  one  time  played  the  chief  role,  and  France 
became  a  principal  actor.     Ultimately  all  the  powers  of  western 
Europe  were  more  or  less  involved.     Its  causes  were  (i)  the 
opportunities  for  dispute  between  Catholics   and    Protestants 
left  by  the  religious  peace  of  Augsburg  (§  372),  and  (2)  the  in- 
creased strength  of  Catholicism   due  to  the  progress  of  the 
Counter  Reformation. 

The  war  began  with  a  revolt  of  the  Bohemian  Protestants 
against  their  rigidly  Catholic  king,  a  member  of  the  Haps- 
burg  house,  who  a  few  weeks  later  was  elected  Emperor  as 
Ferdinand  II.  The  count  palatine  of  the  Rhine,  the  leading 


THE  THIRTY   YEARS'    WAR 


373 


Calvinist  prince  of   Germany,  supported   the  revolt;   but  the 
Lutheran  electors  of  Brandenburg  and  Saxony  held  aloof.     The 

Palatinate  was 
overrun  by 
Spanish  troops, 
and  Ferdinand  easily 
put  down  the  Bohemi- 
ans. Protestantism, 
which  had  been  the 
religion  of  almost  nine 
tenths  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Bohemia,  was 
relentlessly  rooted  out. 
Thus  one  mgre  land 
was  added  to  those 
won  back  to  Catholi- 
cism by  the  Counter 


428.  Revolt 
in  Bohemia 
(1618-1620) 


Reformation. 

For  a  time  (1625- 
1629)     the    Lutheran 
king  of  Denmark  429.  Wai- 
continued    the 


BEGINNING  or  THE  BOHEMIAN  REVOLT 

Throwing  the  king's  regents  out  of  the  windows  at 
Prague 


lenstein, 
chief  Catho- 
war  in  behalf  of  lie  general 

the  German  Protes- 
tants. But  money  aid 
from  England,  upon  which  he  counted,  was  not  forthcoming, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  make  peace.  The  triumph  of  Ferdinand 
II  was  largely  due  to  the  rise  of  an  able  Bohemian  nobleman 
named  Wallenstein  (wol'en-strn)  to  chief  command  on  the 
Catholic  side.  Without  cost  to  the  Emperor  he  raised  a  force 
of  50,000  men,  drawn  from  every  country  of  Europe,  and  sup- 
ported by  enforced  contributions  from  the  German  states.  As 
an  organizer  of  troops  Wallenstein  was  unsurpassed.  As  a  gen- 
eral in  the  field  he  had  only  one  rival  (Tilly)  on  the  Catholic 
side.  As  a  statesman  he  was  ambitious,  calculating,  tolerant 
in  religion,  and  desirous  of  unifying  Germany  by  building 


374 


THE  PERIOD   OF   RELIGIOUS  WARS 


up  the  power  of  the  Emperor  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  German  princes.1 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  Danish 
king,  King  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Sweden 
came  forward  as  the  chief  Protestant 

430.  Gus-      champion.      He    was    himself    a 

tavus  Adol-    sincere    Lutheran    and    the    head 

estUantPr0t"     of   a   Lutheran    state.     In    addi- 

champion       tion,    the   extension    of   the   Em- 

(1630-1632)  peror's.  power  in  northern  Ger- 
many threatened  the  Swedish  suprem- 
acy about  the  Baltic  Sea  which  it  was 
Gustavus's  policy  to  build  up.  Gus- 
tavus landed  in  Germany  in  July,  1630.  MUSKETEER  OF  THIRTY 
For  a  time  the  electors  of  Brandenburg  YEARS'  WAR 

and  Saxony  hung  back,  but  when  forced  Showing  gun  rest  in  right 

f  4-1, ™~        hand,    and    burning 

from  their      .<match/>  with  which  to 

neutrality       fire  the  charge,  in  left. 

they  chose 

the  Protestant  side.  Protes- 
tant resentment  against  the 
Catholics  was  increased  by  the 
sacking  and  burning,  by  Catho- 
lic soldiers,  of  the  city  of  Mag- 
deburg, in  which  men,  women, 
and  children  were  massacred. 
At  Breitenfeld  (bri'ten-felt), 
near  Leipzig,  in  September, 
1631,  Gustavus  won  an  over- 


GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS 


1  The  armies  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  like  those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  were  without 
uniforms.  To  distinguish  friends  from  foes,  bands  of  white  or  red  cloth  were  worn  on 
the  arm,  hat,  or  cap.  Soldiers  often  took  their  women  and  children  with  them  on  the 
march,  and  at  times  an  army  of  40,000  fighting  men  drew  along  with  it  a  motley  host 
of  140,000  camp  followers.  Troops  and  f  Growers  often  appeared  like  hordes  of 
beggars  or  famishing  vagrants ;  but  after  the  sack  of  a  city  or  a  successful  marauding 
expedition,  they  could  deck  themselves  with  fine  fabrics  and  gold  and  silver 
ornaments. 


THE   THIRTY   YEARS'   WAR  375 

whelming  victory.  He  then  pushed  on  into  southern  Germany. 
Bavaria  was  occupied  by  his  soldiers,  while  Saxon  troops  over- 
ran Bohemia. 

The  Catholic  cause  had  been  weakened  by  the  Emperor's 
dismissal  of  Wallenstein,  in  1629,  as  a  concession  to  the  princes, 
who  complained  of  the  methods  by  which  he  supported  431.  Death 
his  armies,  and  feared  his  political  plans.  Now  Ferdinand  Adolphus™ 
was  obliged  to  recall  Wallenstein  on  his  own  terms.  (1632) 
Within  a  few  months  Wallenstein  was  again  at  the  head  of  an 
army,  and  the  Saxons  were  driven  headlong  out  of  Bohemia. 
At  Llitzen,  however,  he  was  defeated  (in  November,  1632) 
by  the  superior  discipline  of  Gustavus's  troops.  But  the  Swedish 
victory  was  won  at  the  cost  of  the  life  of  their  king,  who  fell 
riddled  with  bullets  while  leading  a  cavalry  charge.  Gustavus 
Adolphus  was  the  greatest  general  of  his  time.  He  was  the  first 
of  modern  commanders  to  supply  his  army  from  a  fixed  base, 
instead  of  living  upon  the  country;  and  the  strict  discipline 
of  his  troops  was  in  marked  contrast  to  the  lawless  violence  of 
Wallenstein's  forces.  His  death  was  an  irreparable  loss,  not 
merely  to  his  country,  but  to  the  Protestant  cause.  He  was 
the  one  man  who  could  unite  German  Protestants  and  success- 
fully withstand  both  the  ambitions  of  France  and  the  fanaticism 
of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand.  When  he  fell,  "all  moral  and  re- 
ligious ideal  died  out  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War." 

Wallenstein  now  sought  to  impose  a  peace  upon  Emperor, 
Swedes,  and  Saxons  alike.  How  far  his  designs  extended  it  is 
difficult  to  say.  At  all  events,  the  jealousy  of  Ferdinand  432-  Assas- 
was  aroused,  and  a  proclamation  was  issued  which  again 
deposed  him  from  his  command  and  set  a  price  upon  his  (1634) 
head.  Wallenstein  counted  upon  the  devotion  of  his  army, 
but  at  Eger  (a'ger),  in  Bohemia,  he  was  murdered  by  four  of  his 
own  officers.  Next  year  the  elector  of  Saxony  retired  from  the 
contest.  The  desire,  however,  of  France  and  Sweden  to  obtain 
lands  in  Germany  protracted  the  war  for  more  than  a  decade 
longer. 

France's   great   minister   Richelieu   had    supplied   Gustavus 


376  THE   PERIOD   OF   RELIGIOUS   WARS 

Adolphus  with  money  for  his  war,  and  he  now  decided  to  take 
part  openly  in  the  contest  on  the  Protestant  side.     The  fact 

433.  Last       that  the  minister  of  a  Catholic  country,  himself  a  car- 

warTi^s-6  dlnal  of  the  Catholic  Church,  should  do  this  shows  that  the 
1648)  Thirty  Years'  War  was  far  from  being  merely  a  religious 

struggle.  Thenceforth  it  consisted  of  a  series  of  separate  wars, 
centering  in  the  great  contest  between  the  Bourbon  house  of 
France  and  the  Hapsburg  houses  of  Spain  and  Austria.  The 
theater  of  the  war  was  Germany,  Italy,  the  Netherlands ;  its 
objects,  the  humiliation  of  the  Hapsburgs,  and  the  extension 
of  France  to  the  northeast.  Under  the  guidance  of  Richelieu, 
France  more  and  more  gained  the  ascendancy.  Into  the  details 
of  this  part  of  the  war  we  cannot  go.  It  is  enough  to  say  that 
gradually  the  power  of  Spain  was  broken,  while  Germany  was 
rendered  desolate. 
All  parties  were  at  last  worn  out  by  the  struggle.  After  five 

434.  Peace     years  of  tedious  negotiations,  treaties  of  peace  were  signed 

of  West-        in  Westphalia  in  1648.     The  religious  settlement  included 
phalia  (1648)    .,      ,  ,,       .  .  . 

the  following  provisions :  — 

1.  The  peace  of  Augsburg,  with  its  principle  cujus  regio,  ejus  religio 

(§  372)j  was  confirmed,  and  extended  so  as  to  include  Calvinists 
as  well  as  Lutherans. 

2.  Catholics  and  Protestants  were  to  share  alike  in  the  administration 

of  the  Empire. 

3.  The  church  lands  were  to  remain  as  they  were  in  the  year  1624, 

and  the  restoration  of  Catholicism  in  Austria,   Bohemia,  and 
Bavaria  was  confirmed. 

The  conflicting  political  interests  presented  greater  difficul- 
ties.    In  the  end  the  following  provisions  were  agreed  to :  — 

1.  Sweden  received  extensive  territories  on  the  German  coasts  of  the 

Baltic  and  North  seas  as  fiefs  of  the  Empire. 

2.  France  obtained  Alsace,  and  was  confirmed  in  possession  of  the 

border  fortresses  gained  in  1552  (§  371). 

3.  Saxony,  Brandenburg,  and  other  German  states  received  addi- 

tional territories. 

4.  The  duke  of  Bavaria  was  given  a  vote  in  the  electoral  college, 


2  •-  = 


377 


378  THE  PERIOD  OF   RELIGIOUS   WARS 

which  thenceforth  (until   1692 ;  p.  426)  numbered  eight  mem- 
bers. 

5.  The  United  Netherlands  (Holland)  and  the  Swiss  Confederation 
were  recognized  as  completely  independent  of  the  empire. 

The  Pope  refused  to  sanction  the  treaties,  and  pronounced 
null  and  void  the  concessions  to  Protestants.  His  protests 
went  unheeded,  and  from  this  time  papal  influence  in  inter- 

435.  Im-        national  politics  practically  ceased.      The  importance  of 
peacTof  °J     ^e  Peace  °f  Westphalia  was  very  great.  It  marked  the  close 
Westphalia     of  one  epoch  and  the  opening  of  another.     The  long  series 

of  religious  wars  growing  out  of  the  Reformation  was  now 
at  an  end.  There  began  a  new  period  of  international 
rivalry  and  war  due  to  political  and  commercial  causes  and 
marked  by  the  ascendancy  of  France. 

D.   GERMANY  AND  SPAIN  AFTER  THE  RELIGIOUS  WARS 

In  concluding  our  account  of  the  religious  wars,  something 
must  be  said  of  the  internal  and  international  conditions 

436.  ECO-       of  Germany  and  Spain  at  their  close.     Seldom  has  war- 
ditionofn~     ^are  brou&ht  more  suffering  and  desolation  than  did  the 
Germany        Thirty  Years'  War  to  Germany.     Its  population,  which 

in  1618  numbered  between  twenty  and  thirty  millions,  sank 

to  about  one  half.     Augsburg  fell  from  80,000  to  18,000,  Berlin 

from  25,000  to  6000.     Commerce  and  industry  were  annihilated. 

The  Hanseatic  League,  already  declining,  was  broken  up,  and 

most  of  the  separate  towns  passed  under  the  rule  of  neighboring 

Richter          princes.      "How  miserable  are  the  cities,"  wrote  a  con- 

Queiienbuch,     temporary;     "how   wretched   the    smaller    towns    and 

open  country  !      They  lie  burned,  ruined,  destroyed,  with 

neither  roof,  rafters,  doors,  nor  windows  to  be  seen.     How 

has  it  fared  with  the  churches  ?     They  have  been  burned,  or 

converted  into  stables  for  horses  or  booths  for  sutlers'  stores. 

Their  altars  have  been  plundered  and  their  bells  carried  off. 

O  God,  how  lamentable  are  the  villages  !     One  may  wander 

forty  miles  and  scarcely  see  a  human  being,  or  an  ox,  —  no, 


GERMANY  AND   SPAIN  AFTER  RELIGIOUS   WARS     379 

not  even  a  sparrow."     Two  centuries  passed  before  Germany 
recovered  from  the  wasting  effects  of  this  dreadful  war. 

The  political  condition  of  Germany  was  equally  discouraging. 
In  form  there  was  still  an  Emperor,  imperial  Diet,  and  imperial 
court   of  justice.     In   fact,   everything   rested   with   the       7  Its 
separate  states,  of  which  (including  the  free  cities)  there   political 
were  several  hundred.     They  made  their  own  laws,  coined  c 
money,  maintained  armies,  sent  representatives  to  other  courts, 
and  could  even  form  foreign  alliances,  except  against  the  empire 
or  Emperor.     All  sense  of  German  patriotism  was  stifled. 

By  a  separate  treaty  Spain  acknowledged  the  independence 
of  the  United  Netherlands  (Holland).  She  refused,  however, 
to  give  her  assent  to  other  provisions  of  the  peace  of  West-  438.  Inter- 
phalia;  and  for  eleven  years  longer  the  Franco-Spanish  ^gitkmof 
war  dragged  on,  until  ended  by  a  peace  in  1659.  Spain's  Spain 
international  position  in  the  seventeenth  century  was  much  lower 
than  it  had  been  in  the  sixteenth.  The  German  Hapsburg  lands, 
with  the  imperial  office,  were  now  in  the  hands  of  the  younger 
branch  of  the  family  (§  374) ;  the  Dutch  Netherlands  had  suc- 
cessfully revolted;  and  Portugal,  which  in  1581  had  been  made 
a  Spanish  province,  regained  its  independence  in  1640. 

These  external  losses  were  accompanied  by  internal  decay. 
The  constant  wars  in  which  the  ambitious   plans  of   Charles 
V  and  Philip  II  involved  Spain  weakened  her  resources          Itg 
in  men  and  in  money.     The  Inquisition,  which  stamped  internal 
out    all    opposition    to    church    or    crown,    undermined  decay 
'freedom   of    thought    and   of    initiative.      The    expulsion,    in 
1609,  of  the  descendants  of  the  Moors  reduced  the  population 
by   hundreds    of  thousands.      The   flood   of   gold   and  silver 
brought  in  from  the  New  World  proved  as  much  of  a  curse  as  a 
blessing.     Together  with  slavery,  it  bred  a  contempt  for  honest 
labor  and   produced  a  false  system  of   political  economy  — 
the  "mercantile"  system  ^- under  which  the  efforts  of  govern- 
ment were  directed  chiefly  to  increasing  the  stock  of  precious 
metals,  instead  of  fostering  trade  and  industry.     The  Spanish 
character,  with  its  intolerance,  pride,  and  southern  indolence, 


380  THE  PERIOD   OF  RELIGIOUS   WARS 

contributed  to  the  decline.  Finally,  after  the  death  of  Philip 
II,  its  kings  were  mere  figureheads,  and  its  ministers  incom- 
petent favorites.  Under  Charles  V  Spain  was  the  first  state  of 
Europe,  and  her  might  overshadowed  the  world.  A  hundred 
years  later  she  had  declined  to  a  third-rate  power. 

The  period  of  Spain's  political  decline  was  nevertheless  an 
epoch    of   great    literary  and   artistic  excellence.     Ceirvan'tes 
440.  span-      (died  1616)  wrote  his  inimitable  satire  on  chivalry,  Don 
tare^n?"       Quixote;  and  Lope  de  Vega  (lo'pa  da  va'ga)  and  Calderon, 
art  who  flourished  somewhat  later,  founded  the  Spanish  drama. 

This  was  also  the  period  of  the  great  Spanish  painters  Velas- 
quez and  Murillo  (§  345).  It  seemed  as  if  Spain,  at  the  very 
moment  when  she  was  losing  her  political  supremacy,  might 
exercise  a  literary  and  artistic  empire.  But  this  glory  also  was 
not  long  in  escaping  her. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1562.  Huguenot  wars  in  France  begun. 

1568.  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands  begun. 

1572.  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

1584.  William  of  Orange  assassinated. 

1598.  Henry  IV  issues  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

1618.  Beginning  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Germany. 

1624.  Richelieu  becomes  chief  minister  of  France. 

1632.  Gustavus  Adolphus  slain  in  the  battle  of  Liitzen. 

1634.  Wallenstein  assassinated. 

1648.  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  What  motives  other  than  the  religious  one  en- 
tered into  the  Huguenot  wars  ?  (2)  Can  you  see  any  reasons  why  massacres 
and  assassinations  were  more  frequent  in  the  religious  struggles  of  France 
than  elsewhere  ?  (3)  Do  you  think  Henry  IV  did  right  in  giving  up  Prot- 
estantism and  becoming  a  Catholic  in  1593  ?  Give  your  reasons.  (4)  Was 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  a  wise  settlement  of  the  religious  question  for  France  ? 
Why?  (5)  In  what  respects  was  the  internal  administration  of  France 
under  Henry  IV  and  Sully  better  than  under  Richelieu  ?  (6)  In  what  ways 
was  Richelieu  a  great  minister?  (7)  Was  the  prosperity  of  the  Netherlands 


TOPICS  AND    REFERENCES  ?8l 

in  the  sixteenth  century  greater  or  less  than  in  the  Middle  Ages  ?  (8)  Were 
religious  or  political  motives  more  important  in  causing  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands  ?  (9)  To  what  were  due  the  divisions  which  arose  between  the 
northern  and  the  southern  provinces?  (10)  What  qualities  made  William 
of  Orange  a  great  leader?  (n)  To  what  was  due  the  final  success  of  the 
Netherlands?  (12)  Were  the  causes  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  in  Germany 
more  religious  or  political?  (13)  What  is  shown  by  the  attitude  of  the 
electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg  toward  the  Bohemian  revolt? 

(14)  Why  did  the  English  kings  promise  aid  to  the  German  Protestants? 

(15)  Why  did  France  aid  them?     (16)  In  what  ways  was  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  a  great  ruler?     (17)  Did  the  Protestants  gain  or  lose  on  the  whole 
by  the  Thirty  Years'  War?     (18)  Why  did -the  religious  wars  do  more  in- 
jury to  Germany  than  to  France  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  COLIGNY.  ~Besant,GasparddeColigny. —  (2)  MAS- 
SACRE OF  ST.  BARTHOLOMEW.  Besant,  Coligny,  197-218;  Robinson, 
Readings  in  European  History,  II,  179-183;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  XIII, 
333-338.  —  (3)  HENRY  OF  NAVARRE.  Willert,  Henry  of  Navarre,  328-346 
(religious  settlement),  347-368  (reforms),  chs.  v,  vi,  ix  (character).  —  (4) 
PHILIP  II  OF  SPAIN.  Hume,  Philip  II,  1-6,  and  ch.  xviii;  Motley,  Dutch 
Republic,  Pt.  I,  ch.  i  (older  view) ;  Dunn  Pattison,  Leading  Figures  in  Eu- 
ropean History,  245-273;  Robinson,  II,  168-171.  —  (5)  CONDITION  OF  THE 
NETHERLANDS  BEFORE  THE  REVOLT.  Lindsay,  Reformation,  II,  224-234; 
Motley,  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  Introduction,  sees,  x-xii;  Grifns, 
Brave  Little  Holland,  chs.  xiii-xvii;  Rogers,  Holland,  12-45.  —  (6)  WILLIAM 
THE  SILENT.  Motley,  Pt.  VI,  ch.  vi;  Harrison,  William  the  Silent,  208-211, 
and  ch.  xii;  Lindsay,  Reformation,  II,  254-270. —  (7)  SIEGE  OF  LEYDEN. 
Motley,  Pt.  IV,  ch.  ii.  —  (8)  CAUSES  OF  THE  THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR. 
Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany,  I,  ch.  xvii ;  Gardiner,  Thirty  Years' 
War,  1-30.  —  (9)  WALLENSTEIN.  Henderson,  I,  ch.  xvii.  —  (10)  GUSTAVUS 
ADOLPHUS.  Gardiner,  136-162 ;  Hausser,  Reformation,  458-482 ;  Dunn 
Pattison,  Leading  Figures,  274-300;  Fletcher,  Gustavus  Adolphus.— 
(n)  TREATY  OF  WESTPHALIA.  Bryce,  Holy  Roman  Empire,  ch.  xx; 
Wakeman,  Ascendancy  of  France,  120-128;  Henderson,  Short  History,  I, 
490-495;  Robinson,  Readings,  II,  213-216.  —  (12)  EFFECTS  OF  THE  WAR 
ON  GERMANY.  Gardiner,  Thirty  Years'  War;  Henderson,  Short  History,  I, 
496-497.  —  (13)  RICHELIEU'S  LIFE  AND  CHARACTER.  Lodge,  Richelieu, 
ch.  i,  and  221-229.  —  (X4)  FRANCE  UNDER  RICHELIEU.  Lodge,  Richelieu, 
ch.  viii;  Perkins,  Richelieu,  ch.  ix. 

General  Reading.  —  Ranke's  Civil  Wars   and  Monarchy   in  France  is  a 

good  account  of  the  French  religious  wars.     Baird's  Rise  of  the  Huguenots 

•  (2  vols.)  is  the  standard  work  on  this  subject.     Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch 

Republic  (various   editions)  is   a  classic.      Gardiner's    Thirty  Years'.  War 

is  an  excellent  brief  sketch,  by  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  historians. 


Louis  XIV.     From  the  painting  by  Rigaud  in  the  Louvre,  Paris 


382 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  AGE   OF  LOUIS  XIV 

A.  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  FRANCE 

IN  the  period  which  opened  with  the  peace  of  Westphalia  a 
new  political  principle  began  to  govern  international  relations. 
For  a  hundred  years  before  that  peace,  religious  motives  44I  The 
were  the  real  or  avowed  reason  for  most  of  the  European  Balance  of 
wars  and  alliances.     Now  motives  became  wholly  political, 
and  international  relations  were  governed  by  the  idea  of  a  "Bal- 
ance of  Power."     This  phrase  meant  that  no  one  state  or  prince 
should  be  allowed  to  become  so  powerful   as  to  overshadow 
the  rest.     If  one  great  state  gained  territory  anywhere,  its  rivals 
claimed  the  right  to  despoil  some  weaker  neighbor.     We  can  see 
the  beginning  of  this  principle  in  the  last  phase  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.     In  the  new  period  it  "formed  the  basis  of  the 
coalitions  against  Louis  XIV  and  Napoleon,  and  was  the  Encyclopedia 
occasion  or  the  excuse  for  most  of  the  wars  which  desolated   (^thed!)* 
Europe  between  the  congress  of  Miinster  [peace  of  West-   III,  235 
phalia]   in    1648   and  that  of  Vienna  in  1814."     France  now 
held  the  ascendancy  which  Spain  had  formerly  enjoyed,  and  the 
purpose  of  its  policy  was  to  extend  that  kingdom  to  its  nat- 
ural mountain  and  river  boundaries.      In  the  interest  of  the 
Balance   of   Power   other  nations  combined   to    prevent   this 
expansion.     From  the  long   reign  of   the    French  king  Louis 
XIV,  and  the  prominent  part  which  France  played  in  literature 
and  culture  as  well  as  in  war  and  politics,  the  first  half  of  this 
period  is  well  called  the  Age  of  Louis  XIV. 

Upon  Richelieu's  death  (in  December, '  1642),  he  was  suc- 
ceeded as  chief  minister  of  France  by  Cardinal  Mazarin  (ma- 
za-raN'),  an  Italian  who  early  left  the  papal  service  for  that 

383 


384  THE  AGE  OF   LOUIS  XIV 

of  France.  Five  months  later  Louis  XIII  himself  passed  away, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  son,  Louis  XIV,  then  less  than  five 

442.  Ma-        years  old.     Anne  of  Austria^  the  queen  mother,  was  named 
minister*6*      regent-     She  confirmed  Mazarin  in  office,  and  so  long  as 
(1642-1661)    he  lived  she  supported  him.     He  had  to  face  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  Parlement  of  Paris  (the  chief  judicial  body  of 
France),  riots  among  the  people  of  Paris,  and  the  intrigues  and 
rebellions  of  the  French  nobles.     Whether  Anne  was  secretly 
married  to  Mazarin  or  not,  is  one  of  the  riddles  of  history.1 

Mazarin  lacked  the  creative  genius  of  Richelieu,  but  was  well 
qualified  to  carry  on  an  established  system  of  government. 
The  device  upon  his  arms  was  "Time  and  I."  He  was  tricky, 
fond  of  money,  and  a  great  collector  of  rare  books  and  works 
of  art.  He  was  hated  because  he  was  a  foreigner  and  the  favorite 
of  a  foreign  queen,  and  because  he  continued  a  policy  fatal  to 
the  nobility  and  oppressive  to  the  people.  Nevertheless  he  is 
entitled  to  rank  as  a  great  minister,  because  of  his  triumphs 
in  foreign  affairs  and  the  success  with  which  he  maintained 
the  authority  of  the  crown  at  home. 

In  1 66 1  Mazarin  died.  Louis  XIV,  who  was  then  twenty- 
three  years  old,  announced  that  thereafter  he  would  be  his  own 

443.  Louis      minister,  and  that  he  "was  unwilling  to  have  the  least 
own  minis-     ordinance  or  the  least  passport  signed  without  receiving 
ter  (1661)       his  orders."     The  young  king  had  considerable  ability, 

was  well  trained,  and  worked  with  the  greatest  industry  at  what 
he  called  "his  trade  of  king."  He  discharged  the  public  duties 
of  his  office  with  much  dignity  and  tact,  and  showed  a  refinement 
of  behavior  which  made  his  court  the  model  of  Europe. 

The  idea  of  government  held  by  Louis  XIV  is  summed  up  in 
the  words  (which,  however,  he  never  uttered  in  precisely  this 

444.  The        form):    "Vital  c'est   moi"  —  "I    am    the   state."     This 
divine  right    saying  embodied  the  theory  of  the  "  divine  right "  of  kings. 

According  to  this  theory,  kings  were  appointed  by  God  as 
His  representatives  on  earth.     They  were  the  source  of  law,  and 

1  Since  Mazarin,  although  a  cardinal,  was  only  in  minor  clerical  orders,  it  was 
possible  for  him  to  contract  a  valid  marriage. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  FRANCE         385 

could  not  themselves  be  controlled  by  law.  "The  whole  duty  of 
subjects,"  to  use  Louis's  own  words,  "consists  in  carrying  into 
effect  the  commands  given  them."  The  obedience  exacted  by 
Louis  XIV  was  a  blind,  machine-like  submission.  "For  sub- 
jects to  rise  against  their  prince,  however  wicked  and  oppressive 
he  may  be,  is  always  infinitely  criminal.  God,  who  has  given 
kings  to  men,  has  willed  that  they  should  be  revered  as  His 
lieutenants,  and  has  reserved  to  Himself  alone  the  right  to  review 
their  conduct.  His  will  is  that  he  who  is  born  a  subject  should 
obey  without  question." 

Under  Louis  XIV  the  government  was  absolute  to  the  last 
degree.  The  relentless  policy  of  Richelieu  and  Mazarin  had 
reduced  the  disorderly  feudal  nobles  to  the  position  of  445.  Ab- 

mere  courtiers,  who  possessed  many  privileges  but  no   sence  °* 

.    checks  on 
political  powers.     The  Estates-General  were  suppressed  the  king's 

(after  1614),  the  Parlement  was  confined  to  its  judicial  power 
duties,  and  "intendants"  (governors  of  provinces)  were  held  to 
strict  accountability.  It  should  be  remembered  that  there  was  no 
Great  Charter  in  France  to  safeguard  the  liberties  of  the  people. 
The  king  had  unlimited  power,  both  in  taxing  his  subjects  and 
in  expending  the  state  revenues.  Worse  than  this,  the  king 
had  the  right  to  imprison  or  to  exile  any  of  his  subjects 
without  trial  or  even  formal  charge,  by  means  of  a  system  of 
lettres  de  cachet  (let'tr'  de  ca-sha/)-  These  were  letters  written 
by  order  of  the  king,  countersigned  by  a  secretary  of  state,  and 
signed  with  the  king's  seal  (cachet).  The  persons  against  whom 
the  letters  were  issued  usually  deserved  punishment;  but  the 
system  violated  all  safeguards  of  personal  liberty,  such  as 
habeas  corpus  proceedings  and  trial  by  jury,  which  are  the  pride 
of  the  English  law.  Under  Louis  XIV's  successors,  the  letters 
were  sometimes  issued  in  blank,  leaving  to  the  person  obtaining 
them  the  right  to  fill  in  such  names  as  he  chose.  The  most 
celebrated  of  Louis's  prisoners  was  the  mysterious  "Man  in  the 
Iron  Mask,"  —  really  a  mask  of  black  velvet.  Many  attempts 
have  been  made  to  establish  the  identity  of  this  unhappy  pris- 
oner, but  without  general  acceptance  of  their  results. 


386  THE  AGE  OF  LOUIS   XIV 

Under  the  inspiration  of  Louis  XIV,  trained  and  able  ministers 

organized  the  foreign  office,  the  internal  administration,  and  the 

446.  Mill-      war  department.     The  principles  on  which  these  depart- 

tary  reforms    ments  were  organized  were  soon  adopted  by  the  leading 

countries    of    Europe.     The    military    improvements    included 

uniforms    to    distinguish    the    different    regiments;     bayonets 

affixed  to  the  muskets,  to  serve  as  pikes;    marching  in  step; 

pontoon  bridges ;   and  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  (6-teT  da  za,N- 

va-led'),  a  home  for  disabled  soldiers.     Vauban  (vo-ba,N'),  the 


rv  v«m«.    «*«,  5o  t/c/vom  *«»t«- 


LETTRE  DE  CACHET 

"  Mr. .     I  send  you  this  letter  to  tell  you  to  receive  in  my  chateau  of  the 

Bastille  Mr. and  to  hold  him  until  further  orders  from  me.     And  I  pray 

God  to  have  you,  Mr. ,  in  his  holy  keeping.    Written  at . 

Louis. 

creator  of  the  engineer  corps,  made  many  advances  in  the  art 
of  fortifying  and  taking  cities.  UA  city  besieged  by  Vauban," 
says  a  proverb  of  the  time,  "is  a  captured  city ;  a  city  defended 
by  him,  an  impregnable  one."  For  many  years  thereafter,  the 
French  army  remained  without  an  equal  in  Europe. 

The  internal  administration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  Col- 
bert (col-bar7),  one  of  the  greatest  finance  ministers  that  France 
ever  produced.  When  he  took  charge  of  the  revenues  there 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  FRANCE         387 

was  no  system  of  accounts,  no  thought  of  economy,  and  no 
check  against  dishonesty.     Hereditary  offices  were  created  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  selling  them.     Taxes  were  "farmed          Col_ 
out"  on  ruinous  terms.1     Of  the  vast  sums  collected  from  bert reforms 
the  people,  less  than  half  found  its  way  into  the  king's  the  3***™* 
treasury.     The  revenues  were  spent  two  years  before  they  were 
collected.     There  were  debts  of  large  amounts  drawing  interest 
at  exorbitant  rates.     Out  of  this  financial  chaos  Colbert  soon 
brought  order.     The  number  of  those  exempted  from  taxes  was 
reduced.     The  cost  of  collecting  the  revenues  was  cut  down  one 
half.     The  plunderers  of  the  treasury  were  forced  to  disgorge. 
Fraudulent  certificates  of  debt  were  repudiated.    A  proper  system 
of  bookkeeping  was  introduced.     Within  a  year,  Colbert  was 
able  to  show  a  surplus  of  forty-five  million  francs  ($9,000,000) 
without  having  perceptibly  increased  the  burden  of  taxation. 

In  other  ways,  also,  Colbert  was  active.     Roads  were  im- 
proved, and  a  system  of  canals  was  constructed,  of  which  the 
most  important  was  one  connecting  the  Atlantic  with   448.  Manu- 
the  Mediterranean  (see  map,  p.  388).     Manufactures  were  futures, 

.  commerce, 

encouraged  by  a  system  of  tariffs,  bounties,  and  monop-  ^d  C0i0_ 

olies.  Five  great  commercial  companies  were  formed  nies 
on  the  model  of  the  Dutch  and  English  East  India  companies. 
The  navy  and  merchant  marine  were  developed.  Many  islands 
in  the  West  Indies  were  acquired.  The  French  colony  of  Can- 
ada —  neglected  by  Richelieu  —  was  fostered ;  and  steps  were 
taken  to  occupy  the  Mississippi  valley,  which  had  just  been 
explored  by  La  Salle. ,  The  way  was  open  for  France  at  this 
time  to  secure  the  commercial  and  colonial  supremacy  of  the 
world.  But  Louis  XIV  preferred  the  traditional  but  disastrous 
path  of  military  glory,  and  soon  abandoned  the  wise  policies  of 
Cclbert. 

1  Under  this  system  the  right  to  collect  certain  taxes  was  granted  to  a  company  of 
speculators  (called  "farmers-general"),  who  paid  a  fixed  sum  to  the  government 
every  year  in  advance.  All  beyond  this  amount  the  "farmers-general"  put  in  their 
own  pockets  or  divided  with  influential  courtiers  and  corrupt  officials.  The  agents 
who  collected  the  taxes  were  notoriously  greedy  and  oppressive.  This  system  lasted, 
with  some  modifications,  down  to  the  French  Revolution. 


388 


THE  AGE  OF  LOUIS  XIV 


FRANCE  :  ACQUISITIONS  OF  Louis  XIV 

B.   WARS  OF  Louis  XIV 

A  passion  for  fame  and  the  desire  to  increase  French  territory 
in  Europe  were  the  leading  motives  of  Louis  XIV.  These  pro- 
duced the  four  wars  of  his  reign. 

The  first  war  (1667-1668)  had  for  its  object  the  conquest  of 
the  Spanish  Netherlands,   to  which  Louis  XIV  advanced  a 
449.  First      flimsy  claim.     The  independent  Dutch  Netherlands  there- 
Louisfxiv      uPon  concluded  with  England  and  Sweden  a  Triple  Alli- 
(1667-1668)    ance  against  France.     Louis  was  soon  forced  to  sign  a 
peace  by  which  he  surrendered  most  of  his  conquests.     Against 
"their  High   Mightinesses   the   States-General  of  the  United 
Provinces,"  who  had  balked  him  of  his  prey,  Louis  XIV  cher- 
ished a  lively  resentment. 


WARS   OF   LOUIS   XIV 


-389 


The  prosperity  of  the   Dutch  Netherlands  had  continued 
undiminished  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.     In 
America  they  colonized  New  York  and  New  Jersey;   in   450.  The 
Asia  they  secured  Ceylon  and  Java  ;  in  Africa  they  founded   erj^ds  e 
Cape  Colony  (Cape  of  Good  Hope).     Said  an  old  writer :   (1609-1667) 
"Like  bees  they  gathered  honey  from  every  land.     Norway  was 
their  forest;    the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  the  Garonne,  and  the 
Dordogne  their  vineyards ;    Germany,  Spain,  and  Ireland  \yjcquefort) 
their  sheep  pastures;    Prussia   and  Poland   their  grain  inLavisse 
fields;    India  and  Arabia   their  spice  gardens."     They 
became   masters   of   the  seas,  and  had  the  chief  share 
of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world.     A  serious  source  of  VI>  488 
danger,  however,  was  the  commercial  rivalry  of  England.    After 
much  friction  between  the  two  countries, 
the   English   Parliament,  in    1651,  passed 
the    first    Navigation    Act,    under    which 
foreign  ships  might  import  into  England 
or  her  colonies  only  the  products  of  their 
own  countries.     The  Navigation  Act  was 
especially  designed  to  wrest  from  the  Dutch 
the   control  of  the  carrying   trade  of   the 
world.     Two  wars  with  England  followed, 
the   first   lasting  from   1651  to   1654,   the 
second  from  1665  to  1667.     Just  before  the 
second  war,  the  Dutch  colonies  in  North 
America  were  taken  by  the  English.      In 
the  end  the  Dutch  were  obliged  to  accept 
a   peace    by    which    the    Navigation  Act 
remained  in  force.     The  republic's  greatest 
prosperity  was  thus  already  past,  when  the    SOLDIER  OF  Louis  XIV 
Dutch  became  involved  in  war  with  France. 

As  a  preliminary  to  this  war,  Louis  won  Sweden  and  Eng- 
land from  the  Triple  Alliance.     Charles  II  of  England  451-  Louis's 
even  agreed  to  assist  Louis,  and  secretly  pledged  him-   ™^tch 
self  to  adopt  the  Catholic  religion  whenever  conditions   (1672-1678) 
seemed  ripe  for  that  step.    The  army  which  Louis  gathered  num- 


390  THE  AGE  OF  LOUIS  XIV 


-.  bered  more  than  120,000  men.  On  the  French  side  the  war  was 
characterized  by  the  brilliant  strategy  of  a  great  general,  Turenne 
(tu-ren'),  until  his  death  in  1675.  The  Dutch  resisted  doggedly, 
cutting  the  dikes  to  save  Amsterdam.  On  the  sea  their  intrepid 
admiral,  De  Ruyter,  twice  defeated  the  French  and  English  fleets. 
William  III  of  Orange,  the  great-grandson  of  William  the 
Silent,  became  captain  general  of  the  Dutch  Republic  in  1672* 

452.  Wil-       The  remainder  of  his  life,  until  his  death  in  1702,  was  one 
liam  ill  be-    }ong  struggle  against  the  power  of  Louis  XIV.     By  form- 
tain  general    ing  a  new  coalition  of  European  states,  he  was  able  to  hold 
(1672)  his  own  against  France.     In  England  Parliament  forced 

Charles  II  to  make  peace  with  the  Dutch.  This  was  cemented 
by  a  marriage  between  Mary,  the  oldest  daughter  of  Charles's 
brother  James,  and  her  cousin  William  III. 

In  1678  Louis  XIV  agreed  to  a  peace  with  the  Dutch.  His 
only  substantial  gains  were  made  at  the  expense  of  Spain,  which 

453.  End  of    ceded   to    France   the  Franche-Comte    (on   the   eastern 
the  war         border  of  France),  and  a  number  of  places  in  the  Spanish 
(1678)  Netherlands.     The  attempt  to  conquer  the  Dutch  had 

failed  ingloriously. 

During  the  ten  years  following  this  peace,  Louis  XIV,  on 
one  pretext  or  another,  seized  about  twenty  towns  on  the 

454.  French  borders  of  France  and  Germany.     Strassburg,  the  chief 
TnT    P^ace   °f    Alsace,   was   included   in    this    number;    and 

coalition  the  genius  of  Vauban  soon  made  it  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  of  the  kingdom.  The  German  Emperor  was  too  much 
occupied  at  this  time  with  the  Turks  on  the  Danube  to  resist 
such  high-handed  proceedings,  and  other  powers  were  loath  to 
go  to  war.  However,  in  1686,  the  Emperor,  Spain,  Sweden, 
the  princes  of  North  Germany,  and  the  Dutch  United  Provinces 
joined  in  a  league  to  oppose  France.  Two  years  later  William 
III  of  Orange  succeeded  by  revolution  to  the  throne  of  his 
father-in-law,  James  II  of  England.  Great  Britain  then  ranged 

1  The  power  of  the  house  of  Orange  was  not  made  definitely  hereditary  over  all 
the  seven  provinces  until  1747.  From  a  federal  republic  the  Dutch  Netherlands 
(Holland)  then  became  a  federal  principality,  its  ruler  bearing  the  title  "Stadholder." 


WARS  OF  LOUIS   XIV  391 

itself  definitely  against  France.     Against  this  coalition  of  Eu- 
ropean powers,  Louis  XIV  stood  alone. 

The  third  war  of  Louis's  reign  followed  (1689-1697).  So  far 
as  Europe  was  concerned,  it  was  chiefly  a  war  over  the  succes- 
sion to  the  Palatinate  of  the  Rhine,  the  greater  part  of  455-  Third 
which  was  claimed  by  the  brother  of  the  French  king.  Its  J^^fxiv 
chief  event  on  the  Continent  was  the  frightful  wasting  of  (1689-1697) 
that  fertile  German  province  by  Louis's  express  orders.  Cities, 
cathedrals,  and  a  large  number  of  castles  on  the  Rhine  were 
ruthlessly  destroyed.  The  war  was  also  a  part  of  the  lifelong 
duel  in  which  William  III  and  Louis  XIV  were  now  engaged. 
Twenty  times  William  barely  escaped  being  crushed.  But  he 
"  represented  the  ideas  of  the  future  —  free  thought  in  religion, 
popular  sovereignty  in  politics"  ;  and  these  principles  sustained 
and  inspired  him.  In  yet  another  aspect  the  war  was  the  first 
stage  of  a  vast  world- wide  contest  —  a  new  "hundred  years' 
war"  —between  England  and  France.  These  two  powers 
were  now  beginning  to  contend  for  sea  power,  colonial  domin- 
ion, and  the  commercial  supremacy  of  the  world.  In  1692 
the  English  recovered  the  mastery  of  the  sea,  by  a  victory 
off  La  Hogue  (og)  —  "the  greatest  naval  victory  won  by  the 
English  between  the  defeat  of  the  Armada  and  the  battle  of 
Trafalgar  (1805)."  The  war  spread  to  America,  where  the  chief 
event  was  the  conquest  of  Acadia  from  France  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts colonists  (1690).  The  exhaustion  of  all  parties  led 
to  a  new  peace  in  1697.  France  and  England  restored  their 
recent  acquisitions  of  territory,  but  Louis  XIV  was  allowed  to 
keep  Strassburg. 

Within  four  years  from  the  conclusion  of  this  peace,  war 
blazed  forth  anew,  on  a  yet  more  disastrous  scale.  The  cause 
of  conflict  was  now  the  question  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

Charles  II  of  Spain,  the  last  male  representative  of  the  Span- 
ish Hapsburg  line,  was  weak  in  body  and  mind,  and  with-      6  The 
out   children.     The   inheritance   which   he   would    leave   Spanish 
embraced  "twenty-two  crowns  "  ;  and  included  Spain,  the   s 
greater  part  of  Italy,  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  the  Philippine 


392 


THE  AGE   OF   LOUIS   XIV 


Islands,  and  a  vast  American  empire.  If  the  rules  governing 
private  inheritances  were  followed,  the  whole  of  these  territories 
would  go  either  to  the  French  or  to  the  Austrian  monarch.  This 
would  violate  the  principle  of  the  Balance  of  Power,  which  re- 
quired that  no  state  should  be  allowed  to  grow  so  great  as  to 
threaten  the  others.  The  European  Powers  therefore  sought 
to  settle  the  question  before  the  death  of  the  Spanish  king,  by 
arranging  a  partition  treaty  for  the  division  of  the  Spanish  ter- 
ritories among  the  chief  claimants.1  This  arrangement,  how- 
ever, wounded  Spanish  pride.  The  national  party  among  the 
Spaniards,  therefore,  induced  Charles  II  to  make  a  will,  three 
weeks  before  his  death  (1700),  by  which  he  left  the  whole  in- 
heritance to  the  dauphin's  second  son,  Philip. 

Louis  XIV  had  solemnly  pledged  his  honor  to  the  partition 
War  of   treaty,  but  acceptance  of  the  legacy  offered  greater  pros- 
Pect   °^  &am-      ^S   decision   was   announced   when   he 
(1701)  appeared,  leaning  upon  the  arm  of  his  grandson,  and  pre- 

1  By  this  treaty  (1700)  the  Emperor's  second  son  (the  Archduke  Charles)  was  to 
secure  Spain,  the  "Indies"  —  that  is,  the  American  colonies  and  the  Philippines  — 
and  the  Netherlands.  The  dauphin  of  France  was  to  receive  certain  other  terri- 
tories. An  earlier  partition  treaty  (1698)  had  given  the  greater  part  of  the  Spanish 
inheritance  to  the  young  Electoral  Prince  Joseph,  of  Bavaria.  This  arrangement 
was  upset  by  his  death  the  following  year.  The  descent  of  the  various  claimants 
is  shown  by  the  following  table,  their  names  being  printed  in  italics:  — 

PHILIP  III  of  Spain  (1598-1621) 
son  of  PHILIP  II,  and  fourth  in  descent  from  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 


457 


Louis  XIII  = 
of  France 
(1610-1643) 

Louis  X 
of  Fram 
(1643-17 

Loui 

r 

Louis 
D.  of  Burgum 
(d.  1712) 

Louis  XV 
(1715-1774 

r~ 

Anne  of  Austria 

PHILIP  ] 

V  (1621-1665) 

Maria  = 

=  Emperor 
(165 
by  a 
ma 
ainette 
Bavaria 

=  FERDINAND  III 
(Emperor 
1637-1657) 
ruler  of  Austria 
etc. 
LEOPOLD  I 
8-1705) 
second 
rriage 

IV  =  Maria  Theresa 
e      1 

*s> 

5  the  Dauphin 
(d.  1711) 

CHARLES  II        Margaret  = 
(1665-1700)        Theresa 
last  of 
Spanish 
Hapsburgs         Maria  Ant 
m.  Elector  of 

Philip  of  Anjou,                    Joseph, 
\y               succeeds  to                   Electoral  Prince 
Spanish  throne                   of  Bavaria             i 
as  PHILIP  V                        (d.  1699) 
(1701-1746) 
first  of  the 
Spanish  Bourbons 

JOSEPH              Archduke 
Emperor              Charles, 
705-1711)         Emperor  as 
CHARLES  VJ 
(1711-1740: 

WARS  OF   LOUIS  XIV  393 

sented  him  to  the  court,  saying,  "  Gentlemen,  behold  the  king 
of  Spain!"  The  spirit  which  animated  the  court  is  summed 
up  in  the  saying  (wrongly  ascribed  to  Louis  himself),  "The  Pyre- 
nees no  longer  exist."  A  new  coalition,  which  embraced  England, 
Austria,  the  Dutch,  and  certain  German  provinces,  was  soon 
in  arms  to  check  this  great  increase  of  the  Bourbon  power. 

The  war  was  waged  in  Italy,  the  Netherlands,   Germany, 
Spain,  and  North  America.     The  question  at  issue  was  not 
merely  the  disposal  of  the  Spanish  Hapsburg  possessions  458.  Eng- 
in  Europe,  but  whether  France  should  be  allowed  to  add  JU^'*^  ' 
to  her  own  North  American  colonies  the  control  of  Spain's  involved 
vast  colonial  empire.     English  traders  had  managed  to  carry 
on  a  profitable  (but  illegal)  commerce  with  the  Spanish  colonies 
in  America.     This  would  be  stopped  if  the  strong  rule  of  France 
was  substituted  for  the  weak  rule  of  Spain.     For  this  reason 
the  trading  classes  in  England  gave  loyal  support  to  the  war. 

At  the  head  of  the  allied  forces  were  the  imperialist  general 
Eugene  of  Savoy  and  the  English  duke  of  Marlborough.     Both 
are  ranked  among  the  greatest  generals  of  history.     Of  459.  Mari- 
Marlborough  it  was  said  that  he  "  never  besieged  a  fortress  ^h^aVof 
which  he  did  not  take,  never  fought  a  battle  which  he   the  allies 
did  not  win,  never  conducted  a  negotiation  which  he  did  not 
bring  to  a  successful  close."     The  two  generals  acted  in  perfect 
harmony,  but  each  was  hampered  by  political  enemies  at  home. 
The  French  generals  were  not  the  equals  of  Eugene  and  Marl- 
borough,  and  they  were  hampered  by  the  necessity  of  having 
precise  orders  from  the  king  for  all  that  they  did. 

In  1704  Eugene  and  Marlborough  won  the  great  battle  of 
Blenheim  (blen'im)   from  the  French  and  the  Bavarians,  who 
were   advancing   upon  Vienna  by  way  of  the  Danube.     ^  Battle 
This  battle  broke  the  spell  of  Louis's  victories  and  pre-  of  Blenheim 
served  the  coalition.     It  increased  the  renown  of  the  Eng-   (I7°4) 
lish  soldiery  and  confirmed  the  revolution  which  had  driven  James 
II  from  the  English  throne.    In  spite  of  the  view  set  forth  by  the 
English  poet  Cowper  (in  his.  poem  "The  Battle  of  Blenheim") 
it  was  "a  glorious  victory,"  and  was  decisive  of  great  issues. 


394 


THE   AGE   OF   LOUIS  XIV 


461.  Peace         Other  brilliant  victories  of  the  allies  finally  led  Louis  XIV 
of  Utrecht       to  negOtiate  for  peace,  which  was  concluded  at  Utrecht 
in  1713.     Its  chief  provisions  were  the  following:  — 

1.  Philip  V  was  recognized  as  king  of  Spain  and  the  Indies,  on  con- 

dition that  France  and  Spain  should  never  be  united  under 
the  same  sovereign. 

2.  The  Austrian  ruler  received  Naples,  Milan,  Sardinia  (soon  ex- 

changed for  Sicily) ,  and  the  former  Spanish  Netherlands. 

3.  England  received  Newfoundland,  Acadia,   and  the  Hudson  Bay 

territory  from  France.  From  Spain  she  secured  Gibraltar,  the 
island  of  Minorca  (in  the  Mediterranean;  lost  again  in  1756), 
and  limited  rights  of  trade  with  Spanish  America. 


TERRITORIAL  GAINS  OF  THE  WAR  OF  THE  SPANISH  SUCCESSION 

The  peace  of  Utrecht  closes  the  long  struggle  —  dating  from 
before  the  days  of  Richelieu  —  of  France  against  the  Austro- 
Spanish  power.  A  Bourbon  was  seated  on  the  throne  of  Spain ; 
but  England  had  begun  that  expulsion  of  France  from  Canada 


SOCIAL   CONDITIONS   AND    CULTURE  395 

which  was  completed  fifty  years  later.  Austria  for  her  part 
secured  not  merely  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  but  also  a  hold 
upon  Italy  which  she  did  not  finally  lose  until  1866.  The  Dutch 
were  forced  into  the  peace  against  their  will,  and  sank  to  the 
rank  of  a  third-rate  power. 

Louis  XIV  died  September  i,  1715,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
seven.     He  had  reigned  seventy-two  years  —  the  longest  reign 
in  European  history.     He  had  set  a  Bourbon  on  the  throne     6z  Deatll 
of  Spain  in  place  of  a  Hapsburg.     He  had  enlarged  the  of  Louis 
borders  of  France  on  the  south  by  the  acquisition  of  a          (J7is) 
small  county  on  the  French  side  of  the  Pyrenees.     On  the  east 
he  had  advanced  its  boundary  to  the  Swiss  Confederation  and  to 
the  Rhine.     On  the  north  he  had  extended  the  frontier  a  con- 
siderable distance  by  taking  several  strips  of  territory  from  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  (map,  p.  388).     In  spite  of  some  defeats, 
France   remained  the  leading  state  of  Europe,   though  with 
lessened  prestige.      It  owed  its  importance  not  merely  to  the 
ambition  of  its  king,  but  to  the  energy  and  ability  of  the  French 
people,  the  richness  of  its  soil,  and  the  advantages  of  its  geo- 
graphical position. 

C.   SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  AND  CULTURE 

In  the  midst  of  his  wars,  Louis  XIV  found  time  both  for  a 
long  quarrel  with  the  Pope  (which  he  brought  to  a  successful 
conclusion)   and  for  the    suppression    of    the    Huguenot  463.  Revo- 
religion.     His  policy  against  his  Huguenot  subjects  was  cation?f 
as  much  political  as  religious.     They  formed  about  one  Nantes 
fifteenth  of  the  population  of  France,  and  were  by  far  the   (l68s) 
thriftiest  and  most  enterprising  part  of  the  nation.     But  Louis's 
suspicion  that  they  were  still  disloyal  to  the  crown,  his  passion 
for  uniformity,  a  desire  to  prove  his  orthodoxy,  and  his  religious 
bigotry  alike  urged  him  to  suppress  the  Huguenots.    An  impulse 
in  the  same  direction  came  from  the  religious  zeal  of  Madame  de 
Maintenon  (maN-t'noN'),  the  estimable  governess  of  his  children, 
to  whom  he  was  secretly  married  after  the  death  of  his  queen. 
After  numerous  attempts  at  peaceful  conversion  of  the  Hugue- 


396  THE  AGE  OF  LOUIS  XIV 

nots,  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was  revoked  in  1685.  All  protection 
of  law  was  thus  withdrawn  from  the  French  Protestants.  Their 
worship  was  suppressed,  their  ministers  were  ordered  to  leave 
France  within  fifteen  days,  and  their  adherents  were  forbidden 
to  follow  them.  Many  pastors  who  braved  the  edict  suffered 
the  penalty  of  death.  Hundreds  of  their  followers  who  were 
taken  in  the  attempt  to  flee  were  sentenced  to  long  years  of 
service  at  the  oar  in  French  galleys.  More  than  250,000  Hugue- 
nots succeeded,  however,  in  making  their  escape  from  France, 
and  carried  to  other  countries  French  arts,  the  secrets  of  French 
manufactures,  and  hatred  for  Louis  XIV.  The  industries  of 
England,  Holland,  and  Brandenburg  profited  greatly  from  this 
emigration.  America  found  in  the  Huguenots  some  of  her  most 
desirable  colonists.  France  lost  many  of  her  choicest  citizens, 
who  carried  with  them  treasures  of  heroism,  of  constancy,  of 
disinterestedness,  which  she  could  ill  spare. 

It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  age  of  Louis  XIV,  when  foreign 

relations   were    governed    chiefly    by    unscrupulous    ambition, 

464.  Rise       there  were  laid  the  foundations  of  scientific  international 

national"         law<     In  the  treatises  published  on  this  subject,1  the  fol- 

law  lowing  principles  (of  which  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  was  one 

long  violation)  were  laid  down  to  guide  states  in  their  relations 

with  one  another :  — 

1.  War  should  be  carried  on  only  for  a  just  cause,  and  for  the  purpose 

of  defense. 

2.  Do  no  more  injury  to  the  vanquished  than  is  strictly  necessary. 

3.  Force  alone  ought  not  to  regulate  the  relations  of  peoples,  for  there 

is  justice  between  states  as  well  as  between  individuals. 

4.  To  observe  treaties  is  the  wisest  practice  and  the  greatest  strength 

of  sovereigns. 

In  spite  of  its  almost  constant  warfare,  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV 
saw  a  general  advance  in  the  ways  of  living  and  in  culture.  A 
system  of  street  lighting  for  Paris  was  established,  by  which 

1  The  most  important  among  these  works  were  the  treatise  of  a  Hollander  named 
Grotius,  On  the  Law  of  War  and  Peace  (published  in  1625),  and  that  of  a  German 
named  Pufendorf,  On  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations  (published  in  1672). 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS   AND    CULTURE  397 

a  lantern  containing  a  lighted  candle  was  placed  at  the  entrance 
or  in  the  middle  of  each  street  every  night  from  November  i 
to  March  i.  Within  the  houses,  candles  and  shallow  465-  Social 
lamps  filled  with  animal  or  vegetable  oils  still  furnished  ^dSon  of 
the  only  lights.1  With  better  paved  streets,  carriages  the  people 
could  be  used;  and  cabs  for  hire,  and  even  the  "omnibus" 
following  a  fixed  route,  were  introduced.  For  travel  from  city 
to  city,  heavy  coaches  were  provided  which  took  fourteen  days 
to  go  from  Paris  to  Bordeaux.  Tobacco  began  to  be  used  in 
France  in  the  preceding  reign.  Coffee 
was  first  brought  from  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  under  Louis  XIV,  and 
the  example  of  the  Turkish  ambassador 
made  it  the  fashionable  drink.  Choco- 
late was  introduced  from  Central  Amer- 
ica, and, tea  from  China,  at  about  the 
same  time. 

French  civilization  became  the  most 
brilliant  in  all  Europe,  and  its  center 
was    Louis's    court    at    Versailles     ^  The 
(ver-sa'y'),    about    twelve    miles  court  at 
from    Paris.      His    palace    there,   VersaiUes 

with  its  gardens  and  outlying  buildings, 
COSTUME  OF  NOBLEMAN  IN  .  ... 

THE  TIME  OF  Louis  XIV    was  the  most  magnificent  ever  seen  in 

the  West.     Its  construction  cost  France 

more  than  a  hundred  million  dollars.  The  life  of  the  palace 
was  on  an  equally  splendid  and  costly  scale.  Five  thousand 
attendants  served  the  wants  of  the  king  and  the  royal  family. 
In  addition,  the  chief  officers  of  the  government,  with  their 
clerks,  and  a  great  part  of  the  nobility  of  France,  were  housed 
at  Versailles.  The  nobles  were  attracted  there  not  only  by 
the  splendor  of  the  court,  but  also  because  it  was  only  by 
living  close  to  the  king,  —  the  source  of  all  power,  —  that  they 
could  hope  to  win  favors,  pensions,  and  offices. 

1  Kerosene  and  improved  lamps  are  first  met  with  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.     Gas  lighting  came  into  use  in  cities  a  little  earlier. 


11 


398 


SOCIAL  CONDITIONS  AND   CULTURE  399 

Every  act  of  the  king  was  governed  by  a  most  elaborate  cere- 
monial.    " Etiquette,"  it  has  been  said,  "became  the  real  con- 
stitution of  France."    The  king's  rising  in  the  morning     6    j 
was  an  occasion  which  it  was  accounted  a  great  privilege   elaborate 
to  attend.     The  manner  of  putting  on  each  garment  was  eti<iuette 
minutely  regulated.     It  required  seven  persons  to  put  on  the 
king's  shirt.1     The  same  pomp  and  ceremony  surrounded  the 
king's  meals  and  his  going  to  bed.     A  French  historian  says  of 
Louis  XIV:  "He  was  a  god  in  his  temple,  celebrating  his  own 
worship,  in  the  midst  of  his  host  of  priests  and  faithful." 

The  brilliancy  of  Louis's  court  was  not  due  entirely  to  its 
gorgeous  trappings,  the  polished  manners  and  extravagant 
pleasures  of  the  courtiers,  and  the  beauty  of  the  court  468.  Lit- 
ladies.  His  liberal  gifts  attracted  men  of  wit  and  learning, 
who  spread  the  glories  of  his  court  throughout  Europe.  XIV 
The  age  of  Louis  XIV  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history 
of  French  literature.  By  means  of  the  French  "Academy" 
(founded  by  Richelieu),  and  a  system  of  pensions  for  literary 
effort,  great  men  were  fostered  and  rewarded.  Corneille  (cor- 
na'y')  founded  the  classical  school  of  French  dramatists.  His 
younger  contemporary,  Racine  (ra-sen')}  is  styled  by  a  French 
critic  "the  most  perfect  of  our  tragedians,  and  perhaps  of  our 
poets."  Moliere  (mo-lyar'),  in  a  series  of  admirable  comedies, 
held  up  to  ridicule  the  vices  and  follies  of  the  time.  The  names 
of  many  others  —  poets,  philosophers,  orators,  and  moralists  — 
might  be  added  to  the  list.  Coming  between  the  religious  re- 
formers of  the  sixteenth  century  and  the  political  reformers  of 
the  eighteenth,  these  writers  were  occupied  chiefly  with  matters 
of  literary  form.  They  sought  to  ascertain  and  establish  the 
laws  of  good  taste.  They  exerted  a  strong  influence  on  English 

1  "  A  valet  of  the  wardrobe  brought  the  king's  shirt ;  he  passed  it  to  the  first 
gentleman  of  the  bedchamber,  who  handed  it  to  the  dauphin,  or  (in  his  absence)  to 
one  of  the  other  princes,  who  gave  it  to  the  king.  Two  valets  of  the  bedchamber 
then  held  up  his  majesty's  dressing-gown  to  conceal  him  from  the  gaze  of  the  on- 
lookers. The  first  valet  of  the  bedchamber  and  the  first  valet  of  the  wardrobe  then 
put  on  the  shirt,  the  one  holding  it  by  the  right  sleeve,  the  other  by  the  left.''  — 
Lavisse  and  Rambaud,  Histoire  Generate,  VI,  198. 


400  THE  AGE  OF   LOUIS  XIV 

writers  of  the  eighteenth  century,  of  whom  the  poet  Pope  is  the 
most  striking  example.  In  painting,  however,  the  art  of  France 
could  show  nothing  to  compare  in  strength  and  effectiveness 
with  the  work  of  the  Dutch  painter  Rembrandt  (§  345). 

France  now  became  the  center  of  fashion  for  the  civilized 
world.     This  was  true  alike  in  literature,  art,  dress,  and  court 
469.  In-         etiquette.      Every  little  princeling  in  Europe  sought  to 
set  UP  a  court  like  that  of  the  Grand  Monarch  of  France. 


Europe  The  French  tongue  became  the  universal  language  of  di- 
plomacy, philosophy,  and  high  society.  "The  taste  of  France,'* 
wrote  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia  some  years  later,  "rules  our 
cooking,  our  furniture,  our  clothes,  and  all  those  trifles  over 
which  the  tyranny  of  fashion  exercises  its  empire."  The  sway 
over  Europe  which  Louis  XIV  was  not  able  to  conquer  with 
the  sword  was  peaceably  won  by  French  intelligence  and 
taste. 

There  is,  however,  another  side  to  the  picture.  The  palace 
of  Versailles,  with  all  its  splendors,  lacked  sanitary  appliances. 
470  inter-  ^°  cover  ^ts  bad  °dors,  perfumes  were  freely  used.  It 
nal  ills  of  was  not  until  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the 
habit  of  bathing  all  over  was  introduced  into  fashionable 
society  from  England.  The  moral  tone  of  the  French  court 
was  extremely  corrupt.  Its  luxury  and  the  costly  wars  of  the 
reign  reduced  the  peasantry  to  its  lowest  condition.  An  author 
of  that  time  (Fenelon)  dared  to  write  to  the  king  :  "Your  people 
are  dying  of  hunger.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  almost 
abandoned.  The  towns  and  the  country  decrease  in  popula- 
tion." In  time  of  famine  peasants  were  reduced  to  living  on 
grass,  nettles,  roots,  and  whatever  else  they  might  find.  In 
internal  administration  the  absolute  monarchy  of  France  proved 
a  failure.  "French  kings  knew  how  to  exact  obedience,  but 
they  did  not  know  how  to  govern."  At  home  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIV  established  political  despotism,  economic  misery,  and  social 
inequality.  The  logical  outcome  of  these  evils  was  the  French 
Revolution,  which  broke  out  three  quarters  of  a  century 
later. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  401 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1661.  Death  of  Mazarin;  Louis  XIV  takes  the  government  into  his 

own  hands. 

1672.  Louis  XIV  attacks  the  Dutch  Netherlands. 
1685.  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 
1689.  War  over  the  Palatinate  begun. 
1701-1713.  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. " 
1704.  Battle  of  Blenheim. 
1715.  Death  of  Louis  XIV. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  To  what  extent  does  the  principle  of  the  Balance 
of  Power  affect  the  relations  of  European  states  at  the  present  time? 

(2)  What  are  its  good  features?     Its  bad  ones?     (3)  Compare  the  "divine 
right"  theory  of  government  held  by  Louis  XIV  with  the  claims  of  the 
medieval  Popes.      (4)  Was  the  prosperity  of  the  early  part  of  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV  due  to  the  king  or  to  his  ministers?     (5)  What  were  the 
effects  of  Louis  XIV's  wars  on  France  ?       (6)  Compare  the  objects  of  the 
English  wars  with  the  Dutch  with  those  of  Louis  XIV  against  the  same 
people.     (7)  What  advantages  did  England  reap  from  her  Dutch  wars? 

(8)  What  led  to  the  cessation  of  wars  between  the  English  and  the  Dutch  ? 

(9)  Why  was  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  unwise?     (10)  Was 
Louis  XIV's  conduct  with  reference  to  the  Spanish  succession  honorable 
or  dishonorable  ?     Was  it  expedient  or  inexpedient  for  France  ?     (n)  Why 
did  William  III  make  himself  the  head  of  the  opposition  to  Louis  XIV? 
(12)  What  was  the  prize  at  issue  in  the  series  of  wars  between  England  and 
France?     (13)  Why  did  sea  power  now  begin  to  be  important ?     (14)  Did 
Louis  XIV  do  more  good  or  harm  to  France  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  Louis  XIV's  CHARACTER  AND  ABILITIES.  Perkins, 
France  under  the  Regency,  ch.  v ;  Hassall,  Louis  XIV,  ch.  iii ;  Dunn  Pattison, 
Leading  Figures  in  European  History,  306-328;  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  I,  4-10.  —  (2)  COLBERT'S  ECONOMIC 
POLICY.  Perkins,  France  under  the  Regency,  ch.  iv;  Johnson,  Age  of  the 
Enlightened  Despots,  ch.  i;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  12-14. — 

(3)  COURT  LIFE  AT  VERSAILLES.     Perkins,  France  under  the  Regency,  ch.  v; 
Hassall,  Louis  XIV,  ch.  xi;  Taine,  Ancient  Regime,  86-90,  100-109;  Dab- 
ney,  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution,  ch.  xii.  —  (4)  INFLUENCE  OF  MADAME 
DE  MAINTENON.     Perkins,  France  under  the  Regency,  148-160.  —  (5)  EFFECTS 
OF  THE  REVOCATION  OF  THE  EDICT  OF  NANTES.     Perkins,  France  under  the 
Regency,  199-203;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  VII,  534-535.  —  (6)  HUGUENOTS 
IN  AMERICA.     Parkman,  Pioneers  (ed.    1887),  27-179;  Doyle,  Virginia,  I, 
88-100.  —  (7)   CANADA   UNDER   Louis    XIV.     Parkman,    Old   Regime   in 


402  THE   AGE   OF   LOUIS   XIV 

Canada,  ch.  xv;  Fiske,  New  France  and  New  England,  ch.  ii.  —  (8)  THE 
DUTCH  BEFORE  THE  WARS  WITH  FRANCE.  Wakeman,  Ascendancy  of  France, 
214-233;  Mahan,  Influence  of  Sea  Power  upon  History,  50-74,  96-101.— 
(9)  THE  SECOND  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR.  Seeley,  Expansion  of  England, 
lect.  2.  —  (10)  WILLIAM  III.  Traill,  William  III,  ch.  i,  and  197-203.  — 
(n)  DUKE  OF  MARLBOROUGH.  Green,  Short  History  of  England,  705-719; 
Stanhope,  Reign  of  Queen  Anne,  I,  ch.  iii.  —  (12)  FRANCE  AT  THE  CLOSE  OF 
THE  REIGN  OF  Louis  XIV.  '  Perkins,  France  under  the  Regency,  ch.  ix.  — 
(13)  TREATY  OF  UTRECHT.  Wakeman,  Ascendancy  of  France,  364-370; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  50-53. 

General  Reading.  —  In  addition  to  the  above,  see  the  volumes  in  the 
Epochs  of  Modern  History  by  Airy,  Hale,  and  Morris  (English  Restoration 
and  Louis  XIV;  Fall  of  the  Stuarts;  Age  of  Anne}.  Wakeman's  Ascend- 
ancy of  France  is  excellent  for  the  political  history.  Martin's  Age  of  Louis 
XIV  and  the  Decline  of  the  Monarchy  (4  vols.,  translated  from  the  French) 
gives  a  comprehensive  account,  as  does  the  Cambridge  Modern  History. 
Saint-Simon's  Memoirs  (abridged  translation  in  4  vols.)  is  the  best  source 
for  the  court  life. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND 
A.   CONFLICTS  BETWEEN  KING  AND  PARLIAMENT  (1603-1642) 

WHILE  absolute  government  was  establishing  itself  in 
France,  control  by  Parliament  arose  in  England.  This  was  no 
accident,  but  was  rather  the  result  of  the  whole  tendency  of 
English  history. 

When  Queen  Elizabeth  died  (in  1603),  the  nearest  heir  to  her 
throne  was  James  VI  of  Scotland.     He  was  the  son  of  Mary 
Stuart,  Queen  of  Scots  (§  393),  but  had  been  reared  as  a  471-  Ac- 
Protestant.     He  now  became  king  of  England  as  well  as  c-^^i 
of  Scotland,  and  was  there  known  as  James  I.     In  other   (1603) 
respects  the  governments  of  England  and  Scotland  remained 
separate  and  independent.     James  was  one  of  the  most  learned 
rulers  of  Europe,  but  was  so  lacking  in  tact  and  prudence  that 
Henry  IV  of  France  called  him  "  the  wisest  fool  in  Christendom." 

The  times  were  changed   since  the  days  when  the  English 
quietly  accepted  the  despotism*  of  the  Tudors.     There  was  no 
longer  the  danger  of  oppression  by  the  barons,  or  of  foreign  472.  Causes 
invasion,  or  of  religious  war  to  cause  them  to  desire  a  ^i^p^t 
strong  kingship  at  any  cost.     Puritanism,  moreover,  was  liament 
becoming  more  insistent  in  its  demands  for  further  reform  in 
the  church.     The  middle  classes,  through  the  development  of 
commerce  and  industry,  were  becoming  important  enough  to 
claim  an  active  voice  in  the  government.     Even  Elizabeth,  in 
the  later  years  of  her  reign,  had  seen  the  necessity  of  bowing  to 
the  will  of  Parliament.     But  James  I  and  his  Stuart  descendants 
were  influenced  by   the   same   ideas   of   the   divine   right  of 
kings  that  animated  Louis  XIV.     They  set  themselves  to  rule 

403 


404         CONSTITUTIONAL   MONARCHY   IN   ENGLAND 

as  absolute  monarchs,  disregarding  the  wishes  and  prejudices 
of  the  nation.     The  result  was  that  the  "murmuring  Parlia- 
Bagehot         ment  of  Queen  Elizabeth"  developed  into  "the  mutinous 
English  Con-    Parliament  of  James  I,  and  the  rebellious  Parliament  of 
stitution,  349    Charles   I";    and   the   end   was   the    "glorious   revolu- 
tion" of  1688,  which  brought  William  III  to  the  throne. 

The  first  question  which  James  had  to  face  was  the  religious 
question.  At  the  time  of  his  accession  he  was  in  favor  of  grant- 
473  Gun-  *nS  to  Catholics  some  relief  from  the  oppressive  laws 
powder  which  had  been  passed  against  them.  Certain  rash  mem- 
Plot  (1005)  |_)ers  Q£  fa^t  faith,  however,  joined  in  what  is  known  as 
the  Gunpowder  Plot,  their  purpose  being  to  blow  up  the  Parlia- 
ment House  when  the  king,  Lords,  and  Commons  were  assembled 
at  the  opening  of  the  session.  But  the  suspicions  of  the  govern- 
ment were  aroused,  and  the  night  before  the  session  opened 
search  was  made  in  the  cellars  under  the  Parliament  House. 
Guy  Fawkes,  the  chief  conspirator,  was  discovered  watching  over 
a  number  of  barrels  of  powder  which  had  been  prepared  for  the 
explosion.  He  and  his  fellow  conspirators  were  tried  and  exe- 
cuted. After  the  discovery  of  this  plot,  James  heeded  the  de- 
mands of  his  Protestant  subjects,  and  allowed  the  harsh  laws 
against  Catholics  to  remain  in  full  force.1 

With  the  Puritans  also  (§  392)  James  found  it  difficult  to 

deal.    At  a  conference  held  in  1604,  some  of  the  Puritan  speakers, 

474.  Puri-      in  justifying  their  worship,  used  words  which  led  James 

tan  perse-      j-o  think  that  they  wished  to  introduce  into  England  the 

cution  and 

American       Presbyterian   system   of   church   government,   which   he 

colonization    had  found  vexatious  in  Scotland.     "If  this  be  all  they 
have  to  say,"  said  the  king,  "I  shall  make  them  conform  them- 

1  November  5th,  the  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  the  plot,  is  still  celebrated 
in  England  with  bonfires  and  the  burning  of  stuffed  figures  of  Guy  Fawkes  (whence 
comes  our  expression  to  "look  like  a  guy").  Until  recent  years  English  children 
learned  the  following  verse :  — 

"  Remember,  remember,  the  Fifth  of  November, 

Gunpowder  treason  and  plot ; 
I  see  no  reason  why  Gunpowder  treason 
Should  ever  be  forgot !" 


CONFLICTS   BETWEEN   KING   AND   PARLIAMENT       405 

selves,    or   I  will   harry   them  out   of   the   land,   or  else  do 
worse." 

Persecutions  followed  which  led  many  of  the  more  radical 
Puritans  to  seek  homes  beyond  the  seas.  In  1620  occurred  the 
famous  settlement  of  Plymouth  colony  by  the  Pilgrims,  and  ten 
years  later  came  the  great  emigration  which  founded  Boston. 
Virginia,  founded  in  1607,  was  settled  more  from  economic  than 
religious  motives.  Though  the  founding  of  the  American  col- 
onies can  receive  little  attention  in  this  book,  it  was  one  of  the 
great  events  of  the  time.  In  the  mother  country  the  Puritan 
ideas  were  in  the  end  rejected  (after  1660) ;  and  a  reaction  then 
arose  which  seriously  checked  English  political  and  religious  de- 
velopment. The  Puritan  Colonists  in  America,  on  the  other  hand, 
preserved  their  religious  doctrine,  together  with  progressive 
ideas  of  government  and  society.  For  a  century  after  1660,  Eng- 
land paid  little  attention  to  these  sturdy  young  communities  three 
thousand  miles  away.  The  result  was  the  rapid  growth  of  the 
ideas  which  the  colonists  had  brought  from  England,  into  the 
colonial  principles  of  the  eighteenth  century.  These  seemed 
purely  American  only  because  the  Puritan  ideas  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  had  been  stamped  out  so  completely  at  home. 

The  harsh  policy  which  James  I  adopted  toward  the  Puritans 
led  to  friction  between  the  king  and  Parliament.  Other  causes 
worked  in  the  same  direction.  The  king  of  England,  unlike  47g 
the  king  of  France,  had  no  right  of  arbitrary  taxation  and  rels  with 
no  standing  army.  The  extravagance  of  James  made  Parliament 
him  more  dependent  upon  Parliament  than  his  predecessors 
had  been,  yet  he  quarreled  with  Parliament  over  questions  of 
privilege  and  religion.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  James  sought 
to  aid  the  Protestants  through  a  treaty  with  Spain,  which  should 
include  the  marriage  of  his  son,  Prince  Charles,  to  a  Spanish 
princess.  When  Parliament  attacked  this  project,  in  1621, 
James  roundly  ordered  its  members  "  not  to  meddle  with  any- 
thing concerning  our  government  or  deep  matters  of  state." 
Their  privileges,  he  asserted,  rested  only  on  the  will  of  the  king. 
The  Commons  answered  this  assertion  by  a  written  protest  in 


406          CONSTITUTIONAL   MONARCHY   IN   ENGLAND 

which  they  set  forth :  (i)  That  "the  liberties,  franchises,  privileges, 
and  jurisdictions  of  Parliament  are  the  ancient  and  undoubted 
birthright  and  inheritance  of  the  subjects  of  England."  (2) 
That  "  affairs  concerning  the  king,  state  and  defense  of  the  realm, 
and  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  the  maintenance  and  making 
of  laws,"  were  properly  debated  in  Parliament.  (3)  That  "in 
the  handling  and  proceeding  of  those  businesses  every  member 
of  the  House  of  Parliament  hath  and  of  right  ought  to  have 
freedom  of  speech,"  and  freedom  from  arrest  for  his  conduct  in 
Parliament.  This  protest  James  tore  from  the  journal  of  the 
Commons  with  his  own  hand.  Its  authors  he  imprisoned. 

A  trip  to  Madrid,  however,  convinced  Prince  Charles  and  the 
king's  favorite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  that  the  Spaniards 
were  deceiving  them.  So  when  James  met  his  next  Parliament, 
in  1624,  he  invited  it  to  declare  war  against  Spain.  The 
question  of  the  privileges  of  Parliament  was  allowed  to  rest. 
For  the  first  time  James  found  himself  really  popular.  The  next 
year  he  died,  and  Charles  I  became  king. 

Charles  I  was  a  more  kingly  man  than  his  father,  but  he  was 

also  more  arbitrary,  more  self-willed,  and  more  unbending.     His 

476.  Acces-    personal  morals  were  of 

Chril  I        the  hiShest>  but  there  was 

(1625)  an  unintentional  untruth- 

fulness  in  him  which  made  it 
impossible  to  bind  him  by  any 
promise.  To  these  traits  he  add- 
ed an  unswerving  devotion  to 
the  established  English  Church. 
This  was  one  of  his  noblest 
characteristics,  but  it  proved 
a  fruitful  source  of  trouble. 

At  this  time  a  new  religious  CHARLES  I 

party    was    arising    among    the    From  the  contemporary  painting  by  Van 

English   clergy,   headed   by  Dyck 

William  Laud.  It  wished  to  restore  certain  forms  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Catholic  Church,  while  continuing  to  reject  the 


CONFLICTS   BETWEEN  KING  AND   PARLIAMENT       407 

headship  of  the  Pope  and  the  mass  service.     At  the  opposite 
religious  extreme  to  this  party  stood  the  Puritans.     They  wished 
to  carry  the  Reformation  even  further,  and  to  do  away          Laud- 
altogether  with  priestly  robes,  altars,   and  pictured  win-   ians  and 
dows,  and  to  reduce  the  worship  to  the  bare  simplicity  of 
the  early  church.     Laud's  party  was  small,  but  it  had  the  king 
with  it.     In  return  it  zealously  supported  the  king's  authority, 
and  taught  that  disobedience  to  the  king  was  sin.     The  Puri- 
tans regarded  this  doctrine  as  intended  to  overturn  civil  liberty 
and  to  pave  the  way  for  the  reintroduction  of  Catholicism. 
Their  opposition  to  Laud  and  his  party  found  strong  support  in 
the  House  of  Commons. 

Another  source  of  growing  dissatisfaction  was   the  power 
exercised  by  the  duke  of  Buckingham.      He  had  been  raised 
from  humble  station  to  the  highest  rank,  and  was  now  in-     78  Qppo- 
trusted  with  practically  the  whole  administration  of  Eng-   sition  to 
land.     Buckingham  was  insolent  in  behavior,  while  his  Buc 
government  was  miserably  inefficient.     England  was  already 
engaged  in  war  against  Spain,  and  had  pledged  aid  to  the  Prot- 
estant cause  in  Germany  (§  429).      Nevertheless  Buckingham 
rushed  headlong  into  a  new  and  inglorious  war  with  France. 
Men  began  openly  to  name  him  as  "the  grievance  of  grievances." 
In  1626  he  was  saved  from  impeachment  (§  309)  only  by  the 
king's  dissolving  Parliament. 

Charles's  third  Parliament  passed  a  measure  called  the  Petition 
of  Right,  which  Charles  was  obliged  to  accept  as  law.   479.  The 
Its  importance  is  second  only  to  that  of  Magna  Carta,  for  pftitio»  of 
it  settled  in  favor  of  the  nation  most  of  the  constitutional  passed 
questions  then  in  dispute.     It  provided :  —  (1628) 

1.  That  no  one  should  be  required  to  give  any  gift,  loan,  or  tax  to  the 

government  unless  it  was  granted  by  act  of  Parliament. 

2.  That  no  one  should  be  imprisoned  contrary  to  the  law  of  the  land, 

even  by  the  king's  orders. 

3.  That  soldiers  and  mariners  should  not  be  quartered  in  private 

houses. 

4.  That  commissions  of  martial  or  military  law  should  not  be  issued. 


408         CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY   IN  ENGLAND 

Charles  then  " prorogued"  this  Parliament,  —  that  is,  he  ad- 
journed it  for  some  months,  without  putting  an  end  to  its  exist- 
ence. Before  it  met  again,  Buckingham  was  murdered  by  a 
fanatic  who  had  a  private  grievance  to  add  to  the  public  dis- 
content. Sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  who  hitherto  had  been  one 
of  the  opposition  leaders,  then  changed  to  the  royal  side.  He 
was  neither  a  Puritan  nor  a  believer  in  popular  government,  so 
he  cannot  be  styled  a  "  turncoat."  He  had  opposed  the  govern- 
ment because  it  was  inefficient.  With  Buckingham  gone,  he 
now  gave  his  support  to  the  government,  and  ultimately,  as 
earl  of  Strafford,  became  Charles's  chief  adviser. 

When  Parliament  reassembled,  the  king  and  the  Commons 
were  as  wide  apart  as  ever.  Besides  the  dispute  over  the  Laud- 

480.  New      ian  changes  in  religion,  the  controversy  was  mainly  over 
quarrels         the  king's  right  to  collect  (without  grant  of  Parliament) 
liament          a  customs  duty  called  " tonnage  and  poundage."     The 
(1629)  Commons  claimed  that  this  was  prohibited  by  the  Peti- 
tion of  Right,  but  Charles  denied  that  he  had  given  up  this 
right.     The  parliamentary  session  ended  in  a  scene  of  great 
confusion.     While  the  king's  messenger  knocked  loudly  for  ad- 
mittance at  the  locked  doors  of  Parliament,  the  Speaker  of  the 
Commons  was  held  forcibly  in  his  chair  and  resolutions  were 
passed  declaring :   (i)  That  the  Laudian  innovators  in  religion, 
and  those  advising  the  taking  of  tonnage  and  poundage  without 
the  consent  of  Parliament,  were  "capital  enemies  of  the  king- 
dom."    (2)  That  every  one  voluntarily  paying  tonnage  and 
poundage  was  "a  betrayer  of  the  liberties  of  England." 

Charles  thereupon  dissolved  this  Parliament.  Eleven  years 
of  arbitrary  government  followed,  during  which  no  Parliament 

481.  Arbi-      was  held.      Laud,  now  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
eminent^      forced  his  ideas  upon  the  English  Church  with  conscien- 
(1629-1640)   tious  obstinacy.     As  a  result,  the  Puritan  emigration  to 

New  England  was  much  increased.  The  wars  with  France  and 
Spain  were  brought  to  an  end  for  lack  of  means  to  continue 
them.  The  Court  of  Star  Chamber  (an  organization  which 
practically  dates  from  Henry  VII)  and  the  Court  of  High  Com- 


CONFLICTS   BETWEEN  KING  AND   PARLIAMENT      409 

mission  (originally  created  by  Elizabeth  to  enforce  the  royal 
supremacy  in  the  church)  dealt  relentlessly  with  those  who 
opposed  the  king's  will.  Sir  John  Eliot,  one  of  the  leaders  in 
the  last  Parliament,  was  imprisoned  for  his  course  there,  and 
died  in  the  Tower  three  and  a  half  years  later,  a  martyr  to  con- 
stitutional liberty.  Judges  who  were  suspected  of  being  un- 
friendly to  the  royal  claims  were  dismissed.  The  king's  need 
of  funds,  together  with  his  determination  to  rule  without  a  Par- 
liament, caused  him  to  rake  up  all  sorts  of  obsolete  rights  of  ex- 
acting feudal  dues  and  fines,  and  to  resort  to  other  questionable 
means  of  raising  money.  The  most  important  of  these  means 
was  a  new  and  arbitrary  tax  called  "  ship  money."  The  right  of 
the  king,  in  time  of  war,  to  call  upon  the  maritime  counties  to 
furnish  ships  for  the  defense  of  the  realm  was  unquestioned. 
Charles  now,  in  time  of  peace,  converted  this  right  of  ship  service 
into  a  money  tax,  and  extended  it  over  all  the  counties  of  England. 
By  levying  the  ship  money  in  three  successive  years,  he  also 
showed  that  he  meant  to  make  the  tax  permanent.  A  rich  and 
patriotic  man  named  John  Hampden  refused  to  pay  the  tax  and 
contested  the  king's  right  to  levy  it.  The  result  was  the  Ship 
Money  Case,  tried  in  1637.  The  decision  of  the  judges  was 
against  Hampden ;  but  the  publicity  of  the  trial  enabled  Hamp- 
den's  lawyers  to  get  their  arguments  before  the  people  almost 
as  completely  as  they  could  have  done  in  a  Parliament. 
The  result  was  greatly  to  strengthen  the  opposition  to  the 
government. 

In  spite  of  the  economic  prosperity  of  these  years,  English 
discontent  became  more  widespread  than  ever.  Finally  the 
attempt  of  Charles  and  Laud  to  force  upon  the  Presbyterian 
kingdom  of  Scotland  a  new  church  service  book  led  to  a  revolt 
of  the  Scots.  An  English  Parliament,  when  summoned  early 
in  1640,  showed  itself  entirely  on  the  side  of  the  rebels,  and  was 
dissolved  within  three  weeks.  New  reverses  in  the  war  with  the 
Scots  forced  Charles,  in  November,  1640,  to  convene  another 
Parliament ;  and  of  this  he  was  not  so  easily  rid. 

This  body,  known  in  history  as  the  Long  Parliament,  showed 


4io 


CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY   IN  ENGLAND 


itself  almost  unanimously  opposed  to  the  king's  religious  and 
civil  policy.     Charles  could  not  dismiss  it,  as  he  had  dismissed 
482.  Be-        his  earlier  Parliaments.     A  Scottish  army  was  now  on  Eng- 
ginningof      }isn  gQJ^  ready  to  march  southward  in  case  he  failed  to 
Parliament     Pav  eacn  month  the  sums  agreed  upon  in  a  recent  treaty ; 
(1640-1641)   and  for  these  sums  Charles  was  dependent  upon  Parlia- 
ment.    The  principal  leader  of  the  Parliament  was  John  Pym, 
whose  influence  in  the  House  of  Commons  was  so  great  that  his 
enemies  called  him  "King  Pym."     Under  his  guidance  the  Long 


EXECUTION  OF  THE  EARL  OF  STRAFFORD 
From  a  contemporary  print.     Note  the  Tower  of  London  in  the  background 

Parliament  proceeded  (i)  to  punish  the  authors  of  the  late  op- 
pressions, (2)  to  compensate  the  sufferers  from  them,  and  (3)  to 
provide  securities  for  the  future.  Both  StrafTord  and  Laud  were 
beheaded.  Other  officials  escaped  punishment  only  by  flight. 
The  victims  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  the  High  Commission 
were  freed  from  prison  and  granted  sums  of  money^  for  their 
sufferings.  These  two  oppressive  courts  we.re  then  abolished. 
To  secure  the  regular  assembling  of  Parliaments,  a  Triennial 
Act  was  passed,  which  provided  that  not  more  than  three  years 


CONFLICTS   BETWEEN  KING  AND  PARLIAMENT       411 

should  elapse  without  a  session  of  Parliament.  Another  act 
provided  that  the  existing  Parliament  should  not  be  prorogued 
or  dissolved  without  its  own  consent. 

In  assenting  to  this  last  act  Charles  made  his  greatest  mistake. 
Divisions  now  began  to  appear  among  the  members  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  Puritans  desired  to  cast  out,  "root  and  branch," 
the  government  of  the  church  by  bishops.  The  Anglicans,  on 
the  other  hand,  wished  merely  to  restore  the  conditions  which 
existed  before  Laud's  innovations.  If  Charles  had  been  free 
to  dissolve  this  Parliament,  while  frankly  accepting  the  acts 
already  passed,  new  elections  would  doubtless  have  returned  a 
Parliament  of  more  moderate  composition.  Three  things  grad- 
ually widened  the  breach  between  the  king  and  the  Parliament. 
These  were  :  (i)  Charles's  determination  to  punish  the  opposi- 
tion leaders ;  (2)  their  wish  to  preserve  what  had  been  gained; 
(3)  the  agitation  by  some  of  the  members  for  more  radical  re- 
forms in  church  and  state.  Some  of  those  who  formerly  had 
opposed  Charles  now  rallied  to  his  support.  The  name  "  Cava- 
liers" was  soon  given  to  the  royalist  party;  while  their  oppo- 
nents, from  their  short-cut  hair,  in  contrast  with  the  cavalier's 
flowing  locks,  were  called  "Roundheads." 

In  the  latter  part  of  1641  a  rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland  which 
made  necessary  an  English  army  to  quell  it.  The  question  was 
raised  whether  it  was  safe  to  give  the  king  a  force  which  4g3.  Drift- 
might  be  used,  after  Ireland  was  pacified,  to  put  down  ins  into  war 
the  Parliament  itself  and  undo  its  work.  It  was  known  that 
Charles  had  already  endeavored  fruitlessly  to  get  together 
soldiers  for  this  purpose.  To  Pym  it  seemed  necessary  to  take 
the  control  of  the  government  and  of  the  army  out  of  the  king's 
hands.  Accordingly  a  document  called  the  Grand  Remon- 
strance was  drawn  up,  in  which  all  the  king's  acts  of  misgovern- 
ment  since  the  beginning  of  his  reign  were  set  forth.  It  de- 
manded that  the  government  should  be  put  in  the  hands  of 
ministers  responsible  to  Parliament,  otherwise  no  money  would 
be  voted  to  carry  on  the  government.  The  Grand  Remon- 
strance was  carried,  amid  great  excitement,  by  the  small  ma- 


412         CONSTITUTIONAL   MONARCHY   IN   ENGLAND 

jority  of  eleven  votes.  "If  it  had  been  rejected,"  said  Oliver 
Gardiner,  Cromwell,  who  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
England  x  mons>  "I  would  have  sold  all  I  had  the  next  morning,  and 
78  never  seen  England  more." 

The  king  refused  the  demands  of  the  Grand  Remonstrance, 
and  prepared  a  counterstroke.  It  was  known  that  Pym  and 
four  other  leaders  of  Parliament  had  been  in  communication 
with  the  Scottish  rebels.  Technically  this  was  treason.  With 
a  large  body  of  armed  courtiers  Charles  went  to  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  sought  to  arrest  the  accused  persons.  The 
Speaker  of  the  House,  when  called  upon  by  the  king  to  point 
out  the  members  named,  replied,  "May  it  please  your  Majesty, 
I  have  neither  eyes  to  see  nor  tongue  to  speak  in  this  place,  but 
as  the  House  is  pleased  to  direct  me."  "Well,  well,"  answered 
Charles,  "  'tis  no  matter.  I  think  my  eyes  are  as  good  as  an- 
other's." But  "the  birds  were  flown,"  and  the  arbitrary  at- 
tempt of  the  king  to  arrest  them  only  injured  his  cause. 

Over  the  question  of  the  control  of  the  army,  which  involved 
the  question  whether  the  king  or  Parliament  should  rule,  the 
two  parties  drifted  into  civil  war. 

B.   THE  GREAT  CIVIL  WAR  (1642-1649) 

In  this  contest  the  north  and  west  —  the  poorer  and  more 
backward  parts  of  England  —  were  royalist,  while  the  richer 
8     Parties   anc^  more  progressive  south  and  east  adhered  to  Parlia- 
in  the  civil      ment.     Socially,  the  middle  classes   (including  the  Lon- 
doners) were  parliamentarians ;   while  a  great  part  of  the 
gentry,  and  most  of  the  nobles  —  save  a  small  number  who  con- 
tinued attendance  in  the  House  of  Lords  —  supported  the  king. 
The  navy,  the  arsenals,  and  the  machinery  of  taxation  were  all 
in  the  hands  of  Parliament. 

Both  sides  sought  allies.  In  1643  the  parliamentarians  en- 
tered into  a  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  with  the  Scots,  by 
which  a  reformation  of  religion  in  England  and  Ireland  was 
pledged  "according  to  the  Word  of  God,  and  the  example  of 


THE   GREAT   CIVIL   WAR 


413 


the  best  reformed  churches."  This  was  understood  to  mean 
the  establishing  of  Presbyterianism ;  only  on  that  understand- 
ing would  the  Scots 
furnish  troops, 
whose  expenses  were 
to  be  borne  by  Par- 
liament. The  king 
in  the  same  year 
came  to  terms  with 
the  Irish  rebels,  and 
sought  to  bring  over 
armies  from  Ireland 
and  the  Continent. 

Hampden     and 
Pym  died  early  in  the 


war.    Oliver  485.  Vic- 
tories of 
the  parlia- 
mentarians 


ENGLAND  IN  THE  CIVIL  WAR  (1642) 


Cro  mwel  1 , 
who  was  an 
earnest,  God-fear- 
ing man,  organized 
a  body  of  cavalry, 
like-minded  with 
himself,  who  were 
styled  the  "Iron- 
sides." The  efficiency  of  these  troops  and  Cromwell's  own 
tactical  genius  brought  him  more  and  more  into  promi- 
nence as  the  war  went  on.  On  the  king's  side,  the  most 
brilliant  officer  was  Charles's  nephew,  Prince  Rupert,  the  son 
of  a  German  Protestant  prince.  The  first  great  reverse  sus- 
tained by  Charles  was  at  Marston  Moor  (July,  1644),  when 
Cromwell's  Ironsides  and  the  Scots  overthrew  Rupert  and  the 
royalists.  This  secured  the  north  of  England  for  Parliament. 
The  feeling  that  the  first  generals  of  the  parliamentary  army, 
who  were  chiefly  nobles,  were  disinclined  to  follow  up  their 
victories  against  the  king  led  (in  1645)  to  the  passage  of  the 
"Self-denying  Ordinance."  This  provided  that  all  officers  who 


414         CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND 

were  members  of  either  House  of  Parliament  should  lay  down 
their  commands.     Cromwell,  however,  was  reappointed,  and 

the  army  was  reorganized  under  him 
as  lieutenant  general.  In  1645  the 
second  decisive  victory  over  the 
king  was  won  at  Naseby.  The  roy-  , 
alist  forces  were  there  practically  de-  ' 
stroyed;  and  copies  of  Charles's 
private  letters  were  captured,  show- 
ing his  intrigues  and  untrustworthi- 
ness.  In  May,  1646,  Charles  gave 
himself  up  to  the  Scots,  thinking  to 
obtain  better  terms  from  them  than 

from  his  English  subjects. 

OLIVER  CROMWELL  J         . 

_  .    .          The  religious  question  in  England 

From   the   contemporary  painting  °         ^ 

by  Van  der  Faes  meanwhile  took  a  new   turn.     An 

assembly  of  clergy  and  laity,  called 

by  Parliament,  sat  from  1643  to  ^47  •     It  framed  the  famous 
Westminster   Confession,  which  contained  Presbyterian  prin- 
ciples, including  the  abolition  of  bishops  and  disuse  of  the  prayer 
book.    The  Presbyterians  controlled  Parliament  and  sought  to 
force  their  principles  upon  the  nation.      But  in  the  army  the 
majority  were  Independents,  or  radical  Puritans,  who  opposed  an 
established  church  of  any  sort,  and  favored  religious  toleration. 
When  Charles  surrendered,  the  Scots,  Parliament,  and  the 
army  all  tried  their  hands  at  negotiating  with  him.     In  1648 
486  Nego-     ke  succeeded,  although  a  prisoner,  in  stirring  up  a  second 
tiations  with    civil  war.     In  this  conflict  the  Scots,  who  now  supported 
the  king's  cause,  were  routed  by  Cromwell  at  Preston. 
The  army  officers,  convinced  at  last  of  the  folly  of  further  deal- 
ings with  Charles,  joined  in  demanding  that  he  be  brought  to 
trial.     When  Parliament,  after  passing  measures  directed  against 
the  Independents,  voted  to  reopen  negotiations  with  the  king, 
a  body  of  troops  under  Colonel  Pride  took  possession  of  the 
Parliament  House,  and  excluded  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
Presbyterian  members  from  that  body  (1648). 


THE   COMMONWEALTH   AND   PROTECTORATE         415 

After  " Pride's  Purge,"  the  "Rump"  (that  is,  the  sitting  por- 
tion of  Parliament)  seldom  numbered  more  than  sixty  members, 
and  of  course  did  not  really  represent  the  country.     Never-  487.  Exe- 
theless  it  appointed  a  High  Court  of  Justice,  which  tried  ™tion  of 
the  king  and  condemned  him  to  death  as  "a  tyrant,  traitor,   (jan.  30) 
murderer,  and  public  enemy  to  the  good  people  of  this   l649) 
nation."    Throughout  the  trial  indications  were  given  that  the 
proceedings  were  not  approved  even  by  Londoners.    Neverthe- 
less, on  January  30,  1649,  Charles  was  publicly  beheaded.     He 
bore  himself  with  quiet  dignity  and  religious  resignation,  and 
his  death  went  far  to  remove  the  unfavorable  impression  created 
by  his  rmsgovernment  and  intrigues.     His  great  error  lay  Dicey  Law 
in  trying  "to  substitute  the  personal  will  of  Charles  Stuart  of  the  Con- 
fer the  legal  will  of  the  king  of  England." 

C.  THE  COMMONWEALTH  AND  PROTECTORATE  (1649-1660) 

The  Rump  declared  that  "the  people  are,  under  God,  the 
source  of  all  just  power."     Assuming  to  act  in  their  name, 
it  declared  the  monarchy  and  House  of  Lords  abolished,   488.  The 
and    made    England    a   Commonwealth,   or  free    state,  £°2th°n~ 
under  an  executive  council  of  forty-one  members.  (1649-1653) 

The  Commonwealth  was  threatened  from  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land by  the  adherents  of  Charles's  son,  whom  the  Scots  pro- 
claimed as  Charles  II.  In  Ireland  Cromwell  took  two  places 
by  storm  and  put  the  garrisons  to  the  sword,  as  a  means 
"to  prevent  the  effusion  of  blood  for  the  future."  In  Septem^ 
ber,  1650,  he  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  upon  the  Scots  at  Dunbar. 
The  next  summer  young  Charles  II  made  a  dash  into  England, 
where  the  royalists  were  expected  to  rise  to  his  assistance.  This 
expectation  was  disappointed,  and  the  Scots  were  overwhelm- 
ingly defeated  at  Worcester.  Prince  Charles  escaped  to  France 
after  six  weeks  of  thrilling  adventures.  For  the  next  nine  years 
Scotland  was  forcibly  united  to  England. 

New  dissensions  meanwhile  arose  between  the  army  and  Par- 
liament. Cromwell  and  the  army  desired  that  elections  be  held 
for  a  new  Parliament,  but  the  members  of  the  Rump  insisted 


41 6         CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY   IN   ENGLAND 

that  they  should  sit  in  the  new  body  and  have  a  veto  on  the 
election  of  the  new  members.  In  April,  1653,  Cromwell  ended 
the  matter  by  forcibly  turning  out  the  Rump.1  He  then  called 
together  an  assembly  of  persons  nominated  by  the  Independent 
pastors  of  the  three  kingdoms.  This  assembly  was  popularly 
styled  "Barebone's  Parliament,"  from  a  London  member 
named  Praise-God  Barebone. 

The  failure  of  this  body  to  deal  satisfactorily  with  matters 
of  government  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  written  constitution 
480  The        called  the  Instrument  of  Government.     Under  this  con- 
Protectorate    stitution  Cromwell  was  named  Lord  Protector  of  England, 
(1653-1659)    Scotland,  and  Ireland.     The  Protector,  together  with  a 
council  of  not  less  than  thirteen  persons,  constituted   the  ex- 
ecutive.    All  legislative  power  was  vested  in  a  Parliament  of  a 
single  chamber.     Like  the  American  constitutions,  the  Instru- 
ment of  Government  was  a  rigid  constitution,  containing  pro- 
visions which  could  not  be  changed  by  ordinary  legislation.     It 
was  the  only  written  constitution  that  England  has  ever  had. 
In  foreign  affairs  Cromwell's  government  was  very  successful, 
and  he  made  England  more  respected  abroad  than  she  had  ever 

1  "Come,  come,  I  will  put  an  end  to  your  prating,"  cried  Cromwell.  "You  are 
no  Parliament,  I  say  you  are  no  Parliament;  I  will  put  an  end  to  your  sitting. 
Call  them  in,  call  them  in."  Whereupon  the  sergeant  attending  the  Parliament 
opened  the  doors,  and  two  files  of  musketeers  entered  the  House ;  which  Sir  Henry 
Vane,  observing  from  his  place,  said  aloud,  "  This  is  not  honest,  yea,  it  is  against 
morality  and  common  honesty."  Then  Cromwell  fell  a-railing  at  him,  crying  out 
with  a  loud  voice,  "  O  Sir  Henry  Vane,  Sir  Henry  Vane,  the  Lord  deliver  me  from 
Sir  Henry  Vane."  Then  looking  upon  one  of  the  members,  he  said,  "There  sits  a 
drunkard" ;  and  giving  much  reviling  language  to  others,  he  commanded  the  mace 
[the  symbol  of  the  House's  authority]  to  be  taken  away,  saying,  "  What  shall  we'  do 
with  this  bauble?  Here,  take  it  away."  Having  brought  all  into  this  disorder, 
Major-General  Harrison  went  to  the  Speaker  as  he  sat  in  the  chair,  and  told  him 
that  it  would  not  be  convenient  for  him  to  remain  there.  The  Speaker  answered 
that  he  would  not  come  down  unless  he  were  forced.  "Sir,"  said  Harrison,  "I 
will  lend  you  my  hand";  and  thereupon  putting  his  hand  within  his,  the  Speaker 
came  down.  Then  Cromwell  applied  himself  to  the  members  of  the  House,  who  were 
in  number  between  eighty  and  one  hundred,  and  said  to  them,  "It's  you  that  have 
forced  me  to  this,  for  I  have  sought  the  Lord  night  and  day  that  he  would  rather 
slay  me  than  put  me  upon  the  doing  of  this  work."  —  Edmund  Ludlow,  Memoirs, 
I  3J4- 


THE    COMMONWEALTH  AND   PROTECTORATE         417 

been  since  Elizabeth's  day.1  In  internal  affairs  the  Protector- 
ate proved  a  failure,  because  it  was  based  upon  the  support  of  the 
army,  and  not  upon  the  free  consent  of  the  nation.  When  the 
first  Parliament  under  the  Protectorate  met,  in  1654,  its  members 
insisted  on  debating  the  advisability  of  "government  by  a 
single  person,"  and  otherwise  called  in  question  the  constitution 
under  which  they  were  assembled.  Cromwell  therefore  dis- 
missed them  at  the  earliest  moment  possible ;  and  royalist  plots 
for  a  time  led  him  to  assume  the  powers  of  a  dictator. 

In  1656  Cromwell  again  called  a  Parliament,  and  after  ex- 
cluding some  ninety  members  from  their  seats,  he  got  along 
smoothly  with  the  rest.  They  even  offered  the  crown  to  Crom- 
well, and  proposed  the  formation  of  a  "second  house"  of  Par- 
liament. Cromwell  declined  the  crown,  but  organized  the 
second  chamber.  New  difficulties  forced  him,  in  February, 
1658,  to  dissolve  this  Parliament,  as  he  had  done  in  the  case  of 
its  predecessor.  On  September  3  of  the  same  year,  —  the  an- 
niversary of  the  battles  of  Dunbar  and  Worcester,  —  Cromwell 
died.  He  had  not  sought  power,  neither  had  he  shirked  it; 
and  while  it  was  in  his  hands,  he  administered  the  government 
honestly  and  ably.  In  his  wish  to  grant  toleration  to  all  Prot- 
estant Christians,  whether  Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  or 
Independents,  he  was  in  advance  of  his  time.2 

1  For  Cromwell's  Navigation  Act,  and  war  with  the  Dutch  Netherlands,  see  §  450. 

2  The  poet  Milton  in  1652  wrote  this  noble  sonnet  on  Cromwell:  — 

"Cromwell,  our  chief  of  men,  who  through  a  cloud 

Not  of  war  only,  but  detractions  rude, 

Guided  by  faith  and  matchless  fortitude, 
To  peace  and  truth  thy  glorious  way  hast  ploughed, 
And  on  the  neck  of  crowned  Fortune  proud 

Hast  reared  God's  trophies,  and  his  work  pursued ; 

While  Darween  stream,  with  blood  of  Scots  imbrued, 
And  Dunbar  field,  resound  thy  praises  loud, 
And  Worcester  laureate  wreath.     Yet  much  remains 

To  conquer  still ;  Peace  hath  her  victories 

No  less  renowned  than  War ;  new  foes  arise, 
Threatening  to  bind  our  souls  with  secular  chains. 

Help  us  to  save  free  conscience  from  the  paw 

Of  Hireling  wolves,  whose  Gospel  is  their  maw." 


418         CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY   IN  ENGLAND 

Oliver's  son,  Richard  Cromwell,  succeeded  him  as  Protector. 

But  the  son  had  neither  the  force  of  character  nor  the  hold  on  the 

490.  Res-       army  possessed  by  the  father.     Quarrels  arose  between 

thTstuart      tne  "Protectorate  Parliament  and  the  army,  and  Richard 

line  (1660)      permitted  the  latter  to  turn  out  the  Parliament.     The 

Rump  was  then  restored.      Richard  Cromwell  was  soon  forced 

to  abdicate  and  retire  to  private  life  (1659).     The  Rump  then 

quarreled  with  the  army,  was  again  expelled,  and  again  restored. 

By  this  time  England  was  heartily  tired  of  Commonwealth  and 

Protectorate  alike,1  and  was  ready  to  welcome  the  restoration 

1  The  sentiments  with  which  a  great  part  of  the  English  people  welcomed  the 
restoration  are  shown  in  a  royalist  poem  entitled  "A  Litany  for  the  New  Year" 
(1660):  — 

"From  all  and  more  that  I  have  written  here, 
I  wish  you  protected  this  New  Year ; 
From  Civil  war  and  such  uncivil  things 
As  ruin  Law  and  Gospel,  Priests  and  Kings ; 
From  those  who  for  self-ends  would  all  betray, 
And  from  such  new  Saints  that  Pistol  when  they  pray, 
From  flattering  Faces  with  infernal  Souls, 
From  new  Reformers,  such  as  pull  down  [St.]  Paul's, 
From  Linsy-woolsy  Lords,  and  from  Town  betrayers, 
From  Apron  Preachers,  and  extempore  Prayers, 
From  Pulpit-blasphemy  and  bold  Rebellion, 
From  Blood  and  —  something  else  I  could  tell  ye  on, 
From  new  false  Teachers  which  destroy  the  old, 
From  those  that  turn  the  Gospel  into  Gold, 
From  that  black  Pack  where  Clubs  are  always  Trump, 
From  Bodies  Politic  and  from  the  Rump, 
From  those  that  ruin  when  they  should  repair, 
From  such  as  cut  off  Heads  instead  of  Hair, 
From  twelve-months'  Taxes  and  abortive  Votes, 
From  chargeable  Nurse-Children  in  red  Coats  [soldiers], 
From  such  as  sell  their  Souls  to  save  their  Sums, 
From  City  Charters  that  make  Heads  for  Drums, 
From  Magistrates  that  have  no  truth  or  knowledge, 
From  the  red  Students  now  in  Gresham  College, 
From  sweet  Sir  Arthur's  [Sir  Arthur  Haslerig,  a  member 

of  the  Rump]  Knights  of  the  Round  Table, 
From  City  Saints  whose  anagram  is  Stains, 
From  Plots  and  being  choked  with  our  own  Chains, 
From  these  and  ten  times  more  which  may  ensue, 
The  Poet  prays,  Good  Lord  deliver  you"  —  The  Rump,  II,  94-95. 


THE   RESTORED   STUARTS 


419 


of  the  legitimate  monarch.  George  Monk,  a  strong,  silent 
general,  who  had  taken  no  part  in  recent  squabbles,  marched 
to  London  with  the  northern  troops,  and  forced  the  Rump  to 
admit  the  members  expelled  by  Pride  in  1648.  The  recon- 
stituted assembly  then  ordered  a  new  election,  and  voted  its 
own  dissolution  (March,  1660). 

This  ended  the  Long  Parliament,  twenty  years  after  its  first 
assembling.  Its  republic  had  failed,  but  it  had  forever  put 
barriers  to  the  absolutism  of  the  crown.  Thenceforth  no  king 
could  get  along  without  Parliament,  as  Charles  I  had  once 
done ;  and  its  part  in  the  government  steadily  grew  larger. 

D.  THE  RESTORED  STUARTS  AND  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1688 

The  Convention  Parliament,  as  the  new  assembly  was  styled, 
proceeded  at  once  to  call  Charles  II  to  the  throne,  and  restore 

the  old  unwritten  consti-  4QI  Char_ 
tution.  The  new  monarch  acter  of  the 
was  a  man  of  great  natu-  restoration 
ral  sagacity,  but  indolent  and 
grossly  immoral.  He  came 
back  with  the  fixed  determina- 
tion "never  to  set  out  on  his 
travels  again";  so  he  did  not 
hesitate  to  give  way  ori  any 
point  when  circumstances  com- 
pelled him  to.  Thirteen  per- 
sons implicated  in  the  execution 
of  Charles  I  were  put  to  death. 
The  Puritanic  mode  of  life, 
which  had  been  forced  upon 
the  country  in  the  preceding 

period,  was  followed  by  a  flood  of  gay  immorality,  of  which 
the  king's  court  was  the  center. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  those  chiefly  responsible  for  Charles 
II's  restoration  were  Presbyterians,  the  next  (Cavalier)  Parlia- 
ment (1661-1679)  showed  itself  violently  intolerant  of  every- 


WOMAN'S  DRESS  IN  COURT  OF 
CHARLES  II 


420         CONSTITUTIONAL   MONARCHY   IN  ENGLAND 

thing  which  differed  from  the  Church  of  England.     Nearly  two 
thousand  Puritan  ministers  were  expelled  from  their  churches. 
492.  Per-       The  holding  of  religious  assemblies  which  were  not  accord- 
dissenters      *n&  ^°  ^e  Church  of  England  was  forbidden  under  heavy 
(1660-1685)    penalties.    The  dispossessed  ministers  were  debarred  from 
acting  as  teachers  or  living  in  the  boroughs.     No  person  could 
hold  a  borough  office  who  did  not  receive  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  according  to  the  way^  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

From  this  time  there  existed,  along  with  the  established 
church,  a  large  body  of  Protestant  dissenters,  —  Presbyterians, 
Baptists,  Quakers,  and  the  like.  Their  ranks  contained  the  no- 
blest English  writers  of  that  time.  John  Milton,  the  blind  author 
of  Paradise  Lost,  was  for  ten  years  secretary  of  the  Council  of 
State  under  Cromwell,  and  in  his  prose  writings  defended  the 
Puritan  cause.  John  Bunyan  also  embodied  the  ideas  of  the 
dissenters  in  his  prose  allegory  entitle  Pilgrim's  Progress. 

In  his  foreign  policy  Charles  II  aided  Louis  XIV  of  France,  in 
return  for  money  to  spend  upon  his  pleasures.     But  in  his  two 
wars  against  the  Dutch  (1665-1667  and  1672-1674)  he 
Charles's       was  also  following  the  policy,  begun  by  Cromwell,  of 
favor  to         building  up  English  shipping  against  foreign  rivals, 
causes  con-        At  heart  Charles  was  a  Catholic,  so  far  as  he  was  any- 
ffict  thing,  and  wished  to  secure  toleration  for  his  Catholic  sub- 

jects. To  test  public  opinion,  his  brother  and  heir,  James,  duke  of 
York,  declared  his  adherence  to  the  Roman  Church.  In  1672 
Charles  issued  a  Declaration  of  Indulgence,  suspending  the  laws 
which  imposed  disabilities  on  Catholic  and  Protestant  dissenters. 
He  based  his  right  to  do  this  on  what  was  called  his  "dispensing 
power,"  —  that  is,  the  right  claimed  by  the  king  to  suspend  the  ex- 
ecution of  practically  any  law.  But  the  "dispensing  power  "  was 
attacked  as  illegal,  and  the  declaration  was  withdrawn.  Parlia- 
ment then  (1673)  passed  a  Test  Act,  which  excluded  Catholics 
from  offices  in  the  gift  of  the  crown.1  Five  years  later  the  ex- 
clusion was  extended  to  Catholic  members  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

1  The  act  was  so  framed  that  it  excluded  Protestant  dissenters  as  well,  but  never- 
theless it  was  supported  by  them. 


THE   RESTORED   STUARTS  421 

As  Catholics  had  been  ineligible  for  the  Commons  since  the  days 
of  Elizabeth,  the  exclusion  now  extended  to  all  public  life. 

In  1678  England  went  wild  over  rumors  of  a  "Popish  plot"  , 
for  the  forcible  restoration  of  Catholicism.  Under  the  influence 
of  this  panic,  a  persistent  but  unsuccessful  attempt  was  whigs 
made  in  Parliament  to  pass  a  bill  excluding  the  duke  of  and  Tories 
York  (the  king's  brother)  from  the  succession  to  the  throne.  ^  72 
Over  this  question  arose  the  division  into  political  parties  in 
the  form  which  they  were  to  hold  for  more  than  a  century.  On 
the  one  side  stood  the  Tories,  who  laid  stress  upon  the  ideas  of 
hereditary  succession,  divine  right,  and  the  duty  of  nonresist- 
ance.  They  were  usually  stanch  supporters  of  the  established 
church.  On  the  other  side  were  the  Whigs,  who  leaned  to  tol- 
eration of  Protestant  dissenters,  and  looked  upon  the  king  as  a 
mere  official  who  was  subject  to  the  law,  and  bound  to  act  through 
ministers  responsible  to  Parliament.  The  reign  closed  in  1685, 
with  the  Tories  completely  triumphant,  and  Charles  at  the 
height  of  his  power.  The  greatest  gain  to  liberty  in  Charles 
II's  reign  was  the  passage  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  (in  1679), 
by  which  Englishmen  were  better  protected  against  arbitrary 
and  illegal  imprisonment.  The  French  did  riot  gain  such  safe- 
guards until  after  their  Revolution  of  1789. 

Two  great  calamities  of  this  reign  deserve  notice.     In  1665 
a  terrible  plague  swept  away  a  hundred  thousand  persons  in 
London   alone.     Next   year,  fire  destroyed  a  great  part          ^> 
of  the  city.     The  fire  ended  the  plague  by  burning  the  don  plague 
old  rat-infested  quarters;  and  out  of  the  ashes  soon  rose  re 

a  new  and  finer  London. 

In  spite  of  his  Catholic  faith  the  duke  of  York,  as  James  II, 
was  allowed  quietly  to  succeed  his  brother.1  James  possessed 
Charles  I's  narrow-mindedness  and  tenacity  of  opinion,  with- 
out his  ennobling  traits.  It  has  been  said  of  him  that,  "by  in- 

1  A  rebellion  which  aimed  to  set  upon  the  throne  the  Protestant  duke  of  Mon- 
mouth,  illegitimate  son  of  Charles  II  (1685),  met  with  little  support.  Monmouth 
was  put  to  death,  and  all  who  were  in  any  way  implicated  were  punished  in  the 
Bloody  Assize,  held  by  a  brutal  and  servile  judge  named  Jeffreys.  Blackmore's 
novel,  Lorna  Doone,  deals  with  these  events. 


422         CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND' 

credible   and   pertinacious    [obstinate]  folly,  he   irritated   not 
only  the  classes   which   had   fought  against    his    father,   but 
496.  Tyr-       also  those  that  had  fought  for  his  father."     The  opposi- 
James*!!        ^on  arose  chiefly  from  James's  efforts,  through  the  ex- 
(1685-1688)    ercise  of  the  "  dispensing  power,"  to  free  Catholics  from 
the  provisions  of  the  Test  Act  and  to  set  aside  all  laws  impos- 
Bagehot,         ing  religious  tests  for  offices.     James  thought  that  Prot- 
Constitution     estant  dissenters  would  support  his  policy,  but  their  fear 
351  of  a  Catholic  restoration  led  them  to  join  the  opposition. 

The  universities  and  clergy  especially  were  alienated  by  his  high- 
handed attempts  to  force  Catholics  into  university  offices. 

For  a  time  the  nation  bore  patiently  with  these  illegal  acts. 
James's  two  daughters  were  both  Protestants,  and  the  elder 
(Mary)  was  married  to  William  III  of  Orange  (§  452).  When 
James  should  die,  therefore,  a  Protestant  would  come  to  the 
throne.  In  1688,  however,  the  birth  of  a  son  gave  James 
an  heir  who  would  be  educated  as  a  Catholic,  since  James 
was  now  of  that  faith.  About  this  time,  also,  James  made  a 
second  attempt  to  set  aside  the  laws  against  Catholics  by  the 
use  of  his  "dispensing  power."  He  even  ordered  all  the  clergy- 
men throughout  England  to  read  this  edict  from  their  pulpits. 
Seven  of  the  leading  bishops,  in  spite  of  their  teaching  that  re- 
sistance to  the  king  was  sin,  presented  a  petition  to  the  king  ask- 
ing to  be  excused  from  doing  this.  For  their  petition  they  were 
prosecuted,  but  the  jury  acquitted  them  of  any  wrongdoing. 
This  unjust  prosecution  of  the  seven  bishops  brought  matters 
to  a  head.  Protestants  claimed  that  the  little  prince  was  not 
really  the  son  of  James  and  his  queen ;  and  \yhigs  and  Tories 
alike  united  in  an  appeal  to  William  III  of  Orange  to  save  Eng- 
land from  James's  tyranny. 

Unfortunately  for  James,  his  friend  Louis  XIV  had  directed 
the  French  armies  elsewhere  just  at  this  time,  thus  leaving 
497.  The  William  free  to  invade  England.  Scarcely  a  blow  was 
"  Glorious  struck  in  James's  behalf,  for  the  army  which  he  had  labo- 
tion  "  of  riously  built  up  proved  untrustworthy.  Deserted  by  prac- 
1688  tically  all  his  adherents,  he  lost  courage  and  fled  to  France. 


REVOLUTION  OF   1688  423 

Nothing  could  have  better  served  William's  interests.  A  Par- 
liament, called  on  the  advice  of  leading  peers,  decided:  (i) 
That  James  by  his  actions  had  abdicated  the  government,  and 
that  the  throne  was  vacant.  (2)  That  it  was  "  inconsistent  with 
the  safety  and  welfare  of  this  Protestant  kingdom  to  be  gov- 
erned by  a  Popish  prince."  (3)  That  the  throne  should  be 
offered  to  William  and  Mary  as  joint  sovereigns. 


THE  FLIGHT  OF  JAMES  II 
From  an  engraving  by  Romeyn  de  Hooghe 

A  declaration  of  the  "true,  ancient,  and  indubitable  rights 
of  the  people  of  this  realm"  was  then  made  in  the  Bill  of  Rights, 
which  settled  the  constitutional  questions  in  controversy.   498.  The 
It  included  the  following  points :  —  Rights 

1.  That  the  pretended  dispensing  power  by  which  James  had    ' 

evaded  the  laws  was  illegal. 

2.  That  the  people  have  the  right  to  petition  the  king. 

3.  That  keeping  a  standing  army  in  time  of  peace,  unless  by  consent 

of  Parliament,  is  illegal. 

4.  That  freedom  of  speech  and  of  debate  in  Parliament  ought  not 

to  be  questioned  in  any  court  or  place  outside  of  Parliament 
itself. 

5.  That  excessive  bail  ought  not  to  be  required  in  cases  at  law,  nor 


424         CONSTITUTIONAL   MONARCHY   IN   ENGLAND 

excessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  in- 
flicted. 

6.  William  and  Mary  were  proclaimed  king  and  queen  of  England,  and 
all  persons  who  were  Papists  or  who  should  marry  a  Papist  were 
declared  incapable  of  occupying  the  throne. 

The  Bill  of  Rights,  following  Magna  Carta  (1215)  and  the 
Petition  of  Right  (1628),  completed  the  structure  of  the  con- 
stitutional monarchy.  All  the  rulers  of  England,  since  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  have  owed  their  throne  ultimately  to  this 
act  of  Parliament.  That  fact  has  prevented  the  supremacy  of 
Parliament  ever  again  being  called  in  question. 

E.   STRENGTHENING  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT 

The  Catholic  population  of  Ireland  was  loyal  to  James  II, 
and  he  sought  to  regain  there  the  power  that  he  had  lost  in 
Wil  England.  But  he  was  defeated  by  William  in  the  battle 
liam  m  of  the  Boyne  (1690),  and  Ireland  was  soon  pacified.  The 
(1689-1702)  Scots  f0nowe(i  the  example  of  the  English  in  declaring 
James  deposed  and  in  accepting  William  and  Mary ;  but  some 
severe  fighting  was  necessary  before  James's  adherents  were 
forced  into  submission.  The  religious  question  in  England  was 
partly  solved,  in  1689,  by  the  passage  of  a  Toleration  Act.  This 
permitted  Protestant  dissenters,  under  certain  restrictions,  to 
set  up  their  worship  alongside  that  of  the  established  church. 
The  decline  of  religious  hatreds  to  which,  this  testifies  was  due 
in  part  to  the  growth  of  scientific  knowledge.  Sir  Isaac  Newton 
had  just  announced  his  discovery  of  the  laws  of  gravitation; 
the  composition  of  the  atmosphere  was  being  studied;  botany 
was  becoming  a  science ;  Harvey  had  discovered  the  circulation 
of  the  blood;  and  the  microscope  had  revealed  the  existence 
of  minute  animal  life.  Such  increased  knowledge  of  nature 
affected  men's  attitude  in  religion  also,  and  helped  to  produce 
a  growth  in  religious  toleration.  A  further  evidence  of  the 
progress  of  intelligence  is  seen  in  the  fact  that,  after  1712,  no 
executions  for  witchcraft  took  place  in  England. 


STRENGTHENING  CONSTITUTIONAL   GOVERNMENT     425 

William's  long  struggle  with  Louis  XIV  (described  in  the 
preceding  chapter)  was  the  chief  feature  of  England's  foreign 
relations  in  this  reign. /  In  constitutional  history  the  500.  In- 
strengthening  of  Parliament's  ascendancy  in  the  govern-  ^^  of 
ment  was  the  fact  of  chief  interest.  The  Triennial  Act  Parliament 
of  the  Long  Parliament  had  sought  to  make  sure  that  not  more 
than  three  years  should  elapse  without  a  Parliament.  A  new 
Triennial  Act  now  prohibited  the  continuance  of  a  Parliament 
for  more  than  three  years,  the  period  later  being  extended  to 
seven  years.1  Unlike  the  legislative  bodies  of  the  United  States, 
English  Parliaments  are  not  elected  for  a  fixed  term,  but  last 
until  dissolved.  They  must  come  to  an  end,  however,  before  the 
expiration  of  the  period  named  in  the  law.  Annual  sessions  of 
Parliament  were  secured  by  the  practice  of  voting  taxes  and  the 
army  bill  for  but  one  year  at  a  time.  If  the  government  should 
fail  to  call  Parliament  to  renew  these,  it  would  be  left  without 
legal  revenue  and  without  legal  means  of  controlling  the  army. 
This  practice  effectually  insures  that  the  government  will  heed 
the  voice  of  Parliament. 

The  development  of  the  Whig  and  Tory  parties,  with  their 
definite  political  principles,  made  it  easier  to  ascertain  the  voice 
of  Parliament.  Fully  organized  parliamentary  govern-  p.^ 
ment,  however,  required  also  a  center  df  influence.  This  of  Cabinet 
was  supplied  by  the  Cabinet.  In  its  present  form  the  g°vernment 
Cabinet  is  practically  a  committee  of  members  of  the  two  houses 
of  Parliament,  who  are  in  charge  of  the  administration  of  the 
government.  They  are  chosen  nominally  by  the  sovereign,  but 
really  by  the  prime  minister.  They  are  members  of  either  one 
or  the  other  of  the  two  houses  of  Parliament,  and  belong  to  the 
party  which  has  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
members  of  the  English  Cabinet  have  the  chief  executive  powers 
of  the  government,  and  are  also  the  leaders  of  the  legislative 
branch.  This  is  contrary  to  American  practice,  which  requires 
that  executive  and  legislative  powers  shall  not  be  united  in  the 
same  persons.  The  beginning  of  the  Cabinet  system  was 

1  In  1911  the  maximum  duration  of  Parliament  was  reduced  to  five  years. 


426         CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND 


made  in  1694,  when  William  for  the  first  time  chose  his  minis- 
ters entirely  from  one  political  party,  —  the  Whigs. 

Mary  died  in  1694,  and  William  in  1702.     They  left  no  chil- 
dren, and  the  throne  passed  to  Anne,  Mary's  younger  sister. 
502   Queen    ^he  ^onS  War  of    the  Spanish    Succession   (§§  457-461) 
Anne  (1702-  was  the  chief  feature  of  her  reign,  in  foreign  affairs.     In 
domestic  affairs  an  important  event  was  the  merging  of 
the  two  kingdoms  of  Scotland  and  England   into  the  single 
kingdom  of  Great  Britain  (1707).     By  the  terms  of  this  Act  of 
Union  the  Scottish  Parliament  came  to  an  end,  and  Scottish 
representatives  were  thenceforth  elected  to  both  houses  of  the 
English   Parliament.      Anne  was  a  stupid  but  good-natured 
woman,  and  struggles  between  Whigs  and  Tories  for  control  of 
the  government  fill  her  reign.     Although  Anne  had  many  chil- 
dren, they  were  weakly  and  died  young. 

In  1701  an  Act  of  Settlement  was  passed  which  provided  that, 
after  the  death  of  Anne,  the  throne  should  go  to  the  descendants 
of  the  electress  of  Hanover,  the  nearest  Protestant  family  de- 
scended from  the  house  of  Stuart.1  As  Anne's  death  drew  near, 

1  Hanover  (§  126)  was  given  a  vote  in  the  imperial  electoral  college  (the  ninth) 
in  1692  ;  it  became  a  kingdom  in  1815.  The  following  genealogy  shows  the  relation- 
ship of  the  house  of  Hanover  to  the  house  of  Stuart :  — 


JAMES  I  (160^-1625) 
Stuart  King  d  England 


(2)  CHARLES  I  (1625-1649) 


Elizabeth 


L 


•  Frederick  V 
Elector  Palatine 


Mary 
m.  William  II 
of  Orange 

(3)  CHARLES  II 
(1660-1685) 

Duke  of  Monmouth 

(4)  JAMES  II 
(1685-1688)         Rupert 
(d.  1701)          (d.  1682) 

Sophia 
Electress 
of  Hanover 

(7)  GEORGE  1 
(1714-1727) 

(8)  GEORGE  II 
(1727-1760) 

Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales 
(d.  1751) 

(9)  GEORGE  III 
(1760-1820) 
(see  p.  639) 

(  5  )  WILLIAM  HI=MARY        (6)  ANNE 
(1680-1702)         (d.  1694)    (1702-1714) 

James  Edward 
the  Old  Pretender 
(d.  1766) 
I 
Charles  Edward, 
the  Young  Pretender 
(d.  1788) 

STRENGTHENING  CONSTITUTIONAL  GOVERNMENT      427 

the  Tories,  who  were  then  in  power,  opposed  the  Hanoverian 
succession.  It  was  only  the  sudden  termination  of  Anne's  last 
illness,  and  the  firmness  of  the  Whig  leaders,  that  prevented  a 
second  Stuart  restoration. 

George  I  (1714-1727),  the  first  Hanoverian  king  of  Great 
Britain,  was  commonplace  and  a  thorough  German.1  His 
ignorance  of  the  English  language  led  him  to  absent  him-  503.  First 
self  from  Cabinet  meetings,  thus  establishing  a  precedent  ^ans"" 
which  greatly  increased  the  independence  of  the  ministry.  (1714-1760) 
A  "Jacobite"  rising  in  favor  of  the  Old  Pretender  (James  Ed- 
ward, son  of  James  II),  in  1715,  was  easily  put  down.  A  daring 
invasion  by  the  Young  Pretender  (Charles  Edward,  grandson  of 
James  II),  in  1745,  which  penetrated  from  Scotland  to  the  heart 
of  England  and  caused  a  panic  at  London,  failed  equally  be- 
cause of  a  lack  of  English  support.  The  government  under 
both  George  I  and  George  II  (1727-1760)  was  for  twenty-one 
years  in  the  hands  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  the  first  real  prime 
minister  in  English  history.  His  policy  was  to  strengthen  the 
Hanoverian  dynasty,  maintain  peace,  and  allow  free  develop- 
ment to  English  industry  and  commerce.  He  was  supported 
by  the  Whig  party,  which  was  composed  largely  of  dissenters 
and  the  middle  classes.  He  was  opposed  by  the  Tory  squires 
and  Anglican  clergymen,  who  long  preserved  a  secret  loyalty 
to  the  exiled  Stuarts.  This  period  is  characterized  by  the  pros- 
perity of  agriculture  and  commerce,  the  wide  prevalence  of 
political  corruption,  and  a  great  religious  revival  under  John  and 
Charles  Wesley  (the  "Methodists  "). 

In  England,  Germany,  and  France  the  literature  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  possessed  certain  features  in  common,  in  spite 
of  local  peculiarities.  In  the  early  part  of  the  century  it  was  ar- 

1  Hanover  was  connected  with  the  British  crown  from  the  accession  of  George  I 
in  1714  to  the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria  in  1837.  Though  Great  Britain  and 
Hanover  were  subject  to  the  same  sovereign,  their  governments  were  entirely  sep 
arate  and  independent.  Hanover  was  usually  ruled  by  a  deputy  who  was  responsible 
to  the  king-elector.  Both  George  I  and  George  II  preferred  Hanover  to  England 
as  a  place  of  residence,  and  spent  a  considerable  part  of  their  time  in  their-txmti- 
nental  dominion. 


428         CONSTITUTIONAL   MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND 

tificial  and  closely  followed  classical  forms.     In  the  latter  par 
came  a  return  to  nature  and  the  beginning  of  what  is  known  a& 

504.  English   the  Romantic  movement.     In  Great  Britain,  the  first  half 

the'efeht  "*    °f  the  centur>"  saw  tne  works  of  Addison  and  Steele,  joint 
eenth  authors    of    the    polished    essays    called    the    Spectator; 

century  of  jonathan  Swift,  the  satirist ;  of  Defoe,  best  known  by 
his  Robinson  Crusoe;  and  of  the  poet  Alexander  Pope  (1688- 
1744).  The  second  half  of  the  century  saw  the  works  of  Field- 
ing and  Richardson,  who  developed  the  modern  English  novel ; 
the  essays  and  English  dictionary  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (1709- 
1784),  whose  life  was  entertainingly  written  by  his  friend  Boswell ; 
and  the  history  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
by  Edward  Gibbon.  The  reaction  toward  Romanticism  is  seen 
in  the  Scottish  poet,  Robert  Burns  (1759-1796). 

It  was  England's  insular  position  which  had  protected  her 
from  foreign  interference  while  passing  through  the  political 

505.  Sum-     crises  of  the  seventeenth  century,  as  it  had  while  passing 
maryof         through  the  religious  revolution  of  the  sixteenth.     Three 
toryinthe8"  Passi°ns  animated  Englishmen  in  this  period:  — 
seventeenth        (i)  The    sentiment    of   loyalty,    which    long    protected 

Charles  I,  recalled  Charles  II  from  exile,  and  disturbed 
the  security  of  the  Hanoverians  by  Jacobite  risings. 

(2)  Hatred  of  Catholicism,  which  put  Charles  I   to   death, 
raised  up  Cromwell,  and  exiled  James  II. 

(3)  Attachment  to  political  liberty.     "When  the  quarrel  be- 
tween the  loyalists  and  the  anti-papists  had  been  settled,  and 

Lavisse,          foreigners, — first  a  Dutchman  and  then  the  Hanoverians,  *? 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  the  dominant  passion 
became  that  of  liberty."     Under  the  system  of  govern- 
ment which  followed,  Parliament  could  do  almost  everything 
without   the   king,  but  he  could  do  nothing   without  Parlia- 
ment.    "  Against  its  own  government  the  country   defended 
itself  by  means  of  its  rights  and  liberties.     It  had  private  rights, 
whereby  the  person  of  an  Englishman,  his  domicile,  and  his 
purse  were  rendered  inviolable  against  all  illegal  acts ;   and  pub- 
lic rights,  —  namely,  the  right  of  complaint  and  petition,  the 


TOPICS  AND    REFERENCES 


429 


right  of  meeting,  the  right  of  association,  the  right  to  speak  and 
to  write.  England  was  free ;  indeed,  in  the  eighteenth  century 
she  was  the  only  free  nation  in  the  world." 


IMPORTANT  DATES 

1603.  Stuarts  ascend  the  throne  in  the  person  of  James  I. 

1607.  Virginia  colony  founded. 

1625.  Accession  of  Charles  I. 

1628.  Petition  of  Right  passed. 

1620-1640.  Period  of  arbitrary  government. 

1640.  Long  Parliament  assembled. 

1642.  Civil  war  between  king  and  Parliament  begun. 

1649.  Execution  of  Charles  I;  England  becomes  a  republic. 

1658.  Death  of  Cromwell. 

1660.  Long  Parliament  dissolved  and  the  Stuarts  restored. 

1685.  Death  of  Charles  H. 

1688.  Flight  of  James  II  (the  "Glorious  Revolution"). 

1689.  William  and  Mary  seated  on  the  throne;  Bill  of  Rights  passed. 
1702.  Accession  of  Queen  Anne. 

1714.  Hanoverian  line  ascends  the  throne  with  George  I. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Why  did  absolute  monarchy  not  succeed  in 
England  as  it  did  in  France?  (2)  In  the  contest  between  James  I  and  his 
Parliaments,  which  was  seeking  to  introduce  a  change?  (3)  What  were 
the  chief  causes  of  the  failure  of  Charles  I  as  king  ?  (4)  Was  the  execution 
of  Strafford  and  Laud  just  or  unjust  ?  (5)  Was  toleration  in  religion  most 
likely  to  come  from  Charles  I,  the  Long  Parliament,  the  Scots,  or  the  army  ? 
(6)  Was  the  execution  of  Charles  just  or  unjust  ?  Was  it  expedient  or  in- 
expedient ?  (7)  Was  Cromwell  an  ambitious  usurper  or  a  sincere  patriot  ? 
(8)  Was  Charles  II  a  good  or  a  bad  king?  Why?  (9)  Why  did  all  sects 
of  English  Protestants  unite  in  refusing  toleration  to  Roman  Catholics  in 
the  seventeenth  century?  (10)  Why  did  Englishmen  turn  to  William  III 
of  Orange?  (n)  Did  the  Bill  of  Rights  enact  new  principles ?  (12)  Re- 
view the  steps  in  the  growth  of  Parliament  before  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. (13)  What  were  the  chief  developments  in  the  seventeenth 
century  with  respect  to  Parliament  ?  (14)  How  did  the  Hanoverian 
succession  help  the  growth  of  constitutional  principles  ? 

Search  Topics.— (i)  RISE  OF  PURITANISM.  Green,  Short  History,  460- 
469.  Compare  Gardiner,  Puritan  Revolution,  1-6,  13-17,  with  Firth, 


43° 


CONSTITUTIONAL  MONARCHY  IN  ENGLAND 


Oliver  Cromwell,  10-11.  —  (2)  PURITAN  EMIGRATION  TO  NORTH  AMERICA. 
Fiske,  Beginnings  of  New  England,  chs.  ii,  iii ;  Green,  Short  History,  505- 
509.  —  (3)  STUART  ABUSE  OF  THE  PREROGATIVE.  Montague,  Constitutional 
History,  120-124;  Dale,  Principles  of  English  Constitutional  History,  313- 
321;  Hallam,  Constitutional  History,  ch.  viii.  —  (4)  LAUD'S  RELIGIOUS 
POLICY.  Gardiner,  Student's  History,  516-521;  Green,  Short  History, 
509-513.  —  (5)  JOHN  HAMPDEN  AND  THE  SHIP  MONEY  CASE.  Macaulay, 
Essays  ("John  Hampden");  Green,  Short  History,  528-531.  —  (6)  JOHN 
PYM.  Goldwin  Smith,  Three  English  Statesmen.  —  (7)  ATTEMPTED  ARREST 
OF  THE  FIVE  MEMBERS.  Green,  Short  History,  544-546 ;  Cheyney,  Read- 
ings, 460-463.  —  (8)  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  CHARLES  I.  Green,  Short 
History,  571-572;  Cheyney,  Readings,  485-494.  —  (9)  OLIVER  CROMWELL. 
Morley,  Cromwell,  1-6,  461-472;  Firth,  Cromwell,  ch.  xxiii;  Gardiner, 
Cromwell's  Place  in  History,  lect.  6.  —  (10)  CHARLES  II  AND  THE  REACTION 
AGAINST  PURITANISM.  Green,  Short  History,  605-608,  629-632 ;  Macaulay, 
History  of  England,  I,  ch.  iii.  —  (n)  GREAT  FIRE  IN  LONDON.  Cheyney, 
Readings,  524-528;  Henderson,  Side  Lights  on  English  History,  124-142; 
Pepys,  Diary  (for  Sept.  2-6,  1666).  —  (12)  REVOLUTION  OF  1688.  Traill, 
William  III,  19-55  j  Gardiner,  Student's  History,  643-648 ;  Green,  Short 
History,  677-683.  —  (13)  RISE  OF  THE  CABINET.  Montague,  English 
Constitutional  History,  163-173;  Morley,  Walpole,  ch.  vii.  —  (14)  UNION 
OF  SCOTLAND  AND  ENGLAND.  Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
II,  52-66;  Montague,  English  Constitutional  History,  158-161. 

General  Reading.  —  Gardiner's  First  Two  Stuarts  and  the  Puritan  Revolu- 
tion is  the  best  short  book  on  the  subject  of  this  chapter.  His  larger  works 
(17  vols.)  are  the  standard  authority,  but  are  too  comprehensive  for  high 
school  use.  Morley's  Cromwell  is  also  excellent.  Macaulay's  History  of  Eng- 
land (various  editions)  deals  with  the  period  from  1685  to  1701 ;  the  third 
chapter  gives  a  brilliant  account  of  the  state  of  society  at  the  accession  of 
James  II.  Pepys's  Diary  is  full  of  interest  for  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Ad- 
vanced students  may  make  use  of  the  admirable  articles  in  the  Dictionary 
of  National  Biography. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

THE  RISE  OF  RUSSIA  AND  PRUSSIA 
A.   RISE  or  RUSSIA  AND  DECLINE  OF  SWEDEN 

"RUSSIA  is  the  last-born  child  of  European  civilization." 
During  the  whole  of  the  Middle  Ages  its  history  may  be  neglected, 
because  it  was  the  history  of  barbarism,  not  of  civilization,  506.  Russia 
—  of  Asia,  not  of  Europe.  In  the  ninth  century,  Rurik  pg^the 
the  Northman  had  established  his  sway  over  the  Slavic  Great 
tribes  of  the  Russian  plain  (§  46) ;  in  the  tenth  century  his  de- 
scendants had  received  Greek  Christianity  from  Constantinople. 
For  nearly  two  hundred  and  forty  years  (after  1241)  the  "  Golden 
Horde"  of  Mongols  were  suzerains  over  the  land.  Poland, 
seizing  the  western  districts,  placed  herself  between  Germany  and 
Russia,  and  seemed  about  to  develop  permanently  into  a  power- 
ful Slavic  kingdom. 

In  1480,  however,  the  grand  duke  of  Mus'covy  cast  off  the 
Mongolian  yoke,  and  set  about  the  creation  of  an  independent 
Russian  state.  Now  that  Constantinople  had  fallen  before 
the  Turks,  Moscow  claimed  to  be  its  heir  and  its  avenger.  By 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Russian  boundary  was 
pushed  to  the  Caspian,  Sea.  In  1613  the  Romanoffs  (ro-ma'nofs), 
ancestors  (in  the  female  line)  of  the  present  ruling  dynasty, 
ascended  the  throne.  Under  the  early  rulers  of  this  house  the 
beginning  was  made  of  that  eastward  expansion  —  paralleled 
in  United  States  history  by  the  "winning  of  the  West"  -  which 
gave  Siberia  to  Russia.  But  internally  barbarism  still  ruled, 
and  externally  Russia  was  cut  off  from  European  politics. 

In  both  these  respects  a  revolution  was  effected  by  the  hero 
of  Russian  history,  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725).  His  character 
was  a  strange  mixture  of  nobility  and  cruelty,  of  culture  and 


432 


THE   RISE  OF   RUSSIA  AND   PRUSSIA 


savagery.      When  aroused  to  anger  he  cut  off   his  enemies' 

507.  Early      heads  with  his  own  hands.     He  presided  at  the  torture 

Peter  the       an<^  death  °^  n^s  reactionary  eldest  son.     His  drunken 

Great  sprees  sometimes  lasted  for  days.     Yet  his  nature  was 

truthful,  simple,  and  straightforward,  and  no  one  could  be  a 

truer  friend  to  those  who  deserved  his  friendship. 


RUSSIA:   CONQUESTS  OF  PETER  THE  GREAT 


RISE  OF   RUSSIA   AND   DECLINE   OF   SWEDEN 


433 


PETER  THE  GREAT 


Peter's  reign  really  began  in  1689,  when  he  was  seventeen 
years  old.  While  still  a  lad,  he  manifested  that  passion  for 
western  arts  and  for  warfare  which 
proved  to  be  his  most  prominent 
characteristics.  He  loved  to  slip 
away  to  the  part  of  Moscow  fre- 
quented by  foreign  merchants,  to 
pick  up  a  knowledge  of  German 
and  Dutch,  and  learn  something 
of  European  science  and  inven- 
tions. In  a  shed  by  the  river  he 
discovered  a  forgotten  sailboat, 
which  fired  him  with  a  desire  to 
learn  navigation  and  shipbuilding ; 
and  this  half-rotten  boat  became 
the  " grandfather  of  the  Russian  fleet."  Playing  at  war  led  to 
the  formation  of  a  company  of  soldiers  equipped  in  European 
fashion  and  commanded  by  a  German  officer ;  and  this  proved 
the  beginning  of  a  new  Russian  army.  In  two  expeditions 
(1695  and  1696),  Azof  (a'zof),  on  the  Black  Sea,  was  captured, 
and  the  value  of  the  young  Tsar's  l  "amusements"  was  made 
manifest. 

But  the  Russian  nobility,  the  Russian  priesthood,  the  old 
Russian  army,  were  hostile  to  change.     To  obtain  that  first- 
hand knowledge  of  the  West  which  was  necessary  to  over-'  5o8  Peter»s 
come  Muscovite  inertia,  Peter,  with  a  large  suite  (in  1697  journey  of 
and  1698),  made  a  "journey  of  instruction"  to  Germany,  u 
Holland,  and  England.     In  Holland  he  worked  for  some  time 
in  the  shipyards,  disguised  as  a  common  sailor.     Wherever  he 
went  he  refused  honors,  in  order  to  visit  workshops  and  labora- 
tories.    Anatomical  and  natural  history  collections  were  ex- 
amined, as  well  as  sawmills,  paper  mills,  flour  mills,  printing 
offices,  and  the  like.     His  constant  utterance  was,  "I  must  see." 

1This  is  the  better  form  of  the  title,  though  it  is  often  written  "Czar."  For- 
merly it  was  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  Latin  Caesar  (German,  Kaiser,  i.e. 
Emperor),  but  this  view  is  now  disputed. 


434  THE  RISE  OF  RUSSIA  AND  PRUSSIA 

On  his  way  to  Venice,  Peter  was  recalled  home  by  a  revolt  of 
the  old  Russian  army  (Streltsi),  which  had  long  played  a  part 
509.  Con-      similar  to  that  of  the  praetorian  guard  in  Roman  history- 
opposition      ^*s  native  savagery  burst  out  in  fearful  vengeance,  and 
broken          the  revolt  was  used  to  do  away  entirely  with  such  danger- 
ous troops.     By  refusing  to  appoint  a  successor  to  the  last  pa- 
triarch of  Moscow  (died  in  1700),  and  by  later  committing  the 
direction  of  the  Russian  Greek  Church  to  a  Holy  Synod,  Peter 
broke  the  power  of  the  priesthood,  and  thus  weakened  a  second 
center  of  blind  conservatism.     The  nobles  were  gradually  de- 
pressed, until  (in  1711)  the  Tsar  felt  strong  enough  to  forbid 
them  for  the  future  to  hold  their  council,  and  so  ended  their 
political  power.     Thus  army,  church,  and  nobility  alike  were 
rendered  powerless  to  oppose  reform. 

A  series  of  "ukases,"  or  decrees,  appeared  meanwhile  which 
reformed  Russia's  institutions  —  central,  provincial,  and  mu- 
nicipal ;  social,  military,  and  educational.    Western  shipbuilders? 
engineers,  and  physicians  were  invited  into   the  land,  under 
promise  of  security,  rewards,  and  religious  toleration.     Shaved 
faces  and  the  short-cut  sleeves  of  the  West  replaced  at  the 
Russian  court  the  long  beards  and  flowing  sleeves  of  the  East. 
In  spite  of  all  efforts,  "Holy  Moscow,"  the  center  of  Russian 
conservatism,   remained  hostile  to  Peter's  measures.     Russia 
510  Reason  a^so  needed  a  maritime  capital.     Since  Archangel  (on  the 
for  war  with  White  Sea)  was  closed  by  ice  for  more  than  half  the  year, 
Sweden  and  Azof  ^  ^  Bjack  ^^  wag  cut  off  from  ^  Medi_ 

terranean  by  the  Turks  at  Constantinople,  a  port  on  the  Baltic 
was  a  necessity.  But  both  shores  of  that  sea  were  in  the  hands 
of  Sweden.  To  gain  the  site  for  a  Baltic  port,  Peter  the  Great 
embarked  upon  a  war  against  the  Swedish  king,  Charles  XII, 
who  had  just  ascended  the  throne  as  a  boy  of  fifteen.  Poland 
and  Denmark  joined  in  the  attack.  But  the  allies  miscalculated 
the  character  of  the  young  king,  for  Charles  XII  possessed  excep- 
tional ability  and  power,  with  a  positive  genius  for  war. 

Without  waiting  for  attack,  Charles  took  the  offensive  and 
invaded  Denmark.     Before  her  allies  could  come  up,  Denmark 


RISE  OF  RUSSIA  AND   DECLINE  OF   SWEDEN         435 

was  forced  to  make  peace  (August,  1700).  Then  Charles 
turned  to  meet  the  Tsar,  who  was  attacking  the  Swedish 
provinces  on  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  With  8000  disciplined  sn.  BC- 

men  against  the  60,000  still  half-trained  troops  of  Peter,   &*****&  of 
~,  ,    ....  .  .  XT  ^XT  the  North- 

Charles   won    a   brilliant   victory  at  Narva   (November,   em  War 

1700).     Poland  was  next  invaded,  and  there  for  five  years  (X7oo) 
the  war  continued.      Charles  was  completely  successful  here 
also;   and  Poland  was  obliged  to  accept  a  ruler  of  Charles's 
choice,  and  to  withdraw  from  the  Russian  alliance. 

Peter  the  Great,  meanwhile,  had  conquered  the  Swedish  prov- 
inces about  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  There,  amid  the  marshes  and 
low-lying  islands  about  the  mouth  of  the  river  Neva,  he  512.  Pound- 
began,  in  1703,  to  build  his  new  capital,  St.  Petersburg, 
To  deepen  the  channels  and  make  ready  the  land  for  build-  (1703) 
ing  purposes,  an  army  of  peasants  was  set  to  work.  The  level 
of  the  islands  was  raised,  and  countless  piles  were  driven  into 
the  swampy  ground  as  supports  for  the  heavy  foundations  of 
the  buildings.  Lack  of  provisions  and  shelter,  with  constant 
toil  in  the  cold  and  wet,  cost  thousands  of  lives.  Every  cart 
entering  the  place,  and  every  vessel  sailing  up  the  Neva,  was 
forced  to  bring  a  specified  quantity  of  building  stones,  while  the 
construction  of  stone  buildings  in  other  parts  of  the  empire  was 
temporarily  forbidden.  To  furnish  inhabitants  for  the  new  city, 
thirty  thousand  peasants  were  transported  thither  at  one  stroke. 
The  nobles  also  were  required  to  maintain  houses  in  the  new  cap- 
ital proportionate  to  their  means.  To  beautify  the  city,  foreign 
workmen  and  artists  were  imported.  Thus  Peter  obtained  his 
coveted  "window  toward  the  West,"  and  freed  his  successors 
from  the  trammels  of  conservative  Moscow. 

In  the  spring  of  1708  Charles  XII  invaded  Russia,  where  he 
hoped  to  rival  the  exploits  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  Asia.    The 
Russians  refused  battle  (as  they  later  did  against  Napo-  513.  Charles 
leon)  and  retired  upon  Moscow,  with  the  Swedes  in  pur-  R^g^ades 
suit.     The  winter,  the  most  severe  for  a  century,  passed   (1708) 
with  Moscow  still  untaken.     Spring  found  Charles  in  the  ex- 
treme south  of  Russia,  with  reinforcements  and  supplies  cut  off, 


436  THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA   AND   PRUSSIA 

laying  siege  to  the  fortified  city  of  Poltava.  To  the  advice  that 
he  retreat  while  there  was  yet  opportunity,  he  replied,  "If  an 
angel  should  descend  from  heaven  and  order  me  to  depart  from 
here,  I  would  not  go."  When  Peter  arrived  to  relieve  the  city, 
the  Swedes  found  themselves  outnumbered  two  to  one,  and 
were  defeated.  Charles's  army  was  almost  entirely  destroyed 
or  captured,  and  he  himself  escaped  with  difficulty  to  Turkish 
soil. 

With  unbending  obstinacy  Charles  XII  stirred  up  the  Sultan 

to  war  against  Russia.    The  Russian  army  was  entrapped  by  the 

514  Death     Turks,  but  Peter  purchased  peace  by  the  return  of  Azof 

of  Charles      to  Turkey.     Charles  XII  was  indignant  at  this  peace, 

and  behaved  like  a  madman.     At  last  he  was  expelled 

from  Turkey,  and  with  but  two  companions  returned  to  Sweden. 

He  found  his  outlying  territories  almost  entirely  lost,  and  the 

Swedish  power  in  ruins.     Four  years  later,  while  attempting 

the  conquest  of  Norway,  his  adventurous  life  was  ended  in  the 

siege  of  a  petty  fortress. 

The  death  of  Charles  XII  made  it  easier  to  end  the  Northern 
War,  and  peace  between  Sweden  and  Russia  was  made  in  1721. 

515.  End  of    The  former  government  was  restored  in  Poland.     Most  of 
era  War  "      Sweden's  possessions  in  Germany  (§  434)  were  given  to 
(1721)  Prussia    and    Hanover.     Russia    secured    the    provinces 

about  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  —  the  lion's  share  of  the  booty. 
Sweden,  whose  power  had  been  founded  chiefly  on  the  army 
created  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  now  sank  to  the  position  of  a 
second-rate  state ;  while  Russia,  whose  power  was  based  ulti- 
mately upon  her  vast  territories  and  the  numbers  of  her  people, 
rose  to  the  position  of  foremost  power  in  the  North. 

At  the  death  of  Peter  the  Great,  in  1725,  Russia  had  taken  on 
the   forms  of  a  modern  state.     But  the  ancient  government 

516.  Russia    changed  its  form  without  changing  its  substance.     Russia 
tiuTGreat*     remained  at  bottom  an  oriental  state,  with  a  heritage  of 
^725-1796)    manners  and  ideas  borrowed  mainly  from  Byzantine  and 

Mongol  civilization.  For  seventy  years,  excepting  three  brief 
intervals,  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  women.  It  was 


THE  RISE  OF  PRUSSIA  437 

a  time  of  palace  revolutions,  of  struggles  between  native  Russians 
and  foreign  favorites,  and  between  oligarchical  and  absolutist  fac- 
tions. The  Empress  Elizabeth  (1741-1762),  daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great,  adopted  a  reactionary  policy  at  home,  but  acted 
vigorously  in  foreign  affairs.  The  immoral  but  energetic  Cath- 
erine II  (1762-1796)  is  accounted  one  of  the  chief  founders  of 
the  Russian  Empire.  She  extended  the  boundaries  of  her 
country  in  every  direction,  and  fostered  western  civilization. 
Russia  now  reached  to  the  heart  of  Asia.  It  was  the  only 
country  of  Europe  that  could  increase  indefinitely  by  absorbing 
barbarian  lands. 

B.  THE  RISE  OF  PRUSSIA 

The  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  saw  also  the  rise 
to  power  of  another  northern  state,  —  Prussia.     Since  1415  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg  had  been  a  possession  of  the  SI7.  Union 
house  of    Hohenzollern    (ho-en-tsol'ern),   the    family  of  of  Br*nden 
the   present    German   Emperor;    but   until    the   seven- 


teenth  century  there  was  nothing  to  show  that  this  ter-  (1618) 
ritory  was  destined  to  leadership  among  German  states.  The 
first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  however,  brought  three 
events  of  importance  in  the  growth  of  its  power. 

(1)  Some  small  territories  upon  the  Rhine  were  acquired  by 
inheritance   in    1609.     These   gave   Brandenburg  a  footing  in 
western  Germany. 

(2)  In  1618  a  large  part  of  the  region  known  as  Prussia  was 
acquired.     This  land  had  been  conquered  from  the  heathen 
Slavs  in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  (§  163)  ; 
but  Poland  had  annexed  its  western  half,  and  forced  the  Knights 
to  hold  East  Prussia  as  a  fief  of  the  Polish  crown.     At  the  time 
of  the  Reformation  the  Grand  Master  of  the  Knights,  who  was  a 
member  of  the  Hohenzollern  family,  dissolved  the  order  on 
Luther's  advice,  and  made  its  territory  a  secular  duchy.     In 
1618  his  line  became  extinct,  and  the  duchy  fell,  by  previous 
arrangements,  to  the  Brandenburg  line  of  Hohenzollern.     This 


43$ 


THE   RISE   OF   RUSSIA   AND    PRUSSIA 


acquisition  almost   doubled    the  territories   of    the  elector  of 
Brandenburg,  and  paved  the  way  for  future  growth. 

(3)  The  accession  of  "the  Great  Elector,"  Frederick  William, 

in  1640,  did  much  to  remove  the  ill  effects  of  the  Thirty  Years' 

518.  Gains     War.     To  natural  gifts  of  a  high  order,  he  added  the  ad- 

Etector  r    *  vantages  of  education  at  a  Dutch  university.     The  terri- 

(1640-1688)    tories  to  which  he  succeeded  lay  in  three  widely  separated 

groups,  —  the  Brandenburg  territories,   the  Rhine  territories, 

and  the  Prussian  territories.     The  consolidation,  increase,  and 

development  of  these  nuclei  became  his  life  work. 


GROWTH  or  BRANDENBURG-PRUSSIA 

By  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648),  Frederick  William  se- 
cured eastern  Pomerania,  together  with  a  group  of  secularized 
bishoprics  on  the  west.  Brandenburg  was  thus  brought  to  the 
sea,  while  the  gaps  separating  it  from  its  sister  territories  were 
narrowed.  By  adroitly  using  the  opportunities  offered  by  wars 
between  Sweden  and  Poland,  Frederick  William  obtained,  in 
1660,  his  highest  political  triumph,  —  a  renunciation  of  Polish 
lordship  over  Prussia.  His  greatest  military  success  was  an  over- 
whelming victory  over  the  Swedes  in  1675. 

While  increasing  his  dominions  and  enhancing  his  prestige 
abroad,  Frederick  William  also  busied  himself  with  internal 
reforms.  Commerce,  manufactures,  and  agriculture  were  all 
encouraged.  Roads  were  built,  and  a  waterway,  —  the  Fred- 


THE  RISE  OF  PRUSSIA  439 

erick  William  Canal,  — by  joining  the  Oder  to  a  branch  of  the 
Elbe,  secured  a  free  outlet  to  the  North  Sea  (map,  p.  438). 
French  Huguenot  immigrants  to  the  number  of  twenty  g      Hig 
thousand  were  made  welcome,  their  skill  and  industry  internal 
proving  a  valuable  acquisition.     The  army  was  brought  to  reforms 
a  high  degree  of  perfection.     The  administration  of  the  three 
groups  of  territories  was  merged  into  one,  and  absolutism  was 
established.     We  may  regret  the  lost  liberties  of  the  Estates, 
but  the  unity,  strength,  and  good  order  of  the  realm  were  thereby 
increased.     The  work  of  Frederick  William  is  well  summarized 
by  his  great-grandson,  Frederick  II :  "With  small  means  he  did 
great  things.     He  was  himself  his  own  prime  minister  and  gen- 
eral in  chief,  and  rendered  nourishing  a  state  which  he  had  found 
buried  under  its  own  ruins." 

The  Great  Elector's  less  capable  son,  Frederick,  added  to  his 
electoral  and  ducal  titles  the  higher  one  of  king.     "Great  in 
small  things  and  small  in  great  things,"  his  mind  dwelt  520.  Prus- 
much  upon  matters  of  etiquette  and  ceremonial.     At  an  ^kingdom.68 
interview  with  William  III,  the  latter  as  king  of  England  (1701) 
occupied  an  armchair,  while  Elector  Frederick  was  given  one 
without  arms.     Thenceforth  offended  dignity  joined  with  mo- 
tives of  policy  in  urging  him  to  seek  the  royal  title.     The  head 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  was  the  source  from  which  such  honor 
should  come,  and  the  need  of  military  assistance  forced  him  (in 
1701)  to  grant  the  coveted  dignity.     The  Emperor's  pride  was 
saved,  while  fuller  independence  was  achieved  for  the  new  king, 
by  making  the  title  read  "Frederick  I,  King  in  Prussia,"  —  for 
Prussia  lay  outside  the  limits  of  the  Empire.1 

Frederick's  son,  King  Frederick  William  I,  resembled  his 
grandfather,  the  Great  Elector,  in  his  diligence,  economy,  and 
careful  attention  to  administration,  and  his  father  in  his  521.  Fred- 
tendency   to   eccentricities.     The   Prussian-Brandenburg  enck  wn- 
lands  were  without  defensible  frontiers,  and  were  sur-   (1713-1740) 

1  The  title  was  made  King  in  Prussia  to  save  the  feelings  of  the  king  of  Poland, 
who  in  1701  still  ruled  western  Prussia.  Later  the  title  was  changed  to  King  of 
Prussia. 


440  THE   RISE   OF    RUSSIA   AND    PRUSSIA 

rounded  by  hostile  neighbors.  Their  head,  therefore,  could 
rise  to  independent  greatness  only  through  military  power. 
This  required  as  its  basis  both  industrial  development  of 
his  lands,  and  absolutism  in  the  government.  Realizing  this, 
the  new  king's  aims  were  directed  to  securing  a  strong  army 
and  a  well-filled  treasury,  and  to. fostering  industry.  Economies 
were  made  in  every  department;  for  example,  the  number  of 
the  king's  riding  horses  wc,s  cut  down  from  one  thousand  to 
thirty.  A  rigid  supervision,  the  beginning  of  the  Prussian  bu- 
reaucracy, was  also  introduced  to  prevent  wastefulness  and  theft. 
Careful  attention  was  given  to  increasing  the  royal  revenues, 
in  part  through  a  better  administration  of  the  crown  lands. 
Manufactures  were  encouraged,  and  foreign  weavers  were  in- 
duced to  settle  in  Prussia  by  the  offer  of  a  wife,  a  loom,  and  a 
supply  of  raw  material.  When  the  Catholic  archbishop  of 
Salzburg  (in  1731)  drove  out  his  Protestant  subjects,  fifteen 
thousand  of  them  were  received  in  Prussia,  where  they  founded 
six  new  towns  and  many  villages.  The  Prussian  nobles,  who 
had  the  old  feudal  dislike  of  paying  taxes, 
were  forced  by  Frederick  William  to  pay  their 
full  share.  To  a  remonstrance  that  by  his 
changes  "the  whole  country  would  be  ruined," 
the  king  bluntly  replied,  "I  don't  believe  a 
word  of  it,  but  I  do  believe  the  political  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  nobles  will  be  ruined." 
Under  Frederick  William's  fostering  care  the 
Prussian  army  was  doubled  in  numbers  and 

522.  The        greatly    increased    in    efficiency.       Tall 

king's  tall       soldiers  were  his  hobby ;    and   through 

the  payment  of  large  sums  of   money, 

through  kidnaping,  and  through  presents   of 

giants   from   friendly  powers,  he  obtained  a 

palace  guard  that  was  the  wonder  of  Europe.  9IANT  SoLDIrER  OF 

FREDERICK  WILLIAM 
He  watched  over  his  "children  in  blue"  like 

a  father;  but  his  ready  cane  chastised  them  for  the  slightest 
offense. 


THE  RISE  OF  PRUSSIA  441 

Not  merely  soldiers,  but  servants,  citizens,  and  even  his  chil- 
dren suffered  chastisement  when  they  incurred  the  royal  ire. 
Frederick  William's  eye  and  stick  were  everywhere.  His  idea 
of  kingship  was  patriarchal  absolutism.  He  was  a  ruder,  sim- 
pler, 'more  primitive  Louis  XIV.  He  would  establish  his  sov- 
ereignty, he  wrote,  "like  a  rock  of  bronze."  Even  his  famous 
"tobacco  parliament,"  where  officers,  citizens,  scholars,  and 
foreign  travelers  smoked  and  drank  with  him,  would  on  occasion 
be  converted  into  an  informal  council  of  state,  at  which  the 
weightiest  measures  were  discussed.  In  his  only  war  —  waged 
as  a  part  of  the  Northern  War  against  Charles  XII  —  he  ac- 
quired a  part  of  Swedish  (western)  Pomerania,  and  the  con- 
venient port  of  Stettin  (ste-ten') ,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Oder. 

Within  the  little  more  than  a  hundred  years  that  had  elapsed 
from  the  union  of  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  (in  1618)  to  the 
death  of  King  Frederick  William  (in  1740)  the  Prussian  g23  Review 
power  had  made  great  strides.     Its  territory  had  doubled,  of  Prussia's 
its  holder  had  been  raised  to  the  rank  of  king,  its  popu-  progre£ 
lation  and  revenues  had  been  increased,  its  government  reformed 
and  strengthened,  and  the  basis  of  yet  further  growth  laid  in  the 
well-filled  treasury  and  well-drilled  army  which  were  the  especial 
creations  of  King  Frederick  William  I.     What  could  be  done 
with  these  means  was  to  be  made  manifest  by  his  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Frederick  the  Great. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1415.  Hohenzollern  family  secured  Brandenburg. 
1480.  Russia  freed  from  Mongol  rule. 
1618.  Brandenburg  and  Prussia  united. 

1688.  Death  of  the  Great  Elector. 

1689.  Peter  the  Great  begins  to  rule  in  Russia. 

1701.  Elector  of  Brandenburg-Prussia  gains  title  of  king. 

1703.  Founding  of  St.  Petersburg. 

1708.  Charles  XII  of  Sweden  invades  Russia. 

1725.  Death  of  Peter  the  Great. 

1740.  Death  of  Frederick  William  I  of  Prussia. 

1762.  Catherine  II  ascends  Russian  throne. 


442  THE  RISE  OF  RUSSIA  AND  PRUSSIA 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  condition  of  Russia  at  the  acces- 
sion of  Peter  the  Great  with  that  of  the  Frankish  kingdom  at  the  accession 
of  Charlemagne.  (2)  What  advantages  had  Peter  over  Charlemagne  in 
developing  his  state  ?  (3)  Was  Charles  XII  or  Peter  the  Great  the  better 
general?  (4)  Which  was  the  better  statesman?  (5)  What  territorial 
advantages  had  Russia  over  other  European  states  ?  What  disadvantages  ? 
(6)  State  in  your  own  words  what  Peter  the  Great  did  for  Russia.  (7)  Sum 
up  the  steps  in  the  rise  of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia.  (8)  How  did  Frederick 
William  earn  the  title  "the  Great  Elector"?  (9)  Was  King  Frederick 
William  I  a  good  or  a  bad  ruler?  Why?  (10)  Why  was  the  growth  in 
power  of  Russia  and  Prussia  important?  (n)  On  what  grounds  could  abso- 
lute government  for  Prussia  be  justified  at  that  time  ?  Do  these  reasons 
exist  to-day  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  RUSSIA  BEFORE  PETER  THE  GREAT.  Rambaud, 
History  of  Russia,  I,  ch.  xx;  Wakeman,  Ascendancy  of  France,  297-300; 
Morfill,  Story  of  Russia,  chs.  v-vi.  —  (2)  PETER'S  TRAVELS  IN  THE  WEST. 
Motley,  Peter  the  Great,  7-27;  Browning,  Peter  the  Great,  ch.  x;  Robinson 
and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  57-61.  —  (3)  REFORMS  OF  PETER  THE  GREAT. 
Johnson,  Age  of  the  Enlightened  Despot,  99-105;  Schuyler,  Peter  the  Great, 
I,  ch.  xxv ;  II,  chs.  Ivii,  Ixiii;  Rambaud,  Russia,  II,  ch.  iii.  —  (4)  FOUNDING 
OF  ST.  PETERSBURG.  Schuyler,  Peter  the  Great,  II,  ch.  xlvi.  —  (5)  CHARLES 
XII  OF  SWEDEN.  Bain,  Charles  XII.  —  (6)  ORIGIN  OF  THE  HOHENZOLLERN 
FAMILY.  Henderson,  Short  History  of  Germany,  II,  1-2.  —  (7)  REFORMS 
OF  THE  GREAT  ELECTOR.  Henderson,  Short  History,  II,  22-24;  Tuttle, 
History  of  Prussia,  I,  226-250.  —  (8)  FREDERICK  WILLIAM  I.  Henderson, 
Short  History,  II,  ch.  ii,  87-104 ;  Lavisse,  Youth  of  Frederick  the  Great,  ch.  ii. 

General  Reading.  —  For  Russia  the  histories  by  Rambaud  and  by  Morfill 
are  the  best.  Henderson's  Short  History  of  Germany  (2  vols.)  is  the  best 
brief  account  of  its  subject.  Fuller  accounts  may  be  found  in  Tuttle's  His- 
tory of  Prussia  (4  vols.),  and  in  the  Cambridge  Modern  History. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN  RIVALRY    (1715-1789) 

THE  period  between  the  death  of  Louis  XIV  and  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution  (in  1789)  was  one  of  almost 
constant  warfare  between  the  Powers  of  Europe.  At  524.  Gen 
first  glance  the  wars  seem  a  mere  continuation  of  the 
dreary  struggles  of  the  preceding  period,  caused  by  the  period 
desire  of  certain  states  to  increase  their  territories,  and  of  others 
to  maintain  the  Balance  of  Power.  France  continued  to  de- 
cline in  power,  and  Prussia  and  Russia  to  rise  in  the  European 
scale.  One  great  European  state  —  Poland  —  totally  disap- 
peared as  a  result  of  the  unscrupulous  attacks  of  its  neighbors. 
But  the  area  of  the  struggles  was  now  widened.  North  America 
and  far-off  India  became  the  scenes  of  important  European  con- 
flicts. Other  issues  than  that  of  the  Balance  of  Power  in  Europe 
were  evidently  at  stake.  A  close  examination  of  the  period 
shows  that  these  contests  were  largely  for  colonial  empire  and 
sea  power.  Perhaps  the  most  important  outcome  was  the  fact 
that  Great  Britain  succeeded  in  this  period  in  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  her  vast  empire,  through  which  have  spread  the  principles 
of  personal  liberty  and  constitutional  government.  The  tangled 
threads  of  the  political  history  of  this  time  may  best  be  grouped 
under  these  three  heads:  (i)  The  further  growth  of  Prussia 
through  the  wars  and  works  of  Frederick  the  Great.  (2)  The 
founding  of  the  British  Empire  through  successful  warfare  with 
France  and  the  colonization  of  Australia.  (3)  The  partitions  of 
Poland  by  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  In  these  three  develop- 
ments the  political  history  of  the  world  was  being  settled  for 
many  generations  to  come. 

443 


444 


WIDENING  AREA   OF   EUROPEAN    RIVALRY 


the  Great 


A.  PRUSSIA  UNDER  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 

The  education  which  Frederick  William  I  of  Prussia  planned 
for  his  son  and  heir,  the  future  Frederick  the  Great,  was  hard, 
525.  Youth     practical,  and  matter-of-fact.     The  prince's  own  inclina- 
of  Frederick  tions,  joined  to  his  mother's  and  teacher's  secret  efforts, 
supplemented  this  with  studies  in  literature,  music,  and 
art.     Young   Frederick  showed  himself   as   self-willed   as   his 
father,  and  ill-feeling  sprang  up  which  was  increased  by  a  public 

flogging.  To  make  matters 
worse,  the  prince,  who  was  an 
officer  in  the  Prussian  army, 
attempted  to  flee  from  the 
kingdom.  This  was  military 
desertion,  an  offense  which  the 
laws  of  war  made  punishable 
with  death.  For  a  time  the 
old  king  was  with  difficulty 
restrained  from  inflicting  this 
extreme  penalty.  Finally  he 
contented  himself  with  the  be- 
heading, before  Frederick's 
eyes,  of  the  prince's  friend 
and  accomplice,  and  the  close 
imprisonment  of  Frederick 
himself.  This  harsh  treat- 
ment went  far  to  cure  the 
prince  of  his  persistent  folly. 

Then  followed  the  "second  education"  of  young  Frederick. 
To  discipline  him  and  train  him  in  the  practical  work  of  admin- 
istration, his  father  set  him  to  work  in  the  War  and  Domain 
Office  as  assistant  clerk.  The  harsh  treatment  he  received 
sobered  and  strengthened  Frederick,  and  prepared  him  for  his 
duties  as  king ;  but  it  also  developed  in  him  bitterness  and  hypoc- 
risy. His  apprenticeship  over,  he  was  restored  to  favor,  and 
soon  was  allowed  to  set  up  a  little  court  of  his  own,  where  he 


FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 
From  a  painting  by  J.  Moller 


PRUSSIA   UNDER   FREDERICK   THE   G.REAT 


445 


° 


surrounded  himself  with  a  brilliant  circle.  He  entered  into 
correspondence  with  the  skeptical  French  philosopher  Voltaire 
(§  560),  and  he  wrote  a  refutation  of  the  political  treatise  of 
Machiavelli  (§  333).  To  a  superficial  observer,  Frederick  II 
seemed  likely  to  prove  anything  but  the  unscrupulous  master 
of  war  and  of  'Statecraft  that  his  reign  showed  him  to  be. 

Frederick  II  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1740,  at  the  age  of 
twenty-eight.  A  few  months  later  the  Emperor  Charles  VI 

died.  He  left  no  son,  526.  The 
but  he  had  secured  the  sueS 
'assent  of  Europe  (includ-  (1740) 
ing  Prussia)  to  a  document 
called  the  Pragmatic  Sanction, 
which  recognized  Charles's 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  as 
queen  over  all  the  Austrian 
dominions. 

This  was  Frederick's  oppor- 
tunity. He  desired  above  all 
else  military  glory,  and  he  had 
at  his  back  the  finest  army  in 
Europe  and  a  well-filled  treas- 
ure chest.  "  It  is  only  a  matter 
of  carrying  out  plans,"  he 
wrote,  "which  I  have  long 
had  in  my  head."  Without  a 
declaration  of  war,  and  in  the 

dead  of  winter  (1740),  he  threw  his  army  into  the  Austrian 
province  of  Silesia  (si-le'shi-a),  to  which  he  advanced  some 
shadowy  claims.  It  was  sheer  brigandage.  The  Austrians 
were  taken  unprepared,  and  were  easily  defeated.  The  effi- 
ciency of  the  Prussian  army  was  proved,  and  Europe  recognized 
that  a  new  power  had  arisen. 

At  once  Spain,  France,  Savoy,  Bavaria,  and  Saxony  set  up 
claims  of  various  sorts  to  parts  of  the  Hapsburg  dominions. 
There  followed  the  general  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession 


MARIA  THERESA 
From  a  painting  by  J.  Moller 


PRUSSIA   UNDER   FREDERICK  THE   GREAT  447 

(1741-1748).     Great  Britain  (whose  king  as  elector  of  Hanover 
had  important  interests  in  Germany)  took  up  arms  on  the  side 
of  Austria.     For  four  years  the  position  of  Emperor,  so  527.  War  of 
long  held  by  a  Hapsburg,  was  filled  by  the  elector  of  SJJ.^JSJJJ11 
Bavaria;  but  upon  his  death  (in  1745)  Maria  Theresa  se-   (1741-1748) 
cured  the  election  of  her  husband,  the  amiable  Francis  I.     The 
Hungarians  and  Austrians  rallied  nobly  to  the  support  of  their 
young  queen.     She,  for  her  part,  showed  unexpected  courage, 
eloquence,  and  governing  ability.      Her  subjects  were  ready 
to  die  for  h'er ;   even  her  enemies  respected  and  admired  her. 

After  having  once  made  —  and  broken  —  a  treaty,  Frederick 
II  again  made  peace  in  1745.  Having  got  what  he  wanted,  he 
agreed  to  retire  from  the  war.  In  return  Maria  Theresa  agreed 
that  he  should  keep  his  conquered  province  of  Silesia. 

Meanwhile  the  area  of  the  war  was  widening.  "From  the 
banks  of  the  Oder,  the  war  spread  successively  to  the  banks  of 
the  Danube,  the  Elbe,  the  Po,  then  to  the  Scheldt  and  528.  Peace 
the  Meuse,  and  beyond  the  seas."  French  and  English  ,cha^iie" 
colonists  in  North  America  engaged  in  the  conflict,  as  (1748) 
in  the  days  of  Louis  XIV,  in  furtherance  of  their  rival  inter- 
ests. In  India,  also,  French  and  English  traders  fought  each 
other  to  determine  which  should  control  the  commerce  of  that 
rich  and  populous  country.1  But  for  the  settlement  of  these 
wider  interests  the  time  was  not  yet  ripe.  All  parties  grew 
tired  of  the  war,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748,  a  general 
peace  was  signed.  Its  terms  were  as  follows :  — 

1.  Maria  Theresa  was  recognized  as  ruler  of  the  Hapsburg  lands, 

except  Silesia. 

2.  Silesia  was  again  confirmed  to  Prussia. 

3.  All  other  conquests  were  mutually  restored. 

1  The  historian  Macaulay,  in  his  essay  on  Frederick  the  Great,  says:  "In  order 
that  he  might  rob  a  neighbor  whom  he  had  promised  to  defend,  black  men  fought  on 
the  coast  of  Coromandel  [India],  and  red  men  scalped  each  other  by  the  Great  Lakes 
of  North  America."  This  view  fails  to  take  account  of  the  real  conflict  of  interests 
between  English  and  French,  which  caused  the  extension  of  the  war  to  India  and  to 
America.  Their  rivalries  would  have  led  to  war  in  America  and  in  the  Far  East  even 
if  Frederick  had  never  seized  Silesia. 


448  WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

The  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  far  from  proving  a  perma- 
nent settlement.     Maria  Theresa  bitterly  resented  the  provision 

529.  The        which  left  Silesia  in  the  hands  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
revolution      France,  moreover,  felt  that  her  prestige  was  lowered  by 
(1756)  the  rapid  rise  of  Prussia,  and  that  her  interests  in  India 

and  North  America  were  threatened  by  the  growth  of  English 
trade  and  colonization.  Nevertheless,  renewal  of  war  was  post- 
poned for  eight  years.  During  this  time  a  change  in  alliances 
took  place  which  amounted  to  a  diplomatic  revolution.  Austria 
and  France  laid  aside  their  enmity  of  the  past  two  hundred  years 
and  formed  an  alliance  which  continued  till  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. At  the  same  time  a  coolness  arose  between  England  and 
Austria,  for  neither  state  was  much  interested  in  the  objects  of 
the  other.  The  British  king,  to  safeguard  his  German  territory 
(Hanover),  then  entered  into  a  treaty  of  alliance  with  Frederick 
II  of  Prussia.  Both  England  and  France  thus  changed  sides  in 
the  alignment  of  European  Powers.  But  because  of  the  vital 
conflict  of  their  interests,  they  were  still  in  opposite  camps. 

Even  before  this  change  in  alliances  was  completed,  con- 
flicts had  broken  out  between  the  French  and  English  in  India 

530.  The        (1751)   and  in  North  America   (1754).     These  conflicts 
yeven»  w       proved  the  prelude  to  a  new  war,  on  a  more  gigantic  scale 
begun  than  any  hitherto   seen.     In   European  history   this  is 
(J756)            called  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-1763).     The  war  in 

Europe  opened  with  a  sudden  invasion  of  Saxony  by  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  had  learned  that  Austria,  Russia,  and  Saxony 
were  secretly  planning  to  attack  him  and  divide  his  territories; 
and  he  rightly  judged  that  his  best  chance  of  safety  lay  in  strik- 
ing first.  In  this  new  struggle  Frederick  displayed  his  highest 
powers  of  generalship.  His  army  was  the  best  drilled  and  the 
best  equipped  in  Europe,  and  it  was  enthusiastically  loyal 
He  was  served  by  able  generals,  who  were  animated  by  his  own 
spirit  and  trained  under  his  own  eye.  The  French  armies,  on 
the  contrary,  had  lost  their  earlier  efficiency.  The  controlling 
influence  at  the  French  court  was  now  the  king's  favorite,  Ma- 
dame de  Pompadour,  who  caused  ministers  and  generals  to  be 


PRUSSIA   UNDER   FREDERICK   THE   GREAT 


449 


WOMAN'S  DRESS  IN  COURT  OF 
Louis  XV 


appointed  and  dismissed  at  her  caprice.     Further  to  complicate 
matters,  Louis  XV  corresponded  secretly  with  his  ambassadors, 
often    giving    them    instructions 
which  were  directly  opposed  to 
those  received  from  the  French 
foreign  office. 

The  forces  of  Maria  Theresa, 
however,  had  learned  from  Fred- 
erick the  art  of  making  war.  A 
series  of  administrative  reforms, 
inspired  by  those  of  Prussia,  also 
enabled  Austria  more  effectually 
to  utilize  its  resources.  Before 
Frederick's  alliance  with  Great 
Britain  began  to  show  its  good 
effects,  he  likened  himself  to  a 
stag  attacked  by  "a  pack  of 
kings  and  princes."  In  the 

course  of  the  war  his  fortunes  sank  to  their  lowest  ebb,  but 
disaster  only  inspired  him  to  more  desperate  exertions. 

In  1756  Frederick  won  brilliant  victories  at  Rossbach  (ros'baK ; 
in  Saxony)  and  Leu  then  (loi'ten ;  in  Silesia).    Of  the  last-named 
battle  Napoleon  Bonaparte  once  said,  "It  was  a  master-  531-  The 
piece  in  the  way  of  evolutions,  maneuvers,  and  determina-  J"J£C 
tion,  and  would  alone  have  sufficed  to  make  Frederick  im-  (1756-1763) 
mortal,  and  to  rank  him  among  the  greatest  generals."     But 
in  the  period  from  1758  to  1760,  Frederick  suffered  serious  re- 
verses.    The  Russians  overran  East  Prussia  and  Brandenburg; 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  Austrians  they  overwhelmingly  defeated 
Frederick  at  Kunersdorf  (1759).      "The  consequences  of  this 
battle,"  Frederick  wrote,  "will  be  worse  than  the  battle  itself. 
I  have  no  more  resources  and,  not  to  hide  the  truth,  I  consider 
that  all  is  lost."     His  enemies,  however,  disagreed  and  failed  to 
follow  up  their  victory.     In  spite  of  the  surprise  and  burning  of 
Berlin  (1760),  Frederick  succeeded  in  recovering  the  advantage. 

From  1761  to  1763  Prussia  was  almost  exhausted.     Year  by 


450  WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

year  the  war  drained  Frederick's  resources,  until  it  was  only 
by  the  greatest  efforts  that  his  army  could  be  kept  in  the  field. 
To  add  to  his  difficulties,  George  III,  who  succeeded  to  the  British 
throne  in  1 760,  broke  off  the  Prussian  alliance,  and  stopped  the 
payment  of  the  money  subsidies  which  had  greatly  aided  Fred- 
erick in  carrying  on  the  war.  The  greatest  crisis  in  Frederick's 
affairs  was  at  hand.  At  this  juncture,  however,  a  Tsar  came  to 
the  Russian  throne  who  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Fred- 
erick, and  he  at  once  made  peace.  "  Heaven  still  stands  by  us,3' 
wrote  Frederick,  "and  everything  will  turn  out  well."  The 
result  justified  his  belief ;  but  the  remainder  of  the  war  on  the 
Continent  was  "like  a  race  between  spent  horses." 

Even  Maria  Theresa  at  last  recognized  the  hopelessness  of 
continuing  the  struggle.     To  the  demand  that  at  least  some 

532.  Peace     grant  of  territory  should  be  made  to  her,  and  that  Saxony 
of  Huberts-    should  be  compensated  for  its  sufferings  in  the  war,  Fred- 

>urg  (17  3)  erjc]j.  contemptuously  replied:  "Not  a  foot  of  land,  and 
no  compensation  to  Saxony  —  not  a  village,  not  a  penny." 
These  were  the  terms  embodied  in  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg 
(1763),  on  which  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  Europe  was  concluded. 
Austria's  only  gain  lay  in  a  secret  agreement  by  which  Frederick 
undertook  to  aid  the  election  of  Maria  Theresa's  son  (Joseph  II) 
as  Emperor  when  his  father,  Francis  I,  should  die. 

The  peace  of  Hubertsburg  ended  Prussia's  participation   in 
these  wars.     During  the  remaining  twenty-three  years  of  Fred- 

533.  Fred-     crick's  reign,  he  was  occupied  in  repairing  the  damages 

caused  by  war,  and  in  building  up  his  kingdom.  By  the 
time  of  energy  and  ability  which  he  showed  in  this  work,  even 
peace  more  than  by  his  brilliant  warfare,  he  gained  his  surname 

"the  Great."  Prussia,  indeed,  was  sadly  in  need  of  his  fostering 
care.  More  than  180,000  men  had  fallen  in  Frederick's  wars; 
and  the  desolation  which  reigned  throughout  the  Prussian  king- 
dom can  only  be  compared  to  that  in  which  all  Germany  lay 
at  the  close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

To  increase  Prussia's  population,  Frederick  sought  emigrants 
from  Holland  and  from  every  German  state.     Those  who  an- 


PRUSSIA  UNDER  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT  451 

swered  his  call  received  money  to  help  pay  their  traveling  ex- 
penses, together  with  horses  from  the  cavalry  for  their  plowing 
and  seed  grain  from  the  army  stocks.    In  addition,  Prussian  534-  im- 
nobles  were  ordered  to  rebuild  the  thousands  of  ruined  ^^agri- 
farmhouses  on  their  estates,  and  to  install  peasants  in  culture 
them.     In  spite  of  bitter  resistance,  and  even  riots,  he  encour- 
aged the  cultivation  of  the  potato  as  a  cheaper  article  of  food.1 
By  building  levees  and  draining  swamps  Frederick  reclaimed 
vast  areas  of  good  farming  land.     On  a  single  tract  43  villages 
were  established  with    1200  families.      "I   have  conquered  a 
province  in  the  midst  of  peace,  and  without  need  of  soldiers," 
cried  Frederick,  joyously,  on  beholding  these  results.     By  the 
end  of  the  century  almost  a  third  of  the  population  of  Prussia 
was  composed  of  colonists  or  the  sons  of  colonists  who  had 
been  brought  in  by  Frederick  or  by  his  immediate  predecessors. 
Commerce  and  manufactures  profited  equally  by  Frederick's 
attention.     Banks  were  founded,  roads  built,  and  canals  con- 
structed.    One  of  the  latter  connected  a  tributary  of  the  535-  Corn- 
Oder  with  the  Vistula  River  (the  next  great  stream  to  the  ^ufac^ 
east),  and  so  extended,  almost  to  the  eastern  limits  of  tures 
Prussia,  the  system  of  internal  waterways  begun  by  the  Great 
Elector.     To  aid  manufactures,  Frederick  imported  workmen 
to  teach  new  processes.     He  built  up  the  manufacture  of  woolen 
cloth,  founded  the  first  porcelain  factory  in  Berlin,  began  the 
cultivation  of  the  silkworm  and  silk  manufactures,  and  intro- 

1  It  is  a  question  whether  the  potato  was  first  introduced  from  America  to 
Europe,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  by  the  Spaniards  or  the  English.  Its  cultivation 
was  soon  undertaken  in  Italy  and  in  southern  France;  and  in  certain  parts  of 
Germany  its  adoption  as  an  article  of  food  checked  the  famines  caused  by  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  (§436).  In  Ireland  the  potato  had  become  the  staple  food  of 
the  peasantry  by  the  year  1688,  but  its  cultivation  in  England  made  little  progress 
until  a  hundred  years  later.  Everywhere  the  introduction  of  this  new  food  en- 
countered prejudice  and  misrepresentation,  for  it  was  ignorantly  said  to  be  a  cause 
of  leprosy  and  many  sorts  of  fevers.  A  learned  Frenchman  named  Parmentier 
(born  1737)  played  the  chief  part  in  dispelling  these  prejudices  through  a  series  of 
books  and  pamphlets  in  which  he  urged  its  cultivation  and  use.  The  French  King 
Louis  XVI  popujarized  the  movement  by  wearing  the  flowers  of  the  plant  in  the 
buttonhole  of  his  coat.  It  was  probably  Parmentier's  writings  that  led  Frederick 
the  Great  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  potato  in  Prussia. 


452  WIDENING   AREA   OF   EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

duced  or  improved  the  printing  of  calicoes,  manufacture  of  paper, 
refining  of  sugar,  glass  blowing,  and  iron  founding. 

To  the  end  of  his  days  "  the  old  Fritz,"  as  his  subjects  lovingly 
called  him,  was  one  of  the  hardest  working  persons  in  his  king- 

536.  Fred-     dom.     He  arose  at  four  o'clock  in  summer  (five  o'clock 
habits8  and      *n  wm^r),  and  spent  the  day  in  reading  and  answering 
government    correspondence,  in  reviewing  troops,  and  in  the  multitude 

of  details  connected  with  the  government  of  his  lands.  Some 
part  of  each  day  was  set  aside  for  reading,  and  for  literary  or 
musical  composition ;  and  the  evenings  were  given  up  to  con- 
certs (in  which  Frederick  played  skillfully  on  the  flute),  and  to 
conversations  with  artists  and  literary  men.  In  the  midst  of 
the  cares  of  war  and  government,  he  never  lost  his  earlier  tastes 
for  literature  and  music. 

The  idea  of  government  on  which  Frederick  acted  is  expressed 
in  his  saying,  "The  people  are  not  here  for  the  sake  of  the  rulers, 
but  the  rulers  for  the  sake  of  the  people."  '  But  Frederick  was 
far  from  believing  in  government  "of  the  people  and  by  the 
people."  In  everything  he  not  merely  planned  the  whole,  but 
oversaw  the  execution  of  the  minutest  details.1  His  ministers 
were  mere  clerks.  Even  in  the  administration  of  justice,  Freder- 
ick directly  interfered,  going  so  far  at  times  as  literally  to  kick 
judges  whom  he  suspected  of  favoring  the  rich  against  the  poor. 
The  bad  effects  of  his  system  were  seen  when  his  master  hand 
was  withdrawn  by  death.  The  Prussian  administrative  system 
then  fell  into  speedy  decay.  In  a  despotically  ruled  state  all 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  head ;  and  a  succession  of 
able  and  benevolent  rulers  can  never  be  assured.2 

The  reign  of  Frederick  the  Great  saw  the  beginning  of  a  great 

537.  Rise       development   of    modern    German   literature.     The   first 
German"1      name  °f  importance  is  that  of  the  critic  and  dramatist 
literature       Lessing  (1729-1781),  whose  Nathan  the  Wise  enshrines  '"all 

1  See  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings  in  Modern  European  History,  I,  205-208.  for 
some  interesting  comments  by  Frederick  on  petitions  presented  to  him. 

2  Frederick's  methods  of  government  place  him  in  the  list  of  the'benevolent  des- 
pots, who  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in  a  later  chapter  (§§  566-567). 


THE   FOUNDING   OF   THE   BRITISH    EMPIRE  453 

that  was  noblest  in  the  struggles  and  aspirations  of  his  age, 
and  connects  the  thought  of  the  eighteenth  with  that  of  the  nine- 
teenth century."     Goethe  (gu'te;  1749-1832),  author  of  Faust 
(foust)  and  a  universal  genius,  holds  the  same  place  in  German 
literature  that  Shakespeare  does  in  English  and  Dante  in  Italian. 
Schiller  (1759-1805)   is   best    known    by  his   poetical  drama, 
William  Tell.     Kant  (1724-1804),  author  of  the  Critique  of  Pure 
Reason,  made  philosophy  the  absorbing  subject  of  study  at  the 
German   universities.      But  to  all  this  Frederick  himself  was 
blind.     To  him  the  French  language  and  French  literature  ap- 
peared vastly  superior  to  German.     "In  order  to  con-  Robinson, 
vince  yourself  of  the  bad  taste  that  reigns  in  Germany,"  fadings  in 
he  wrote  in  1780,  "you  have  only  to  frequent  the  theater.  History,  n, 
There  you  will  see  presented  the  abominable  plays  of  327 
Shakespeare  translated  into  our  language,  and  the  whole  audi- 
ence transported  with  delight  by  these  absurd  farces,  fit  only 
for  the   savages  of  Canada."     He  further  speaks  of  one  of 
Goethe's  early  works  as  "a  detestable  imitation  of  those  wretched 
English  plays."      In  spite  of  his  ability  and  enlightenment, 
Frederick  belonged  to  an  age  that  was  passing  away. 

B.  THE  FOUNDING  or  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 

We  must  now  consider  more  in  detail  the  struggles  of  England 
and  France  in  this  period,  amid  which  was  founded  the  British 
Empire. 

Louis  XIV  of  France  outlived  both  his  son  (the  dauphin)  and 
the  latter's  eldest  son  (see  genealogy,  p.  392).     Consequently 
when  this  monarch  died,  in  1715,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  538.  France 
great-grandson  Louis  XV,  a  sickly  child  of  five  years.     For  £ 
some  years  the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  young  1774) 
king's  uncle,  who  for  reasons  of  his  own  kept  peace  with  Eng- 
land.1    When  Louis  XV  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands, 

1  To  the  period  of  the  regency  belongs  the  craze  for  speculation  which  is  called 
the  "Mississippi  Bubble."  A  Scotchman  named  John  Law  had  won  a  reputation 
by  founding  the  first  bank  in  France  to  issue  bank  notes  and  by  straightening  out 
the  finances  of  the  government.  He  thereupon  formed  a  joint-stock  company 


454  WIDENING   AREA  OF   EUROPEAN  RIVALRY 

he  showed  an  utter  disregard  of  everything  save  his  own  pleas- 
ures. For  the  misfortunes  and  rriisgovernment  of  his  reign,  this 
king  felt  no  sense  of  responsibility.  If  retribution  came  upon 
his  successors,  that  was  no  concern  of  his.  "  Things  will  out 
last  our  time,"  said  he ;  and  his  favorite,  Madame  de  Pompa- 
dour, added  recklessly,  "After  us,  the  deluge  !"  The  one  ter- 
ritorial gain  made  by  Louis  XV  was  the  acquisition,  through 
marriage  and  treaty,  of  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  This  province 
joined  Alsace  more  closely  to  France,  and  rounded  out  the 
conquests  of  two  centuries  (map,  p.  388).  Against  this  gain 
must  be  set  the  loss  of  the  possessions  of  France  in  North 
America,  and  of  French  ascendancy  in  India. 

First  Spain,  and   then  Holland,  had  held  and  lost  the  su- 
premacy of  the  seas  and  colonial  empire.     With  both  of  these 
539.  Eng-      countries  England  had  engaged  in  war,  largely  because  of 
French  conflicting   trade   and  colonizing  interests.     France  had 

rivalry  now  succeeded   Spain   and   Holland  as  England's  chief 

rival  in  these  respects.     An  eminent  English  historian  sums  up 
the  history  of  the  eighteenth  century  by  saying:    "The  whole 
period  stands  out  as  an  age  of  gigantic  rivalry  between  England 
and  France,  a  kind  of  second  Hundred  Years'  War.     The  ex- 
pansion of  England  in  the  New  World  and  in  Asia  is  the  for- 
mula which  sums  up  for  England  the  history  of  the  eighteenth 
Seeley,  Ex-      century."     After  mentioning  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
PEngiand°f24     Succession,  the  Seven  Years'  War,  and  the  War  of  Amer- 
28,31  ican  Independence,  he  continues:   "In  these  three  wars, 

between  1740  and  1783,  the  struggle  as  between  England  and 
France  is  entirely  for  the  New  World  [and  India].  In  the  first 

(known  as  the  "Mississippi  Scheme"),  which  secured  a  monopoly  of  French  com- 
merce in  the  vast  Louisiana  territory  and  Canada,  as  well  as  in  Senegal  (Africa)  and 
the  French  East  Indies.  For  a  time  his  enterprises  prospered  and  a  mania  for  specu- 
lation sent  the  shares  up  to  fabulous  prices.  "Everybody  was  mad  about  Missis- 
sippi stock,"  wrote  a  nobleman  of  that  time.  "Immense  fortunes  were  made  almost 
in  a  breath.  People  could  not  change  their  lands  and  their  houses  into  paper  fast 
enough." — (St.  Simon,  Memoirs,  IV,  158.)  The  inevitable  result  of  the  overissue 
of  stock  and  bank  notes  was  that  the  "Mississippi  Bubble"  burst  in  1720,  and  Law 
and  his  followers  were  overwhelmed  in  ruin.  The  English,  at  about  the  same  time, 
were  caught  in  a  similar  "South  Sea  Bubble." 


'THE   FOUNDING  OF  THE   BRITISH   EMPIRE          455 

of  them,  the  issue  is  fairly  joined ;  in  the  second,  France  suffers 
her  fatal  fall ;  in  the  third,  she  takes  her  signal  revenge." 

The  English  colonists  in  America  had  good  reasons  of  their  own 
for  fighting  the  French.1    To  antipathies  of  race,  government, 
and  religion  there  were  added  conflicting  interests  in  the  540   French 
Ohio  valley.     The  French  were  trying  to  connect  Canada  and  English 
and  lower  Louisiana  by  a  chain  of  forts,  and  thus  impose  m      * 
a  barrier  to  the  westward  expansion  of  the  English  colonists. 
The  issue  was  to  decide  whether  North  America  should  be  gov- 
erned by  a  Latin  or  by  a  Teutonic  race ;   whether  it  should  be 
self -governed  or  despotically  ruled. 

The   Seven  Years'   War,   as   we   have   seen,   broke   out   in 
America  before  the  beginning  of  hostilities  in  Europe.     In  1754 
young  George  Washington  fought  the  French  at  Great  g      seven 
Meadows;    and  in  1755   (still  a  year  before  Frederick's  Years' Wai 
invasion  of  Saxony)  came  the  defeat  of  Braddock's  ex-  m    m€ 
pedition  against  Fort  Duquesne  (du-kan').     On  the  seas  the 
British   navy  seized  three  hundred  French  merchant  vessels 
and  two  frigates  before  the  formal  declaration  of  war,  in  1756. 

In  1757  the  administration  in  Great  Britain  passed,  for  the 
first  time  in  some  years,  into  the  hands  of  a  really  able  man. 
This  was  William  Pitt  the  elder  (called  "the  Great  Commoner"), 
who  was  later  made  earl  of  Chat'ham.  He  found  the  war  going 
badly,  the  natural  result  of  favoritism,  corruption,  and  incom- 
petence. "I  am  sure  that  I  can  save  the  country,"  Pitt  boasted 
with  proud  confidence,  "and  that  no  one  else  can."  King 
George  II  was  obliged  to  accept  Pitt  as  his  chief  minister, 
and  until  1761  the  direction  of  the  government  was  in  Pitt's 
hands. 

Pitt  vigorously  prosecuted  the  war  in  America  and  on  the 
seas,  without  however  neglecting  the  interests  of  Frederick  the 

1  After  the  accession  of  William  III,  every  war  between  these  two  countries  was 
extended  to  North  America.  The  war  which  closed  with  the  peace  of  Ryswick 
(1697)  was  known  as  King  William's  War;  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  was 
known  as  Queen  Anne's  War;  and  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  as  King 
George's  War.  The  Seven  Years'  War  was  called  the  French  and  Indian  War  by 
the  English  colonists  in  America. 


456  WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

Great,  with  whom  England  was  allied.  In  1758  the  British 
took  Louisburg  (in  Nova  Scotia)  and  Fort  Duquesne  —  thence- 
forth called  Fort  Pitt,  or  Pittsburgh.  In  1759  Quebec,  "the 
Gibraltar  of  America,"  fell  as  a  result  of  an  attack  by  General 
Wolfe.  In  spite  of  the  entrance  of  Spain  into  the  war  as  a 
French  ally,  Martinique  (mar-te-nek'),  Grena'da,  St.  Vincent, 
and  other  French  islands  in  the  West  Indies  passed  into  British 
hands.  Great  Britain's  maritime  power  was  established  be- 
yond dispute.  France's  colonial  empire  in  America  came  prac- 
tically to  an  end.  The  British  colonies  thenceforth  could  freely 
develop  their  heritage  of  political  and  religious  liberty. 

In  the  East  Indies,  from  1500  to  1600,  as  the  result  of  Vasco 
da  Gama's  famous  voyage  (§313),  the  Portuguese  enjoyed  a 
542.  French  trade  monopoly;   but  after  1600  they  lost  ground  to  the 
Ush£nin~dia    Dutch,  English,  and  French.     The  English  East  India 
(1600-1751)    Company,  chartered  in  1600,  represented  English  interests 
in  India ;  and  in  the  eighteenth  century  it  possessed  trading  sta- 
tions at  Madras',  Bombay',  and  Calcutta.     The  French  also 
had  several  stations  in  India,  of  which  the  chief,  Pondicherry, 
was  not  far  from  Madras.     Unlike  America,  India  was  a  tropi- 
cal country,   thickly  populated,  ruled  by  established  govern- 
ments, and  possessed  of  a  civilization  older  and  in  some  respects 
more  advanced  than  that  of  Europe.     Colonization  was  thus 
out  of  the  question.     The  European  settlements  were  at  first 
mere  trading  stations  (called  "factories"),  which  did  not  at- 
tempt political  control  of  the  land. 

Dupleix  (dii-pla/),  the  French  governor  of  Pondicherry,  was 
the  first  to  see  the  possibilities  of  conquest  in  India  and  to 
devise  the  means  of  effecting  it.  The  natives  of  India,  when 
properly  drilled  and  officered,  made  excellent  soldiers  (called 
Sepoys) ;  and  their  lack  of  all  sentiment  of  nationality  rendered 
possible  a  conquest  of  India  by  its  own  natives,  for  the  benefit 
of  Europe.  The  British,  in  self-defense,  organized  troops  sim- 
ilar to  those  established  by  Dupleix.  In  1751,  on  the  occasion 
of  a  dispute  between  two  rival  "nabobs"  (rulers)  of  Arcot',  the 
French  and  British  took  opposite  sides. 


THE   FOUNDING  OF   THE   BRITISH   EMPIRE 


457 


REFERENCE 
British  acquisitions  under 

CHve  (1756-1767) 
Added  under  Hastings 

(1772-1785) 

Added  under  CornwalHn 
(178G-1793) 


Thus  began  the  struggle  for  the  mastery  in  India  (1751-1761), 
which  merged  into  the  Seven  Years'  War  of  Europe.     On  the 
British  side  the  hero  of  the  war  was  Robert  Clive,  a  clerk  543  British 
of  the  East  India  Company,  who  laid  down  the  pen  to  supremacy 
take  up  the  sword.     In  his  defense  of  Arcot  he  showed  not  m  India 
only  his  own  genius  for  war,  but  also  the  loyalty  and  stanchness 
of   his   Sepoy   troops. 
Dupleix,  whose  worth 
and  work  were  little 
appreciated  in  France, 
was   recalled    in    dis- 
grace   in    1754.      In 
1756,    the    nabob    of 
Bengal  quarreled  with 
the    British   and   im- 
prisoned over  a  hun- 
dred   of    them    in    a 
small,   close   dungeon 
(the  "Black  Hole"  of 
Calcutta),  where  five 
sixths      died      before 
morning.     The  horror 
of  this  deed  and  the 
difficulty    of    dealing 
with  its  author  forced 
upon  the  British  the 
conquest    of    Bengal, 

which  was  accomplished  by  the  battle  of  Plassey  (June  23, 1757). 
The  French,  meanwhile,  steadily  lost  ground  through  mismanage- 
ment, incompetence,  and  lack  of  support  at  home.    In  1760  came 
the  final  defeat  of  the  French  and  the  overthrow  of  their  seeiey) 
influence  in  India.     In  the  language  of  an  English  historian,  Expansion  of 
this  conquest  of  India  was  "  the  most  striking  and  remark- 
able incident  in  the  modern  part  of  the  history  of  England."  l 

1  After  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  the  English  East  India  Company  was 
practically  without  a  rival.     Its  efforts  were  still  devoted  chiefly  to  trade,  and  only 


0     100  200  300  400  500 


GROWTH  OF  BRITISH  POWER  IN  INDIA 


458  WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN  RIVALRY 

Pitt,  however,  was  not  content  with  these  great  gains.     He 

wished  to  use  the  opportunity,  offered  by  Spain's  aid  to  France, 

544  Peace     to  secure  parts  of  Spain's  colonial  possessions  also.     But 

of  Paris         George  III  had  just  come  to  the  British  throne  (1760),  and 

he  wished  for  peace  in  order  to  free  himself  from  the 

control  of  the  Whig  party.     Pitt  was  therefore  forced  out  of 

office,  and  England  and  France  signed  the  Peace  of  Paris  (1763). 

Its  chief  provisions  were  as  follows :  — 

1.  France  ceded  to  England  the  whole  of  Canada,  together  with  vari- 

ous islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

2.  The  French  stations  in  India  were  restored,  but  were  not  to  be 

fortified. 

3.  Spain  ceded  Florida  to  England,  which  retained  it  until  1783.     To 

compensate  Spain  for  this  loss,  France  ceded  to  her  Louisiana, 
—  a  vast  region  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

4.  Manila,  in  the  Philippines,  which  had  been  conquered  by  England 

while  the  negotiations  were  in  progress,  together  with  Havana 
(in  Cuba),  were  restored  to  Spain. 

Great  Britain  was  the  only  state  which  profited  by  the  bloody 
and  costly  Seven  Years'  War.     "It  is  singular,"  says  a  French 
545.  Results  minister  of  that  time,  "  that  all  the  courts  have  missed  their 
Seven  &oal  *n  ^s  war-     ^he  king  °f  Prussia  has  gained  much 

Years'  War  glory  in  dominating  the  courts  of  Europe,  but  he  will 
leave  to  his  heir  a  power  lacking  in  solidity.  He  has  ruined  his 
people,  exhausted  his  treasury,  depopulated  his  states.  The 
Empress  Maria  Theresa  has  increased  her  reputation  for  cour- 
age, power,  and  the  efficiency  of  her  troops,  but  she  has  not 
accomplished  one  of  the  objects  she  set  before  herself.  Russia 
has  shown  to  Europe  the  most  invincible  soldiery,  but  the  worst 
led.  The  Swedes  have  played  uselessly  an  obscure  and  subor- 

gradually  did  functions  of  government  pass  into  its  hands.  Under  Warren  Hastings, 
the  first  governor-general  of  India,  the  full  administration  of  Bengal  was  undertaken, 
and  in  various  ways  control  was  exercised  over  regions  in  which  native  princes  con- 
tinued to  rule.  The  anomaly  of  a  commercial  company  governing  so  great  an  empire 
led  the  British  Parliament,  in  1784,  to  establish  a  governmental  Board  of  Control 
in  England,  to  supervise  the  political  side  of  the  company's  action ;  but  it  was  not 
until  1858  that  the  company's  government  came  entirely  to  an  end  (§  817). 


THE  FOUNDING  OF  THE   BRITISH   EMPIRE          459 

dinate  role.  Our  own  part  has  been  extravagant  and  shameful." 
Great  Britain  had  profited  because  Pitt  had  concentrated  his 
efforts  on  advancing  England's  real  interests,  instead  of  wasting 
his  country's  energies,  as  France  did,  on  the  European  struggle. 
It  has  well  been  said  that  in  this  war  "the  kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  became  the  British  Empire." 

Sea  power  was  both  an  object  and  the  principal  weapon  of 
England  in  all  her  wars  with  France  from  1688  to  1815.     Ac- 
cording to  the  leading  writer  on  this  subject,  sea  power  s  6  Growth 
rests  upon  "  (i)  production,  with  the  necessity  of  exchang-  of  England's 
ing  products;     (2)   shipping,   whereby   the  exchange   is  s 
carried  on;    and  (3)  colonies,  which  facilitate  and  enlarge  the 
operation  of  shipping  and  tend  to  protect  it  by  multiplying 
points    of   safety."      England  was   marked  out  for  sea  Mahan  sea 
power  by  its  geographical  situation,  and  from  the  begin-  Power  (1660- 
ning  of  the  seventeenth  century  popular  sentiment  and  I7      2 
governmental  policy  were  directed  to  this  end.     Holland's  mari- 
time power  was  weakened  by  the  English  Navigation  Act  (1651), 
crippled  by  the  English  wars  which  followed  that  act  (§  450), 
and  ruined  by  the  attacks  of  Louis  XIV  which  forced  her  into 
submissive   alliance  with   England.     France's  sea  power  had 
rested  upon  action  by  the  government  rather  than  by  the  people ; 
and  when  Louis  XIV  began  his  territorial  conquests,,  he  sacri- 
ficed to  his  land  wars  France's  colonies,  shipping,  and  every- 
thing save  actual  fighting  vessels.     By  1756  France  had  but  45 
battleships,  to  Great   Britain's   130,  and  her  whole  navy  was 
demoralized.     In  the  course  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  her  small 
naval  squadrons  were  destroyed  by  the  superior  force  of  her  an- 
tagonist, her  mercantile  shipping  was  swept  from  the  seas,  and 
her  colonies  were  conquered  by  British  troops.     The  damage 
once  done  could  not  be  repaired.     The  outcome  of  this  struggle 
has  influenced  the  whole  course  of  subsequent  history.     With 
a  land  narrow  in  extent  and  relatively  poor  in  natural  resources, 
England  has  grown  rich  largely  through  the  possession  of  sea 
power.     Her  riches  in  turn  enabled  her  to  grant  large  sub- 
sidies of  money  to  her  continental  allies;   and  her  wealth  and 


460  WIDENING  AREA  OF   EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

navy  together  have  given  her,  at  critical  times,  the  foremost 
role  in  European  affairs. 

The  domestic  history  of  Great  Britain  in  the  second  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century  centers  largely  in  a  series  of  inventions 
547.  Inter-     an<^  changes  in  manufacturing  which  we  call  the  Industrial 
nai  history      Revolution.     These  are  of  supreme  importance,  but  we 
shall  not  attempt  to  describe  them  until  a  later  chapter, 
when  the  movement  can  be  dealt  with  as  a  whole.     Other  mat- 
ters of  note  in  the  later  eighteenth  century  are  (i)  the  political 
struggles  which  arose  out  of  George  Ill's  attempt  to  impose 
his  personal  will  on  the  nation,  and  (2)  the  loss  through  revolt 
of  the  thirteen  American  colonies. 

In  order  to  break  down  the  rule  of  the  great  Whig  families, 
George  III  sought,  through  the  use  of  bribes  and  crown  patron- 
age, to  build  up  in  Parliament  a  party  controlled  by  himself  and 
called  "the  king's  friends."  George  III  was  a  good  man  and 
was  attentive  to  business,  but  he  had  very  little  understanding. 
"He  inflicted  more  permanent  and  enduring  injuries  upon  his 
country,"  says  the  English  historian  Lecky,  "than  any  other 
modern  English  king.  He  spent  a  long  life  in  obstinately  resist- 
ing measures  which  are  now  almost  universally  admitted  to  have 
been  good,  and  in  supporting  measures  which  are  as  universally 
admitted  to  have  been  bad."  His  support  enabled  the  Tories 
to  regain  control  of  the  government,  after  nearly  fifty  years' 
exclusion  from  power  (since  1714).  For  twelve  years  (1770- 
1782)  the  amiable  Lord  North  was  nominally  prime  minister, 
though  he  disapproved  of  many  of  the  measures  which  his  royal 
master  insisted  on  carrying  out.  During  his  administration 
occurred  the  war  with  the  American  colonies,  a  contest  with 
which  Lord  North's  name  is  always  associated,  but  of  which 
he  did  not  wholly  approve. 

The  details  of  the  revolt  of  the  American  colonies  lie  outside 

the  scope  of  this  volume.     Its  causes  are  to  be  found  rather  in 

the  character  of  the  colonists  and  in  the  nature  of  their 

<rf  colonies*    situation,  than  in  any  special  oppressive  acts  of  the  Brit- 

in  America     ish   government.     Accustomed   as   Englishmen   were    to 


THE   FOUNDING  OF  THE   BRITISH   EMPIRE  461 

liberty  and  self-government,  it  was  inevitable  that  they  should 
resent  any  attempt  at  control  which  they  thought  injurious  to 
their  interests.  This  was  especially  true  when  the  government 
which  exercised  the  control  was  located  three  thousand  miles 
across  the  Atlantic.  So  long  as  there  was  danger  to  the  colo- 
nists from  the  near  neighborhood  of  the  French  in  Canada,  this 
tendency  remained  undeveloped.  But  when,  after  the  over- 
throw of  the  French  power,  the  British  government  sought  to 
exercise  rights  of  taxation  and  the  like  (which  in  theory  the  col- 
onists hitherto  had  recognized)  the  revolt  came.  The  aid  which 
France  gave  to  the  colonies,  after  1778,  perhaps  had  motives 
among  the  upper  classes  other  than  those  of  selfish  policy.  By 
French  statesmen  generally,  however,  the  war  was  regarded 
mainly  as  an  opportunity  for  revenge  upon  England.  Spain 
entered  into  the  war  (1779)  in  a  vain  attempt  to  recover  Gibral- 
tar. Holland  was  forced  into  it  (1780)  by  questions  of  trade. 
Russia,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  Austria  formed  (in 
1780)  the  "  Armed  Neutrality  of  the  North,"  which  asserted  the 
doctrine,  against  Great  Britain's  practice,  that  "free  ships 
make  free  goods,"  and  sought  in  general  to  secure  protection  for 
neutral  commerce.  The  disaster  to  the  British  arms  at  York- 
town  (1781),  and  the  menacing  aspect  of  European  affairs,  finally 
forced  George  III  to  grant  the  independence  of  the  colonies.  A 
general  peace  was  made  at  Paris  in  1782-1783.  Spain  recovered 
Florida,  and  France  received  a  few  islands  from  Great  Britain. 
But  to  France  the  war  brought  financial  bankruptcy,  while  the 
example  of  the  American  revolt  aided  the  growth  of  revolutionary 
ideas  among  her  own  citizens. 

Great  Britain  came  out  of  the  American  war  with  diminished 
prestige  and  curtailed  empire.  It  was  generally  believed  that 
her  decay  had  begun.  That  this  proved  not  to  be  the  case  was 
due  mainly  to  two  causes  :  (i)  To  the  ever  increasing  flood  of 
wealth  and  strength  which  she  drew  from  the  Industrial  Revolu- 
tion. (2)  To  the  beginning  of  a  new  colonial  dominion,  in  Aus- 
tralia and  New  Zealand,  which  compensated  for  the  loss  of  the 
thirteen  colonies. 


462  WIDENING  AREA  OF  EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

Australia  was  the  last  of  the  continents  to  be  discovered  and 
colonized.  Although  visited  by  Dutch  and  English  vessels  in 

549.  Colo-      the  seventeenth  century,  it  was  not  until  the  famous  Eng- 
AustraUa°       ^s^  nayigator  Captain  Cook  explored  its  shores  (in  1769, 
(1788)  1772,  and  1776)  that  it  was  opened  to  European  enterprise. 

The  first  British  settlement  was  founded  at  Botany  Bay,  in 
New  South  Wales  (1788),  as  a  convict  settlement.  From  this 
small  beginning  the  British  occupation  grew  until  the  whole  con- 
tinent, together  with  the  neighboring  islands  of  New  Zealand,  was 
brought  into  the  British  Empire.  At  the  time,  the  acquisition 
of  these  distant  and  unpromising  lands  seemed  a  matter  of  very 
slight  consequence.  By  their  later  growth  they  have  become 
one  of  the  most  prosperous  and  important  parts  of  the  British 
colonies,  and  a  distinct  source  of  strength  to  that  British  Empire 
"on  which  the  sun  never  sets." 

C.  THE  PARTITIONS  or  POLAND 

From  the  treaties  of  Hubertsburg  and  Paris,  in  1763,  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution,  there  was  no 
general  European  conflict.  But  at  no  time  has  self-interest  so 
unscrupulously  been  made  the  rule  of  action  of  European  states, 
and  at  no  time  have  the  weaker  states  been  more  exposed  to 
attacks  from  their  more  powerful  neighbors.  The  destruction 
of  Poland,  through  successive  partitions,  was  the  greatest  of 
such  national  crimes. 

Next  to  Russia,  Poland  was  the  most  extensive  country  of 
Europe.  Its  monarchy  was  elective,  and  at  each  successive 

550.  An-        election  the  power  of  the  crown  was  diminished,  until  the 
weakness       king  was  practically  powerless.     In  the  eighteenth  century 
of  Poland       Poland  "had  no  ambassadors  at  foreign  courts,  the  land 

had  no  fortresses,  no  navy,  no  roads,  no  arsenals,  no  treasury,  no 
fixed  revenue."  The  ministers  of  the  crown  and  the  governors 
of  the  provinces  held  office  for  life,  and  were  irremovable.  Peace 
and  war,  the  making  of  laws,  and  the  levying  of  taxes,  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  Diet,  which  was  composed  exclusively  of  rep- 


THE  PARTITIONS  OF  POLAND  463 

resentatives  of  the  nobles.  Absolute  unanimity,  moreover,  was 
necessary  in  the  proceedings  of  this  body,  owing  to  the  existence 
of  a  peculiar  institution  called  the  liber um  veto.  If  any  deputy 
believed  that  a  measure  already  approved  by  the  rest  of  the 
Diet  was  injurious  to  his  constituency,  he  had  the  right  to  arise 
and  exclaim,  "I  disapprove";  and  the  measure  in  question 
was  at  once  dropped.  In  addition  to  political  anarchy,  there 
was  also  racial  and  religious  disunion.  The  population  con- 
sisted of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  Russians,  Germans,  and  Jews. 
Alongside  of  the  established  Roman  Catholic  Church  were  the 
persecuted  sects  of  Greek  Catholics  and  Protestants.  In  some 
of  the  towns  the  Jews  made  up  more  than  half  of  the  population, 
and  what  little  trade  existed  was  mainly  in  their  hands.  Prac- 
tically the  Third  Estate  did  not  exist  in  Poland.  The  popu- 
lation consisted  of  something  over  one  million  nobles  and  thir- 
teen million  serfs.  The  nobles  owed  their  power  to  their  sole 
right  to  bear  arms  and  to  own  land.  The  estates  of  some  nobles 
were  very  small.  It  was  said  jokingly  that  often  when  a  noble's 
dog  lay  down  in  the  middle  of  the  family  estate,  his  tail  extended 
into  the  domain  of  his  master's  neighbor.  The  peasants  were 
still  attached  to  the  soil  as  in  medieval  times  (§188),  and  the 
whole  product  of  their  labor  belonged  to  their  masters.  The 
nobles  still  held  their  manorial  courts  and  exercised  the  power 
of  life  and  death  over  their  serfs.  The  Polish  peasants,  in  short, 
were  "the  poorest,  most  oppressed,  and  most  miserable  in  the 
world." 

Naturally  the  weakness,  disorder,  and  disunion  of  this  great 
land  excited  the  greed  of  its  unscrupulous  neighbors.     Catherine 
II  of  Russia  determined  to  seize  a  portion  of  Poland,  and  5SI  Its 
Frederick  the  Great  persuaded  Austria  to  join  him  in   extinction 
forcing  Catherine  to  share  with  them  the  booty.     Thus   ^a 
began  the  "vast  national  crime"  by  which,  in  three  successive 
partitions,  Poland  was  annexed  by  the  three  powers,     (i)  In 
the  first  partition,  in  1772,  Prussia  took  the  district  of  West 
Prussia,    which   she  coveted,  thus  filling  in  the   gap   separat- 
ing   East    Prussia    from    Brandenburg.     Russia   and   Austria 


464 


WIDENING  AREA  OF   EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 


each  took  districts  (shown  on  the  map)  which  bordered  on  their 
territories.  (2)  Sweeping  reforms  were  now  carried  out  by  the 
Poles,  and  a  new  constitution  adopted  (1791)  which  made  the 
monarchy  hereditary  and  abolished  the  liberum  veto.  But 
discontented  nobles  plotted  with  Russia  and  Prussia  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  new  government,  and  the  price  of  their  aid  was 


mm 


PARTITIONS  or  POLAND 

a  second  and  more  extensive  partition  (1793).  Austria  was  at 
the  time  engaged  in  war  with  revolutionary  France,  and  her 
claims  to  a  share  in  the  spoil  were  disregarded.  (3)  Two  years 
later  (1795)  an  attempted  revolution  by  the  Polish  patriot 
Kosciusko  was  made  the  excuse  for  a  third  and  final  partition, 
in  which  all  three  powers  shared. 

By  these  successive  partitions  the  great  kingdom  of  Poland 
was  entirely  wiped  off  the  map.      Its  extinction  was   made 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  465 

possible  by  the  selfish  policy  of  the  nobles,  and  by  an  easily 
understood  lack  of  any  feeling  of  national  patriotism  on  the 
part  of  the  crushed  and  downtrodden  peasantry.  But  since  the 
loss  of  their  independence,  a  new  sentiment  of  nationality  has 
arisen  among  the  Poles,  manifesting  itself  in  revolts  and  in  still 
unquenched  hatred  for  their  foreign  masters. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1740.  Accession  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

1748.  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  ends  war  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 

1756.  The  Severi  Years'  War  in  Europe  begun. 

I757-  Clive  wins  the  battle  of  Plassey. 

1759-  Quebec  taken  by  General  Wolfe. 

1760.  Accession  of  George  III. 

1763.  Peace  of  Hubertsburg;  Peace  of  Paris. 

1772.  First  Partition  of  Poland. 

I775~i783.  The  American  Revolution. 

1786.  Death  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

1788.  British  colonization  of  Australia  begun. 

1793.  Second  Partition  of  Poland. 

1795.  Third  Partition  of  Poland. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Were  the  European  wars  of  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  more  or  less  important  than  the  religious  wars  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  ?  Why  ?  (2)  Was  the  treatment  of  young 
Frederick  the  Great  by  his  father  wise  or  unwise  ?  Why  ?  (3)  Was  Fred- 
erick's attack  on  Austria  worse  than  that  of  Peter  the  Great  on  Sweden  ? 
(4)  What  qualities  of  greatness  did  Maria  Theresa  show  ?  (5)  Was  Fred- 
erick justified  in  his  attack  on  Saxony  in  1756?  (6)  What  qualities  of 
greatness  does  Frederick  show  as  a  general  ?  In  the  administration  of  his 
kingdom  ?  (7)  Which  is  most  important  in  the  history  of  the  world,  the 
battles  of  Rossbach  and  Leuthen,  the  battle  of  Plassey,  or  the  capture  of 
Quebec?  Why?  (8)  Why  was  France  so  unsuccessful  in  these  wars? 
(9)  To  whom  belongs  the  chief  credit  for  England's  success?  (10)  Of 
what  value  was  the  acquisition  of  supremacy  in  India  to  Great  Britain  ? 
(n)  Which  was  more  important  to  her,  the  loss  of  the  American  colonies  or 
the  acquisition  of  Australia?  (12)  With  whom  should  the  chief  blame  for 
the  loss  of  Poland's  independence  be  placed?  (13)  What  restrains  the 
Great  Powers  of  Europe  to-day  from  partitioning  weaker  countries  ? 


466  WIDENING   AREA  OF   EUROPEAN   RIVALRY 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  YOUTH  OF  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT.  Henderson, 
Short  History  of  Germany,  II,  29-38;  Lavisse,  Youth  of  Frederick  the  Great; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  65-66.  —  (2)  MARIA  THERESA.  Hender- 
son, Short  History,  II,  129-130;  Bright,  Maria  Theresa,  chs.  i,  ix.  — 
(3)  FREDERICK  THE  GREAT  AS  ENLIGHTENED  DESPOT.  Henderson,  Short 
History,  II,  194-204;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  205-208.  —  (4)  THE 
MISSISSIPPI  BUBBLE.  Adams,  Growth  of  the  French  Nation,  237-240.  — 
(5)  THE  TAKING  OF  QUEBEC.  Beard,  Introduction  to  the  English  Historians, 
452-465;  Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe;  Kendall,  Source  Book,  345-349. 

—  (6)  RISE  OF  BRITISH  DOMINION  IN  INDIA.     Beard,  Introduction,  443- 
451;     Seeley,    Expansion   of  England,  Series   II,    lect.  3;     Green,  Short 
History,  745-746,  753-754;    Lyall,  Rise  of  British  Dominion  in  India.  —  (7) 
CHARACTER  AND  SERVICES  OF  WILLIAM   PITT  THE  ELDER.     Green,  Short 
History,    749-753;  Macaulay   Essays  ("William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham"). 

—  (8)  PERSONAL  GOVERNMENT  OF  GEORGE  III.    Beard,  Introduction,  492- 
504;  Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  III,  167-183.  —  (9)  ENGLISH 
COLONIAL  POLICY.     Seeley,  Expansion  of  England,  lect.  4;  Egerton,  Origin 
and  Growth  of  the  English  Colonies,   chs.   iii,  iv.  —  (10)  FRANCE  IN  THE 
AMERICAN  WAR  OF  INDEPENDENCE.       Guizot,  Concise  History  of  France, 
540-551;     Robinson,  Readings,  II,  370-373.  —  (n)    THE  PARTITIONS  OF 
POLAND.       Henderson,  Short  History,  II,  205-208;    Hassall,   Balance  of 
Power,  303-318;    Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XXI,  916-920. 

General  Reading.  —  Longman's  Frederick  the  Great  and  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  Johnson's  Age  of  the  Enlightened  Despot,  and  Hassall' s  Balance  of 
Power  are  the  best  short  books.  Lavisse,  The  Youth  of  Frederick  the  Great, 
is  as  interesting  as  a  historical  novel.  Tuttle's  History  of  Prussia  (4  vols.) 
and  Carlyle's  Frederick  the  Great  (many  editions)  are  standard  works. 
Seeley's  brilliant  Expansion  of  England  shows  England's  interest  in  the 
wars  of  the  eighteenth  century. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 
THE  EVE   OF   THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

A.  THE  OLD  REGIME  IN  EUROPE 

THE  eighteenth  century  closed  with  an  upheaval  of  the  French 
people    which    overturned    the    existing    system  of    Europe. 
It  again  raised  France  from  a  position  of  weakness  to  552.  Char- 
one  of  power,  and  it  spread   abroad   ideas  which  have  ^pen^inge 
shaped  all  subsequent  history.     The  English  Revolution  revolution 
of  1688,  and  the  American  Revolution  of  1775,  both  brought  to 
logical  completion  institutions  of  long  and  steady  growth.     The 
French  Revolution,  on  the  other  hand,  broke  sharply  with  the 
past,  and  changed  the  direction  of  national  development.     It 
is  the  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  to  examine  the  facts  in 
the  general  situation  which  made  this  revolution  possible,  and 
to  sketch  the  new  ideas  which  guided  its  progress. 

Throughout    Europe,    even    before  the  eighteenth    century, 
the  medieval  system  in  church  and  state  had  broken  down. 
Its  overthrow  was  the  result  of  movements  which  have  g53  Mean. 
been  described  in  earlier  chapters,  — the  growth  of  com-  ing  of  Old 
merce  and  of  the  towns,  the  rise  of  national  states,  the 
Renaissance,   and   the  -Reformation.      Nevertheless,  in   every 
country  of  Europe  there  still  survived  many  relics  of  the  old  sys- 
tem, now  become  serious  abuses.    It  is  to  this  condition  of  half- 
overthrown  medievalism  that  the  name  of  Old  Regime  is  given. 

Though  serfdom  was  extinct  in  England,  and  nearly  so  in 
France,  it  still  prevailed  in  central,  southern,  and  eastern  Eu- 
rope.    In  those   lands   the  peasant  was  little  better  off  5g4  Sur_ 
than  the  negro  slave  in  America.     He  was  still  bound   vivals  of 
to  the  soil  and  compelled  to  work  for  his  lord.     He  used   s 
the  same  crude  tools  as  his  ancestors,  and  lived  in  the  same  sort 

467 


468  THE   EVE  OF  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

of  wretched  hovel  as  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Conditions  were 
probably  blackest  in  Russia,  Poland,  Austria,  and  Hungary, 
where  even  to-day  the  lot  of  the  peasant  is  exceedingly  hard. 

In  the  towns  the  guilds,  which  had  once  done  good  service  to 
the  cause  of  liberty,  had  become  burdensome  and  oppressive. 
555-  Op-        In  many  places  the  master  workmen  alone  were  members 
guiiTregu-     °^  tne  guu<ds,  and  their  chief  object  was  to  maintain  a 
lations  monopoly  in  the  products  of  their  manufacture.     To  this 

end  the  number  of  masters  who  might  open  shops,  the  number 
of  apprentices  whom  each  might  train,  the  length  of  apprentice- 
ship and  the  methods  of  manufacture,  were  minutely  regulated ; 
and  these  regulations  were  enforced  by  the  authority  of  the  state. 
A  workman  had  to  confine  himself  to  the  limits  laid  down  for 
his  craft.  A  barber  was  not  permitted  to  curl  hair,  nor  a  baker 
to  roast  meat  in  his  oven  for  a  customer ;  for  such  acts  infringed 
the  monopolies  of  other  guilds.  If  a  journeyman  attempted 
to  set  up  a  shop  for  himself,  without  being  admitted  to  the  mas- 
ter's guild  of  that  trade,  he  was  liable  to  fine,  imprisonment,  and 
confiscation  of  his  tools  and  materials.  The  jealous  and  ex- 
clusive policy  of  the  guilds  developed  bitter  antagonism  between 
the  artisans  and  the  well-to-do  class  of  master  workmen  and 
traders,  whom  we  call  bourgeois  (boor-zhwa/)-  The  strictness 
of  guild  regulations  also  greatly  hampered  progress.  In  Paris, 
for  example,  a  hat-maker's  stock  was  destroyed  because  he  had 
improved  the  quality  of  his  hats  (and  so  increased  his  business) 
by  mixing  silk  in  their  manufacture  where  the  guild  regulations 
called  for  the  use  of  pure  wool.  Nor  was  this  an  isolated  case. 
"Each  week  for  a  number  of  years,"  said  an  inspector  of  manu- 
factures, "I  have  seen  burned  at  Rouen  eighty  to  one  hundred 
pieces  of  goods,  because  some  regulation  concerning  the  weaving 
or  dyeing  had  not  been  observed  at  every  point." 

Similar  medieval  survivals  may  be  traced  in  the  special  priv- 

556.  Posi-      ileges' en  joyed  by  the  two  upper  classes  of  society.     The 

tion  of  the      nobles  of  the  eighteenth  century  were  no  longer  the  lawless 

nobles  robber  knights  of    the  Middle  Ages.      They  were  great 

landed  proprietors,  without  any  of  the  military  duties  which 


THE  OLD  REGIME  IN  EUROPE          469 

were  the  excuse  for  their  noble  rank  in  the  feudal  days. 
They  retained,  however,  many  class  privileges  and  exemptions, 
which  will  be  discussed  later  in  connection  with  France.1 

The  other  great  privileged  order  was  the  clergy.  In  Catholic 
countries  churchmen  still  retained  much  of  the  power  which 
they  had  exercised  throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  The  S57  Power 
upper  clergy,  drawn  largely  from  the  nobles,  enjoyed  of  the 
enormous  incomes  from  the  church  estates  and  from  the  c 
tithes  which  the  laity  were  still  forced  to  pay.  Many  judicial 
causes  were  tried  in  church  courts ;  and  the  clergy  alone  regis- 
tered births  and  deaths,  and  solemnized  marriages.  This  made 
it  impossible  for  Protestants  in  Catholic  countries  to  marry 
legally  and  have  legitimate  children,  or  to  inherit  or  to  will 
property.  Schools,  hospitals,  and  charitable  institutions  were 
all  in  the  control  of  the  church.  Persecution  for  nonconformity 
continued,  though  executions  had  become  less  frequent.2  Strong 
efforts  were  made  to  suppress  freedom  of  thought  by  means  of 
a  censorship  of  the  press.  The  suppression  of  the  books  con- 
demned by  the  church  was  usually  enforced  by  the  state,  and 
such  copies  as  could  be  seized  were  burned,  and  their  authors 
and  publishers  (so  far  as  discoverable)  were  imprisoned.  The 
censorship,  however,  was  not  very  effective.  The  spirit  of 
reform  was  in  the  air,  and  there  was  an  eager  demand  for  books 
attacking  the  evils  of  church  and  state.  Printers  and  authors 
were  able  to  meet  this  demand  by  publishing  their  books  and 
pamphlets  secretly,  or  by  printing  them  in  England,  Holland, 
and  Geneva,  where  the  press  was  more  free. 

In  England,  where  personal  and  political  liberty  was  most 
advanced,  and  religious  toleration  was  granted  to  Protestant 
dissenters,  great  intolerance  was  long  shown  to  Roman  Catholics. 

1  In  Germany  several  hundred  of  the  feudal  nobles,  because  of  their  impregnable 
castles  and  other  advantages,  had  been  able  to  maintain  their  independence  of  the 
great  princely  states.     They  were  under  the  authority  of  the  Emperor  alone,  and 
are  reckoned  among  the  sovereign  princes  of  Europe,  though  some  of  them  ruled 
only  a  few  square  miles  of  territory. 

2  In  Spain,  however,  one  thousand  heretics  are  said  to  have  been  burned  between 
1700  and  1746.  —  Encyclopedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XX,  714. 


470  THE  EVE  OF  THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


B.  THE  SPIRIT  OF  REFORM 

In  the  sixteenth  century  men  applied  the  test  of  reasonable- 
ness, instead  of  tradition  or  authority,  to  matters  of  scholarship 
and  religion.  In  the  eighteenth  century  this  test  was  extended 
to  everyday  life  and  to  government,  and  whatever  was  found 
unreasonable  was  relentlessly  attacked. 

In  part  this  wider  application  of  reason  to  human  affairs  was 
due  to  the  advance  of  science,  which  had  gone  on  steadily  since 

558.  The        the  Renaissance.     Newton  in  the  seventeenth  century  had 
advance  of     shown  that  the  whole  universe  is  bound  together  by  the 

unseen  force  of  gravitation.  The  invention  of  the  tele- 
scope had  proved  that  the  planets  are  worlds  like  our  own.  The 
microscope  had  revealed  a  hitherto  unsuspected  realm  of  minute 
organic  life  all  about  us.  The  old  Greek  philosophers  had 
taught  that  everything  is  reducible  to  four  " elements"  —  earth, 
air,  fire,  and  water;  but  Lavoisier  (la-vwa-zya/),  the  founder 
of  modern  chemistry  (died  1794),  disproved  this  by  decompos- 
ing air  and  water  into  the  elements  we  know  as  gases,  and  show- 
ing that  fire  is  really  oxidation,  a  process  in  which  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmosphere  rapidly  combines  with  the  substance  burned. 

Such  discoveries  as  these  inevitably  broadened  men's  con- 
ceptions of  the  universe  and  of  God.  They  became  less  ready 
to  accept  the  teachings  of  authority  and  tradition,  since  experi- 
ence showed  in  so  many  instances  that  the  old  ideas  were  mis- 
taken. Scholars  now  tended  to  rely  in  all  matters  on  the  knowl- 
edge gained  through  the  application  of  reason  to  the  facts  of 
everyday  life,  as  ascertained  by  observation  and  experiment. 
The  ends  sought  by  eighteenth-century  philosophy  were  chiefly 
these:  (i)  greater  knowledge  of  the  material  universe,  and  (2) 
various  practical  reforms,  such  as  religious  toleration,  political 
liberty,  economic  and  social  equality,  and  natural  education. 

The  revolt  against  tradition  and  authority  originated  in  Eng- 

559.  Eng-      land,  where  there  was  more  freedom  of  thought,  of  speech, 
eneeon*"       anc*  °^  acti°n  tnan  elsewhere.     English  scientists  and  phi- 
France  losophers,  of  whom  John  Locke  (1632-1704)  was  chief, 


THE   SPIRIT  OF  REFORM 


471 


then  became  the  teachers  of  a  group  of  brilliant  Frenchmen, 
who  spread  the  new  teachings  throughout  Europe.  Voltaire, 
Montesquieu,  and  Rousseau  were  foremost  in  this  work. 

Voltaire  (vol-tar')  was  unsurpassed  in  his  mocking  wit  and 
biting  satire,  his  keen  thought  and  vigorous  style.     He  sprang 
from  the  middle  class,  and  early  felt  the  tyranny  of  the  g6o  Vol_ 
crown  by  being  imprisoned  for  libel  on  a  lettre  de  cachet,   taire  (1694- 
He  was  taught  the  insolence  of  the  nobility  by  a  beating   I7?8^ 
at  the  hands  of  hired  ruffians  employed  by  an  arrogant  and  dis- 
solute nobleman  of  Paris.     He  "learned  to  think"  during  three 
years  of  exile  in  Eng- 
land.   After  his  return 
to    France,    he    made 
untiring  assaults  upon 
superstition,  fanati- 
cism, intolerance,  and 
injustice.     He  was  re- 
lentless in,  his  attacks 
upon  the  church,  which 
he  believed   to  be  an 
obstacle  to  human 
progress  because  it  sup- 
pressed  freedom  of 
thought.      In    religion 
he  was  a  deist, —  that 
is,  he  believed  in  God 
and  in  the  immortality 
of  the  soul,  but  he  re- 
fused  to   believe  that 
God  had  revealed  Him- 
self    to     the     Jewish 
people  alone.    Voltaire 

put  Christianity  on  the  same  plane  with  Judaism,  Mohamme- 
danism, and  Buddhism.  He  relied  upon  man's  reason  for  the 
discovery  of  God's  laws.  He  attacked  religious  intolerance  es- 
pecially, and  perhaps  did  more  than  any  other  man  to  free  the 


VOLTAIRE 


472 


THE  EVE  OF  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


world  of  that  curse.  He  exercised  a  tremendous  influence  on 
the  thought  of  his  time.  A  French  historian  says  that  "he 
filled  the  eighteenth  century." 

Voltaire,  however,  did  not  attack  the  political  forms  of  the 
Old  Regime.     His  famous  contemporary,  Mpnte^ciijieu^(mon- 
561   Mon-     tes-ku'),  extended  the  application  of  reason  and  experience 
tesquieu         to  this  field  also.     In  an  epoch-making  work,  entitled 
(1689-1755)    The  Spirit  of  Laws,  Montesquieu  drew  the  attention  of 
his  countrymen  to  the  abuses  in  their  government.     He  con- 
trasted these  with  English  political  liberty  and  parliamentary 
government.     But, — faithful  to  his  model,  the  English  constitu- 
tion, —  Montesquieu  abhorred  the  idea  of  democracy  as  much 
as  that  opposite  extreme,  absolute  government. 

Rousseau  (roo-so')  was  the  apostle  of  Liberty,  Equality,  and 
Fraternity,  —  the  new  gospel  whose  golden  dream  inspired  men 

562.  Rous-      to  h°Pe  for  the  im- 
seau  (1712-    mediate  attainment 

I778)  of  the  social  millen- 

nium. Rousseau  looked 
upon  civilization,  —  espe- 
cially the  stilted,  artificial 
civilization  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  —  as  the 
cause  of  all  the  evils  which 
mankind  suffered.  He 
sought,  therefore,  to  turn 
men  "back  to  nature." 
He  believed  that  in  the 
"state  of  nature,"  before 
governments  arose,  all  men 
were  good  and  all  men 
were  equal.  This  belief 

led  him   to    inquire   into  ROUSSEAU 

the  origin  and  nature  of 

governments.     In  his  most  celebrated  work,  The  Social  Con- 
tract, he  begins  as  follows:  "Man  is  born  free,  and  yet  is  now 


THE  SPIRIT   OF   REFORM  473 

everywhere  in  chains."  The  state,  he  taught,  is  the  outcome 
of  a  compact,  freely  entered  into,  by  which  each  man  surren- 
dered his  individual  liberty  to  the  general  will.  The  whole 
people,  therefore,  constitute  the  sovereign  power.  Though 
they  may  allow  a  single  person,  such  as  a  king,  to  manage  the 
government  for  them,  the  people  always  retain  the  right  to  de- 
pose their  rulers  and  to  change  the  constitution  of  their  gov- 
ernment. The  teachings  of  Rousseau  became  immensely  popu- 
lar with  all  classes,  for  he  voiced  eloquently  and  passionately 
their  discontent.  The  enthusiasts  of  the  French  Revolution 
drew  their  inspiration  most  of  all  from  Rousseau.  His  Social 
Contract  has  been  called  "the  gospel  of  modern  democracy." 

Similar  ideas  of  freedom  were  stirring  in  the  field  of  economics 
also.  .  Against  the  minute  regulation  of  industry  and  commerce, 
exercised  by  the  guilds  and  by  the  government,  was  raised  6  Rige 
the  doctrine  of  freedom  of  manufacture  and  freedom  of  of  political 
transportation.  This  doctrine  was  embodied  in  the  e 
words,  Laissez  faire,  laissez  passer  (le-sa  far',  le-sa  pa-sa').  The 
new  ideas  originated  with  a  group  of  French  writers,  who  may 
be  said  to  have  founded  political  economy  as  a  science.  Upon 
the  basis  which  they  laid,  Adam  Smith  (a  Scotchman)  developed 
his  great  work,  The  Wealth  of  Nations  (published  1776),  which 
became  the  chief  treatise  of  the  new  science.  Its  author  main- 
tained that  it  was  unwise  for  governments  to  attempt  to  interfere 
with  natural  economic  laws.  He  advocated  especially  a  policy 
of  "free  trade,"  •  — that  is,  the  abolition  of  practically  all  im- 
port and  export  tariff  duties  —  a  policy  which  Great  Britain 
adopted  two  generations  later,  and  still  continues  to  follow. 

In  every  department  of  thought  —  religion,  morals,  govern- 
ment, science  —  there  was  new  activity.     The  old  systems  were 
vigorously  assailed  from  countless  points  of  view.     To  _6    Diderot 
gather  up  and  popularize  the  results  of  the  new  studies  —  and  the 
to  advance  knowledge,  and  to  arouse  enthusiasm  for  re-  Encycl°Pedia 
form  —  a  great  French  Encyclopedia  was  projected.     This  work 
was  written  by  a  group  of  scholars,  of  whom  the  chief  was  Dide- 
rot (ded-ro')-     It  was   completed  in  thirty-seven  volumes  (in 


474  THE   EVE   OF   THE   FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

1771),  after  much  governmental  interference.  "The  Ency- 
clopedia was  like  a  general  rising,  a  battle  array,  of  all  the  men 
of  the  new  era,  against  all  the  powers  of  the  past.  It  was  the 
great  effort  of  the  eighteenth  century." 

Men  of  the  Third  Estate  led  in  these  intellectual  movements, 
but  the  new  ideas  were  taken  up  by  nobles,  priests,  and  kings 

565.  The        as  well.     Voltaire  resided  for  several  years  as  a  guest  at 

beTomettie  the  court  of  Frederick  the  Great  in  Prussia ;  and  Catherine 
fashion  II  of  Russia  subscribed  for  the  Encyclopedia  and  tried  to 
bring  its  leading  writers  to  her  court.  In  France  disgust  with 
the  court  and  ministers  rendered  a  great  part  of  the  nobles 
"almost  democrats."  The  spread  of  the  liberal  movement  there 
was  helped  by  the  fact  that  many  French  nobles  had  served  in 
the  American  War  of  Independence,  and  came  back  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  liberty  and  admiration  for  republican  ideas. 

C.   REFORMS  OF  THE  "ENLIGHTENED  DESPOTS" 

It  was  natural  that  the  first  attempts  at  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  new  reform  ideas  should  come  from  the  sovereigns 

566.  The        who  were  influenced  by  the  movement.     They  recognized 
emjd  des~-       that  g°vernments  existed  for  the  good  of  their  subjects, 
pots"          .  though  they  rejected  the  ideas  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 

people,  of  nationality  as  a  necessary  basis  for  the  state,  and  of 
inviolable  safeguards  to  individual  liberty.  The  removal  of  the 
medieval  survivals  in  industry,  in  religion,  and  in  the  state 
would  promote  prosperity  among  their  peoples  without  (as  they 
thought)  limiting  their  own  absolute  power.  Consequently, 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  Catherine  II  of  Russia,  and  other 
enlightened  rulers  undertook  many  sweeping  reforms  in  their 
territories.  It  is  to  such  rulers  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 
the  name  "enlightened  despots"  is  applied.  It  is  curious  that 
some  of  the  most  striking  attempts  in  this  line  came  from  the 
sovereigns  who  were  engaged  in  the  crime  of  partitioning  Poland. 
This  fact  shows  the  admixture  in  their  policies  of  the  ideas  of  the 
Old  Regime  along  with  those  of  the  dawning  new  era. 


REFORMS  OF  THE   "ENLIGHTENED   DESPOTS"       475 

The  reform  attempts  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II  illustrate  both  - 
the  good  and  the  evil  sides  of  enlightened  despotism.     His 
scheme  of  domestic  policy  for  the  motley  Hapsburg  states  567.  Re- 

(maps,  pp.  482  and  602)  was  "no  less  than  to  consolidate  forms  of 
.    .         .       '  ,.  ,     Emperor 

all  his  dominions  into  one  homogeneous  whole ;   to  abolish   Joseph  H 

all  privileges  and  exclusive  rights;  to  obliterate  the  (1765-1790) 
boundaries  of  nations,  and  substitute  for  them  a  mere  admin- 
istrative division  of  his  whole  empire ;  to  merge  all  nationalities 
and  establish  a  uniform  code  of  justice ;  to  raise  the  mass  of  Merivale 
the  community  to  legal  equality  with  their  former  masters ;  Historical 
to  constitute  a  uniform  level  of  democratic  simplicity  under  Studtes' I2 
his  own  absolute  sway."  These  sweeping  changes  he  tried  to 
carry  out  within  the  short  space  of  five  years.  He  began  by 
abolishing  serfdom  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Galicia,  and  Hungary. 
He  took  away  the  privileges  of  the  local  Diets  and  imperial 
towns,  and  consolidated  his  dominions  into  a  single  state  of 
thirteen  districts,  each  division  and  subdivision  of  which  was 
under  his  own  officials.  He  sought  to  make  German  the  offi- 
cial language  for  all  districts.  In  1781  he  issued  an  edict  of 
religious  toleration,  and  undertook  a  radical  reform  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  in  his  territories.  He  forbade  money 
being  sent  to  Rome ;  and  he  abolished  over  six  hundred  monas- 
teries, using  their  revenues  to  establish  schools  and  charitable 
institutions.  He  conferred  a  lasting  benefit  on  Austria  by  his 
new  code  of  law,  in  which  torture  was  abolished  and  the  death 
penalty  reserved  for  cases  of  rebellion  alone.  He  was  active  in 
stimulating  manufactures  and  commerce;  and  he  equalized 
taxation  by  depriving  the  nobles  and  clergy  of  their  exemptions. 
It  is  evident  that  each  of  these  reforms,  however  desirable 
it  was,  affected  the  interests  or  prejudices  of  some  powerful  class 
or  nation,  and  would  arouse  bitter  opposition.  The  weakness 
of  the  whole  scheme  lay  in  the  fact  that  no  account  was  taken 
of  such  obstacles,  and  that  everything  was  attempted  at  once. 
Most  of  the  Emperor's  reforms,  therefore,  were  overturned  in 
his  own  lifetime,  and  he  died  (in  1790)  sadly  disappointed  at 
his  failure. 


476  THE  EVE  OF  THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

D.   FRANCE  ON  THE  EVE  OF  THE  REVOLUTION 

To  understand  why  France  rather  than  any  other  European 
country  took  the  lead  in  the  revolution  which  overthrew  the 

568.  Why      Old  Regime,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  existence  of 
the  revo-       evjis  an(j  oppression  does  not  always  produce  revolt.     To 
ganin  produce  this  effect  there    must  be  enough  liberty  and 
France  enlightenment  among  the  people  to  make  them  discon- 
tented with  their  condition,  and  to  furnish  them  with  leaders. 
As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  mass  of  the  people  in  eastern  and 
southern  Europe  were  far  more  wretched  than  in  France.    -Says 
a  recent  historian:   "It  was  because  the  French  peasant  was 
more  independent,  more  wealthy,  and  better  educated  than  the 
German  serf  that  he  resented  the  political  and  social  privileges 

Stephens         °^  ^s  lan(llord,  and  the  payment  of  rent,  more  than  the 

Revolutionary  serf  objected  to  his  bondage.     It  was  because  France  pos- 

urope'          sessed  an  enlightened  middle  class  that  the  peasants  and 

workmen  found  leaders.     It  was  because  Frenchmen  had  been 

in  the  possession  of  a  great  measure  of  personal  freedom  that 

they  were  ready  to  strike  a  blow  for  political   liberty,   and 

eventually  promulgated  the  idea  of  social  equality." 

There  were  in  France,  however,  grievances  of  a  real  and 
serious  character.     Society  and  government  were  founded  upon 

569.  Class      a  system  °f  caste,  in  which  the  clergy,  nobles,  and  Third 
inequali-        Estate  were  widely  separated  in  privileges  and  burdens. 

The  first  two  Estates  constituted  the  "privileged  orders." 
They  numbered  less  than  two  per  cent  in  a  population  of  about 
twenty-five  millions.  The  higher  nobles,  who  resided  at  the 
king's  court,  differed  in  manner  of  life  and  interests  from  the 
lesser  ones,  who  resided  on  their  estates.  In  like  manner  the 
nobly  born  higher  clergy  had  little  in  common  with  the  hard- 
working and  underpaid  parish  priests  (cures),  who  sprang  from 
the  people.  Class  inequalities,  indeed,  were  increasing.  By 
1789  four  generations  of  noble  descent  were  necessary  to  secure 
a  commission  in  the  army,  and  to  enter  the  charmed  circle  of 
the  court  it  was  necessary  to  prove  nobility  on  the  father's  side 


FRANCE   ON  THE   EVE   OF   THE   REVOLUTION         477 

back  to  the  year  1400.  The  offices  of  the  church  —  bishoprics, 
abbacies,  priories  —  were  regarded  as  a  provision  for  the  younger 
sons  of  noble  families.  In  taxation  the  privileged  orders  had 
many  exemptions,  in  which  the  wealthier  citizens  were  able  to 
share  by  purchasing  offices  from  the  crown.  While  the  wealthy 
townsmen  were  thus  raised  above  the  mass  of  the  Third  Estate, 
there^  remained  a  great  social  gulf  between  them  and  the  old 
nobility.  Pride  of  class  led  the  nobles  to  refrain  from  all  labor ; 
and  extravagance,  gambling,  and  the  decline  of  their  estates 
made  them  greedy  seekers  after  pensions  and  corrupt  gains. 

Under  Louis  XV  the  government  was  more  oppressive  and  less 
efficient  than  formerly.     Abroad,  French  prestige  was  seriously 
impaired ;  at  home,  vexations  increased.     Letters  passing  5?o.  Mis- 
through  the  post  were  systematically  opened,  and  each  *^£™m 
morning  Louis  XV  enjoyed  the  choice  bits  of  scandal  and  Louis  XV 
family  secrets  gained  in  this  way.     A  censorship  of  the  press 
was'  enforced,  so  far  as  the  government  was  able.     Torture, 
mutilations,  and  an  absence  of  safeguards  to  personal  liberty 
(such  as  England  possessed  in  its  trial  by  jury  and  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus)  characterized  the  administration  of  justice.     One 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  lettres  de  cachet  are  calculated  to  have 
been  issued  in  this  reign,  many  of  which  were  sold  for  money 
to  private  individuals,  who  used  them  to  be  revenged  upon 
personal  enemies. 

Perhaps  the  greatest  cause  of  misgovernment  was  the  con- 
fusion and  diversity  in  all  departments  of  government,  due  to 
the  fact  that  France  was  a  mere  patchwork  of  territories,   571-  Diver- 
added  piece  by  piece  from  the  time  of  Hugh  Capet  to 
Louis  XVI.     Instead  of  a  single  code  of  law  for  the  whole  tion 
country,  there  were  in  force  nearly  three  hundred  different  sets 
of  local  " customs."     Internal  commerce  was  harassed  by  tolls 
and  tariff  duties  on  goods  passing  from  province  to  province. 
A  vessel  descending  the  Saone  and  Rhone  rivers  had  to  stop 
and  pay  charges  thirty  times,  the  whole  amounting  to  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  cargo. 

Still  worse  were  the  inequalities  in  the  levying  of  taxes.     There 


478  THE   EVE  OF   THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

was  not  only  monstrous  inequality  between  the  privileged  and 
unprivileged  classes,  but  also  between  the  various  districts  of 
France.  The  amount  of  the  direct  taxes  was  arbitrarily  as- 
sessed upon  the  different  communities  by  the  central  govern- 
ment. Within  each  community  the  tax  collector  had  the  same 
arbitrary  power  in  apportioning  the  burden  among  his  neighbors. 
What  one  person  did  not  or  could  not  pay  had  to  be  made  up 
by  the  rest.  If  a  community  or  an  individual  showed  evidence 
of  prosperity,  the  usual  result  was  an  increase  in  the  taxes.  The 
burden  of  the  indirect  taxes  likewise  was  very  unequally  dis- 
tributed. Most  of  these  taxes  were  " farmed  out"  to  specu- 
lators (§  447),  which  increased  the  burden  upon  the  people.  • 

The  condition  of  the  peasant,  though  better  than  in  Germany, 
Poland,  and  Russia,  was  still  grievous.  Perhaps  one  fourth  of 
572.  Condi-  t*16  so*l  °f  France  was  in  the  hands  of  peasant  owners,  but 
tion  of  the  it  was  still  burdened  with  many  vexatious  relics  of  feudal 
dues.  If  a  peasant  sold  his  land,  part  of  the  price  usually 
had  to  be  paid  to  the  neighboring  lord.  In  some  places  the  peas- 
ant had  to  pay  a  toll  to  cross  the  bridge  or  ferry  on  his  way  to 
work  or  to  drive  his  flock  past  the  lord's  mansion.  The  obli- 
gation to  use  the  lord's  mill  and  oven  for  grinding  grain  and 
baking  bread  (§  188)  was  hateful  because  of  the  delays,  fraud, 
and  poor  service  to  which  it  gave  rise.  Wild  game  of  all  sorts 
was  protected  for  the  lord's  hunting,  under  penalty  of  fine, 
imprisonment,  and  the  galleys.  For  broken  fences  and  hedges, 
and  crops  trampled  in  the  chase,  the  peasant  had  no  redress. 
Enormous  dovecots  were  maintained  by  the  nobles;  and  the 
damage  done  to  crops  by  the  pigeons  kept  therein  found  a 
prominent  place  in  the  complaints  of  most  country  districts. 

These  annoyances,  however,  were  slight  compared  to  the 

burdens  imposed  by  the  state.     The  exemptions  enjoyed  by  the 

573    Forced  wealthier  classes  threw  almost  the  whole  weight  of  taxa- 

labor  and       tion  on  the  peasantry,  the  class  least  able  to  bear  it.     In- 

the  salt  tax     numerakie  taxes  and  forced  labor  on  the  roads  crushed 

the  peasant.     The  sale  of  salt  was  a  government  monopoly, 

and  every  household  was  obliged  to  buy  each  year  a  fixed 


FRANCE   ON  THE   EVE  OF   THE   REVOLUTION         479 

quantity  of  that  article.  The  surplus  from  the  household  supply 
could  not  be  used  for  curing  meats ;  a  separate  supply  had  to  be 
purchased  for  that  purpose.  The  price  varied  enormously,  in 
some  provinces  the  government  charging  thirty  times  what  it 
did  in  other  near-by  districts.  Over  seventeen  hundred  persons 
were  usually  in  prison,  and  three  hundred  in  the  galleys,  for 
violation  of  the  salt  laws. 

The  number  and  uncertainty  of  the  taxes  discouraged  all 
efforts  at  improved  methods  of  cultivation.     An  Englishman 
named  Arthur  Young,  who  traveled  extensively  in  France   574.  im- 
in   1787-1789,  found  agriculture  there  worse  practiced,  ^ctUture^ 
and  the  tillers  of  the  soil  much  worse  off,  than  they  were   discouraged 
in  England.     A  crop  failure  in  one  province  frequently  caused 
a  local  famine.     The  bad  roads,  tolls,  and  absurd  governmental 
regulations  prevented  grain  being  sent  in  from  other  provinces 
where  it  was  abundant.     Even  where  the  peasant  was  best  off, 
he  concealed  his  prosperity  for  fear  of  new  taxes.     "  I  should  be 
lost,"  said  one  such,  "if  it  were  suspected  that  I  am  not  dying 
of  hunger."     It  has  been  estimated  that  the  average  peasant 
could  count  on  less  than  one  fifth  of  the  produce  of  his  labor  for 
the  support  of  himself  and  his  family.     The  other  four  fifths 
went  in  taxes,  tithe,  and  feudal  dues. 

When  Louis  XVI,  grandson  of  Louis  XV,  came  to  the  throne 
(in  1774),  he  found  the  finances  in  a  serious  condition.     The 
young  king  was  amiable  and  just,  but  lacked  decision  of  575-  Ac- 
character  and  ability  to  rule.    His  queen,  Marie  Antoinette  Lmd^XVI 
(aN-twa-net'),  —  the  young,  sprightly,  frivolous,  imperious  (1774) 
daughter  of  Maria  Theresa  of   Austria,  —  indulged  in  lavish 
expenditures  and  shortsighted  intrigues  in  support  of  personal 
favorites.     His   own  and   his  predecessor's  costly  wars  piled 
up  an  enormous  debt,  which  was  increased  by  the  extrava- 
gance and  corruption  of  the  court. 

Louis  began  his  reign  well  by  appointing  Turgot  (tiir-go'),  an 
able  and  enlightened  political  economist,  as  minister  of  finance. 
Turgot's  policy  was  stated  in  these  words,  "  No  bankruptcy, 
no  increase  of  taxation,  no  loans."  His  edict  establishing  free 


48o 


THE   EVE  OF   THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


trade  in  grain  was  hailed  by  Voltaire  as  "  the  beginning  of 
a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth."  Industry  was  freed  from 

576.  Turgot    restrictions,   the  guilds    dissolved,   and  forced  •  labor  on 
S8        the     roads     abolished. 

(1774-1776)  These  measures  nat- 
urally aroused  violent  oppo- 
sition from  those  who  profited 
by  the  old  abuses.  The  Parle- 
ment  of  Paris  made  itself  the 
center  of  resistance,  and  Marie 
Antoinette  joined  the  attack. 
The  weak  king  thereupon  dis- 
missed Turgot  (1776)  and  re- 
called the  reform  edicts.  With 
this  step  the  last  chance  to  save 
the  old  monarchy  passed  away. 
Turgot 's  successor  as  finance 
minister  was  Necker,  a  Swiss 
banker  of  slight  ability.  He 
sought  to  promote  honesty  and 

577.  Necker  economy  in  the  administration,  and  he  carried  out  many 

reveals  the     sman  reforms.     The  American  war,  however,  forced  up 

amount  of 

pensions        the  debt  by  leaps  and  bounds.     Necker  appealed  to  public 

(1781)  opinion  (now  becoming  an  important  force)  by  publish- 

ing an  account  of  the  finances.  This  revealed  the  enormous 
amount  spent  on  " pensions"  to  the  courtiers.1  The  outcry 
produced  at  court  by  this  act  ended  Necker's  first  ministry 
(1781). 

A  rapid  increase  of  financial  difficulties  followed,  and  in  1 786 
the  government  was  unable  to  pay  the  interest  on  its  loans.  The 

1  The  "pensions"  amounted  to  $5, 600,000  in  1780  and  #6,400,000  a  little  later. 
"I  doubt,"  wrote  Necker,  "if  all  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  together  pay  in  pensions 
more  than  half  this  sum."  The  amount  paid  from  the  treasury  for  the  expenses  of 
the  royal  family  was  #8,000,000,  the  three  elderly  sisters  of  the  king  receiving  an 
allowance  of  $i  20,000  a  year  for  their  food  alone  !  It  must  be  remembered  that, 
owing  to  the  rise  of  prices,  these  sums  had  a  purchasing  power  fully  three  times  that 
of  to-day. 


TURGOT 


FRANCE  ON  THE   EVE  OF  THE   REVOLUTION        481 

state  was  practically  bankrupt.  In  1 787  an  Assembly  of  Notables 
(mainly  members  of  the  privileged  orders)  was  held.  But  the 
selfish  interests  of  its  members,  and  the  opposition  of  the 
Parlement  of  Paris,  prevented  any  effective  reforms. 

The  Parlement   of  Paris  opposed  the  levying  of  any  new 
taxes.     It  was   really  defending  the  selfish  privileges  of  the 
upper  classes,  but  cloaked  its  dislike  for  reform  under  the  578.  Re- 
assertion  that  "only  the  nation  assembled  in  the  Estates-  lfval  of 

Estates- 
General  can  give  the  consent  necessary  to  the  establishing  of  General 

a  permanent  tax."  For  more  than  a  hundred  and  seventy  demanded 
years  (since  1614)  no  Estates-General  had  been  held  in  France; 
indeed  that  body  had  met  only  fifteen  times  since  it  was  first 
called  together  in  1302.  Among  those  who  now  raised  their 
voices  in  behalf  of  its  revival  was  the  marquis  of  Lafayette, 
who  had  so  nobly  aided  the  American  colonists  to  secure  their 
independence.  "What,  Monsieur,"  cried  the  king's  brother, 
on  hearing  Lafayette  make  this  demand,  "do  you  ask  the  con- 
vocation of  the  Estates-General?"  "Yes,  my  lord,"  was  the 
answer,  "and  even  more  than  that."  The  cry  for  a  meeting  of 
the  Estates-General  now  arose  from  all  sides.  The  utter  help- 
lessness of  the  French  government  made  long  resistance  impos- 
sible. The  king  was  forced  to  dismiss  his  unpopular  ministers 
and  to  recall  Necker  to  office.  But  it  was  too  late  for  halfway 
measures.  After  a  brief  struggle,  the  vacillating  king  then 
agreed  that  the  Estates-General  should  meet  early  in  1789. 

The  Old  Regime  throughout  Europe  was  about  to  be  sum- 
moned to  the  bar,  to  give  place  to  a  new  order.  It  was  France 
which  "held,  and  was  about  to  sound,  the  trumpet  of  judgment." 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1774.   Accession  of  Louis  XVI  of  France. 

1776.   Publication  of  Adam  Smith's  "  Wealth  of  Nations." 

Turgot  dismissed  from  the  French  ministry. 
1781.    Necker  reveals  the  amount  of  French  "  pensions." 
1787.   The  Assembly  of  Notables  fails  to  find  a  remedy  for  the  bank- 
ruptcy of  France. 


EUROPE  IN  1789 


SCALE  OF  MILES 


0      50    100    150   200   250    300 

J  Prussian  Territories. 

~]  Austrian  Hapsburg 
I- -1  Territories* 

.........  Boundary  of  the  Holy 


10  Longitude 


T-iOtigitucle 


East  10 


482 


Ke*fl,A  ^x  ^?'J    U>« 

I    MORA  vj^/^^lr  ^'* 


IALTA  "^  15  from  20  Greenwich  25 


484  THE  EVE  OF  THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  What  was  the  obstacle  to  the  complete  removal 
of  the  feudal  abuses  which  oppressed  the  peasants?  (2)  Why  were  the 
oppressive  guild  regulations  not  repealed?  (3)  From  what  two  sources 
would  objections  come  to  the  removal  of  the  censorship  of  the  press? 
(4)  State  in  your  own  words  the  connection  between  the  advance  of  natural 
science  and  the  French  Revolution.  (5)  In  what  ways  did  England  con- 
tribute to  produce  the  Revolution  in  France?  (6)  Is  there  any  simi- 
larity of  ideas  between  Rousseau's  Social  Contract  and  the  American 
Declaration  of  Independence  ?  If  so,  how  do  you  account  for  it  ?  (7)  Why 
did  not  the  reforms  of  the  "  enlightened  despots  "  do  away  with  the  neces- 
sity for  a  revolution?  (8)  How  did  the  aid  which  France  gave  the  Ameri- 
can colonies  contribute  to  bring  about  the  French  Revolution  ?  (9)  Could 
a  strong  king  in  France  have  averted  the  Revolution?  How?  (10)  What 
was  the  chief  obstacle  to  a  reform  of  the  government  in  France  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  ENGLISH  INFLUENCE  ON  FRANCE.  Lowell,  Eve 
of  the  French  Revolution,  chs.  ix-x ;  Dabney,  Causes  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, 134-143.  —  (2)  INFLUENCE  OF  VOLTAIRE.  Morley,  Voltaire,  ch.  v; 
Lecky,  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (cabinet  ed.),  VI,  183-206.  — 
(3)  DIDEROT  AND  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  Lowell,  ch.  xvi.  —  (4)  ROUSSEAU. 
Dabney,  ch.  xxxv;  Lecky,  VI,  239-270.  —  (5)  LIFE  OF  THE  FRENCH  COURT. 
Dabney,  ch.  xii ;  Lowell,  ch.  xi.  —  (6)  NOBLES  OF  FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND 
COMPARED.  Taine,  Ancient  Regime,  43-55.  —  (7)  RANKS  AND  CLASSES  IN 
FRANCE.  Mathews,  French  Revolution,  12-16,  42-47.  —  (8)  CONDITION 
OF  THE  PEOPLE.  Lowell,  ch.  xiii;  Dabney,  86-92;  Robinson,  Readings, 
II,  373-380.  —  (9)  TAXATION  IN  FRANCE.  Dabney,  chs.  xv-xvii ;  Lowell, 
pp.  207-242 ;  Cambridge  Modern  History,  VIII,  66-78.  —  (10)  TURGOT'S 
ATTEMPT  AT  REFORM.  Hassall,  Balance  of  Power,  237-239;  Say,  Turgot, 
chs.  v-vii;  Robinson,  Readings,  II,  386-390.  —  (n)  THE  PARLEMENTS 
AND  REFORM.  Mathews,  French  Revolution,  74-83,  93,  108-110;  Lecky, 
VI,  207-238,  293,  317-320. 

General  Reading.  —  Lowell's  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution  is  the  best 
single  book.  Dabney's  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution  is  graphic  but 
uncritical.  The  first  volume  of  Stephens's  French  Revolution,  the  Cambridge 
Modern  History,  vol.  VIII,  and  MacLehose's  Last  Days  of  the  French  Mon- 
archy, are  valuable.  For  more  advanced  study  De  Tocqueville's  France 
before  the  Revolution,  Taine's  The  Ancient  Regime,  and  Arthur  Young's 
Travels  in  France,  should  be  consulted. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION   (1789-1795) 
A.   THE  ESTATES- GENERAL  OF  1789 

THE  decision  to  call  together  the  Estates- General  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  flood  of  discussion  as  to  how  it  should  be  constituted 
and  what  it  should  do.     In  previous  sessions  each  of  the  579.  AT- 
three  orders  had  an  equal  number  of  representatives,  and  rangements 
each  order  voted  by  itself.     This  made  it  a  legislature  Estates- 
of  three  houses,  in  which  the  privileged  orders  —  the  nobles  General 
and  clergy  —  always  had  two  votes  to  one  possessed  by  the 
Third  Estate.     Because  of  the  great  numbers  and  importance 
of  the  Third  Estate,  it  was  generally  recognized  that  this  arrange- 
ment was  no  longer  possible.     In  a  famous  pamphlet,  Sieyes 
(sya-yes'),  a  political  writer,  asked :   "  What  is  the  Third  Estate  ? 
Everything.     What  has  it  hitherto  been  in  the  political  order? 
Nothing.     What  does  it  ask?    To  become  something." 

Two  demands  especially  were  made  in  its  behalf :  (i)  That  it 
should  be  allowed  double  the  number  of  representatives  given 
to  the  nobles  and  to  the  clergy,  —  that  is,  as  many  as  the  other 
two  orders  combined.  (2)  That  the  members  of  the  Estates 
should  vote  aby  head"  #nd  not  as  orders,  —  in  other  words,  that 
the  three  orders  should  sit  together  in  a  single  assembly,  in 
which  the  members  voted  as  individuals.  In  the  directions 
for  electing  representatives,  the  request  for  double  representation 
was  granted.  Nothing,  however,  was  said  about  the  second 
point,  and  without  the  "vote  by  head"  the  double  representation 
of  the  Third  Estate  would  be  of  little  value. 

Famine  was  abroad  in  the  land,  due  to  a  failure  of  harvests  in 
1788,  and  an  unusually  severe  winter;  and  the  prevailing  dis- 
tress intensified  the  discontent.  In  due  course,  the  elections 

485 


486  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

were  held.  The  nobles  and  the  clergy  met  in  district  assemblies 
and  chose  their  representatives  direct.  For  the  Third  Estate 
580  Elec-  a  more  complicated  plan  was  provided.  Delegates  were 
tions  and  elected  by  the  taxpayers  in  each  village  and  town,  and 
the  cahiers  tnese  delegates,  assembled  in  district  conventions,  chose  the 
representatives  of  the  Third  Estate  in  the  Estates-General.  In 
all  the  election  meetings,  lists  of  grievances,  called  cahiers  (ka- 
ya'),  were  drawn  up.  Altogether  some  fifty  thousand  of  these 
lists  were  prepared,  some  of  them  extending  to  hundreds  of 
pages.  They  give  us  an  enormous  mass  of  information  concern- 
ing the  abuses  of  the  Old  Regime  and  the  reforms  desired.  A 
moderate  spirit  pervaded  them  all.  Those  of  the  Third  Estate 
usually  demanded  the  abolition  of  the  vexatious  remnants  of 
feudalism  which  were  described  in  the  preceding  chapter.  All 
three  orders  alike,  almost  without  exception,  wished  to  put  an 
end  to  absolute  government,  and  to  give  France  a  constitution. 
The  cahiers  asked  especially  for  the  regular  calling  of  the  Estates- 
General,  with  power  to  vote  taxes  and  to  participate  in  the  mak- 
ing of  laws.  They  also  asked  that  lettres  de  cachet  and  the  censor- 
ship of  the  press  should  be  abolished.  The  demand  for  Liberty 
was  the  keynote  of  the  cahiers.  They  show  little  evidence,  on 
the  other  hand,  of  a  demand  for  Equality,  —  that  is,  for  the  total 
abolition  of  the  rights  of  the  privileged  classes  and  the  reduction 
of  all  persons  to  a  common  level  before  the  law. 

The  first  session  of  the  Estates- General  was  held  on  May  5, 

1789.     It  met  at  Versailles,  the  king's  favorite  residence.     More 

581.  Open-     than  half  the  representatives  of  the  Third  Estate  were 

Estates-         lawyers.     A  few  were  liberal  nobles.     Not  more  than  ten 

General         belonged  to  the  lower  classes.     Fully  two  thirds  of  the 

representatives  of  the  clergy  were  underpaid  parish  priests, 

who  sprang  from  the  people  and  sympathized  with  them  far 

Matthews       more  than  with  the  higher  clergy.     "As  a  whole  the  Es- 

FrenchRew*    tates-General  represented  the  well-to-do  classes.     It  was 

lutwn,  ii         not  jn  ^  jeagt  an  uncuitureci  rabble,  but  was  made  up 

of  the  best  blood  of  France." 

The  speeches  with  which  the  king  and  his  ministers  opened 


THE   ESTATES-GENERAL   OF    1789  487 

the  session  made  no  mention  of  the  proposal  to  give  France  a 
constitution,  although  the  king  had  previously  sanctioned  it. 
It  was  evidently  the  intention  to  secure  from  the  Estates     g2  The 
the  financial  aid  that  was  needed,  and  then  dismiss  that  National 
body.     To  avoid  this  outcome  the  deputies  of  the  Third  Assembly 
Estate  insisted  upon  the  mode  of  voting  which  should  give  them 
full  advantage  of  their  increased  numbers.     They  refused  to 
organize  themselves  as  an  order,  and  demanded  that  the  nobles 


OATH  OF  THE  TENNIS  COURT 
From  the  contemporary  picture  by  David 

and  clergy  should  join  them  in  a  single  body.  This  the  two 
privileged  orders  declined  to  do.  After  the  deadlock  had  con- 
tinued for  six  weeks,  the  members  of  the  Third  Estate  took  the 
daring  step  of  declaring  themselves  the  National  Assembly. 
They  claimed  the  right  to  grant  all  taxes  and  to  give  France  the 
desired  constitution.  The  fact  that  the  Third  Estate  comprised 
practically  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  king- 
dom was  their  warrant  for  this  step.  When  they  were  excluded 
from  their  usual  place  of  meeting,  the  deputies  of  the  Third 
Estate  took  the  famous  "Oath  of  the  Tennis  Court"  (June  20, 


488 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


beau 


1789),  pledging  themselves  not  to  separate  until  "the  consti- 
tution of  the  realm  was  established  and  fixed  upon  solid  foun- 
dations." By  this  act,  says  an  English  historian,  "they 
practically  became  rebels,  and  the  French  Revolution  really 
commenced." 

The  resolute  stand  of  the  Third  Estate  brought  to  their  side 
more  than  half  the  deputies  of  the  clergy,  and  some  of  the  liberal 
583.  Work     nobles.     Next  day,  at  the  close  of  a  joint  session  over 
of  Mira-        which  Louis  XVI  presided  in  person,  he  commanded  that 
each  of  the  three  orders  should  retire  to  its  separate  place, 
and  that  the  vote  be  taken  as  formerly,  by  orders.     Under 
the  leadership  of  Count  Mirabeau  (me-ra- 
ko'),  a  man  °f.  extraordinary  ability  and 
courage  but  of  dissolute  life,  the  deputies 
of  the  Third  Estate  resolved  to  disobey. 
"Go  tell  your  master,"  cried  Mira- 
beau to  the  king's  officer,  "that  we 
are  here  by  the  will  of  the 
people,  and   that  we  will 
be   removed   only   at   the 
point  of  the  bayonet." 
The  weak  king  dreaded 
civil   war   above  all   else. 
He    therefore    gave   way, 
and  ordered  the  other  depu- 
ties to  join  the  Third   Estate 
(June  27).    The  success  of  the 
revolution  was   thus  assured. 

Much  of  the  credit  for  this  suc- 
cess belongs  to  Mirabeau.  He  was  a  nobleman  of  Provence 
(born  1749,  died  1791),  who  had  quarreled  with  his  hot- 
headed father,  and  was  forced  to  earn  his  living  by  writing 
political  pamphlets.  He  was  three  times  imprisoned  on  lettres 
de  cachet  for  his  escapades.  When  the  nobles  of  his  district 
refused  to  elect  him  to  the  Estates-General,  he  procured  an 
election  from  the  Third  Estate.  His  eloquence,  his  wide 


MIRABEAU 


THE  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  489 

knowledge  of  history  and  government,  and  his  great  energy 
and  decision  of  character  easily  made  him  the  foremost  leader 
of  that  body.  He  wished  to  set  up  in  France  a  strong  but 
limited  monarchy,  modeled  on  that  of  England,  which  he  had 
studied  at  first  hand  during  a  short  residence  there.  Unfor- 
tunately, Mirabeau  was  imprudent  in  many  things  which  he 
said  and  did ;  and  his  influence  in  the  National  Assembly  was 
never  as  great  as  it  deserved  to  be. 

B.  THE  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  (1789-1791) 

The  queen  and  the  court  party  sympathized  thoroughly  with 
the  partisans  of  the  Old  Regime,  and  were  unwilling  to  accept 
defeat.     Most  unwisely  they  persuaded  Louis  to  attempt  584-  Fall  of 
to  coerce  the  Assembly  by  gathering  his   German  and 
Swiss  troops  about  Paris  and  Versailles.     This  threat  to  1789) 
the  freedom  of  the  Assembly  called  into  action  a  new  and  fearful 


THE  BASTILLE  (restored) 
Erected  1371-1383,  and  afterward  used  as  a  state  prison 

force,  the  Paris  mob.  "It  is  the  signal  for  a  St.  Bartholomew 
of  patriots!"  cried  a  popular  orator  of  the  multitude.  Rioting 
began,  starving  crowds  broke  into  bakeshops  to  procure  food, 
and  gunshops  were  sacked.  To  get  more  arms  with  which  to 
defend  the  Assembly,  the  mob,  on  July  14,  1789,  proceeded  to 
the  Bastille  (bas-tel')-  This  had  long  been  the  chief  arsenal 


4QO  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

and  royal  prison  of  Paris,  and  was  hated  both  because  it  em- 
bodied the  abuses  of  the  Old  Regime  and  because  its  cannon 
threatened  the  city.  Several  hundred  unarmed  men  succeeded 
in  entering  the  outer  court  of  the  Bastille,  but  the  drawbridge 
was  raised  behind  them  and  they  were  shot  down  in  cold  blood. 
This  act  roused  the  mob  to  fury.  Old  soldiers  who  had  joined 
the  mob  directed  their  efforts  in  a  formal  attack.1  After  five 
hours'  fighting  the  garrison  surrendered.  The  victory  was 
stained  by  the  massacre  of  the  commander  of  the  Bastille  and  a 
few  of  the  S.wiss  guard.  The  prisoners  which  it  contained, 
numbering  a  half  dozen,  were  set  free.  The  walls  of  the  Bastille 
were  subsequently  torn  down,  and  only  some  rows  of  white 
stones  now  show  where  the  frowning  fortress  once  stood.  When 
the  king,  at  Versailles,  was  informed  of  what  had  occurred  at 
Paris,  he  exclaimed,  "Why,  this  is  a  revolt."  "No,  sire,"  was 
the  reply,  "it  is  a  revolution."  The  anniversary  of  the  fall  of 
'  the  Bastille  is  still  celebrated  as  the  birthday  of  French  liberty. 
The  uprising  of  the  people  did  not  stop  with  the  overthrow  of 
the  Bastille.  The  government  of  Paris  now  passed  into  the  hands 
585.  Spread  of  a  revolutionary  committee  of  middle-class  citizens, 
of  the  revolt  caneci  the  Commune.  A  national  guard  composed  mainly 
of  citizens  was  organized  and  placed  under  the  command  of 
General  Lafayette.  In  the  face  of  these  movements,  the  king 
again  gave  way.  The  Swiss  and  German  troops  were  removed 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Paris ;  and  Louis  himself  put  on  the 
tricolored  cockade,  the  emblem  of  the  revolution.  The  reac- 
tionaries of  the  court,  however,  were  still  irreconcilable.  Some 
of  them,  the  so-called  Emigres  (a-me-gra/  ;  " emigrants"),  already 
began  to  flee  beyond  the  borders  of  the  kingdom,  to  stir  up 
foreign  intervention  and  civil  war. 

In  the  provinces  the  news  of  the  revolt  of  Paris  led  everywhere 
to  the  setting  up  of  revolutionary  governments.  In  many  places 
the  peasants  rose  and  burned  the  castles  of  their  lords,  in  order 
to  destroy  the  rolls  which  contained  the  evidences  of  their  lords' 

1  Read  the  graphic  account  of  the  fall  of  the  Bastille  in  Carlyle's  French  Revolu- 
tion, Bk.  V,  chs.  v-vii. 


THE  NATIONAL   ASSEMBLY  491 

manorial  rights.     News  of  these  disorders  in  the  provinces  re- 
acted in  turn  upon  the  National  Assembly  at  Versailles. 

On  the  night  of  August  4,  some  liberal  nobles  in  the  Assembly 
set  the  example  of  renouncing  their  feudal  rights,  and  the  con- 
tagion spread.  Noble  after  noble  arose  to  propose  the  586.  Aboli- 

surrender   of   this   or   that   exclusive   privilege.      Game  tion  of  "priv 

ileges  " 
laws,    dovecots,   favoritism   in   taxation,    the   sole  right  (Aug.  4, 


of  the  nobles  to  military  offices,  were  all  surrendered. 
Finally,  amid  the  wildest  enthusiasm,  a  decree  was  passed,  de- 
claring in  detail  that  "the  National  Assembly  hereby  com- 
pletely   abolishes    the    feudal    system."    A    subsequent  Anderson, 
decree  (1790)  went  so  far  as  to  declare  hereditary  nobility,  ^s^l°ns 
with  its  titles  of  duke,  marquis,  count,  etc.,  "abolished  menis,  n 
forever,"  in  France. 

In  October,  1789,  a  disorderly  mob  of  women  and  men  marched 
to  Versailles  to  bring  the  royal  family  to  Paris.     The  action  of 
the  court  could  better  be  watched  in  the  capital,  and  the  587.  King 
Assembly  more  easily  protected  by  the  national  guard.  blyinSparis 
The  palace  of  the  Tuileries  (twel-re')  in  Paris  was  hence-   (Oct.  1789) 
forth  the  royal  residence,  and  near  it  the  National  Assembly 
was  now  established.  •    Aside  from  this  incident,  the  revolution 
proceeded  quietly  for  the  next  year  and  a  half.     In  this  period 
the  Assembly  was  busied  with  framing  —  slowly,  and  bit  by 
bit  —  the  written  constitution  which  it  had  promised  in  the 
Tennis  Court  Oath.     Not  until  1791  was  the  constitution  ready 
in  its  final  form. 

Following  precedents,  established  in   some  American   state 
constitutions,  the  Assembly  prefixed  to  its  constitution  a  Dec- 
laration of   the  Rights  of    Man.      This  document    has  588.  Dec- 
exercised  great  influence  on  the  opinions  of  mankind,  so  ^y^^c 
its  principal  provisions  must  be  noted.     It  declared:  —   of  Man 

1.  Men  are  born  free  and  remain  free  and  equal  in  their  rights. 

2.  The  source  of  all  sovereignty  is  in  the  nation. 

3.  All  citizens  have  the  right  to  take  part,  personally  or  through  constitutions 

their  representatives,  in  making  the  laws,  and  all  citizens  and  Docu- 
are  equal  in  the  eyes  of  the  law.  ments,  60-95 


49 2  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

4.  No  one  shall  be  arrested  or  imprisoned  except  in  cases  provided 

by  law,  and  according  to  its  forms. 

5.  Every  man  shall  be  presumed  innocent  until  he  is  adjudged  guilty. 

6.  No  one  shall  be  molested  on    account  of  his  religious  or  other 

opinions,  unless  their  manifestation  disturbs  public  order. 

7.  Every  person  may  freely  speak,  write,  and  print  his  opinions,  sub- 

ject to  such  responsibility  for  the  abuse  of  this  freedom  as  shall 
be  defined  by  law. 

8.  Taxes  shall  be  equally  apportioned  among  all  citizens  according 

to  their  means. 

The    constitution   which   accompanied    the    Declaration    of 

Rights  provided  for  a  limited  monarchy.     Very  few  persons  of 

580.   Con-       consequence  in  France  at  that  time  believed  in  the  prac- 

stitution  of     ticability   of   a   republic.     The   following   are   the   chief 

features  of  the  new  constitution :  — 

i.  The  king's  power  was  strictly  limited,  and  he  was  given  only  a 

"  suspensive  veto  "  over  laws,  —  that  is,  measures  passed  by  three 

Anderson,  successive  legislatures  became  law  even  without  his  assent. 

a^Docu™     2-  The  legislature  consisted  of  a  single  house,  elected  for  two 

ments,  60-95  years,  and  might  not  be  dissolved  by  the  king. 

3.  The  right  to  vote  was  given  all  men  who  paid  direct  taxes  amount- 

ing to  the  value  of  three  days'  labor  a  year. 

4.  The  old  division  of  the  kingdom  into  provinces  was  abolished,  and 

eighty-three  departments  substituted  therefor,  —  a  step  which 
greatly  contributed  to  the  unity  of  France. 

Some  laws  passed  while  the  constitution  was  being  framed 
made  almost  equally  important  changes  in  the  social  and  political 
organization.  All  guilds  and  similar  exclusive  corporations  were 
abolished.  The  local  government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
elected  municipal  bodies.  A  uniform  system  of  law  was  pro- 
jected, and  sweeping  judicial  reforms  were  made. 

Especially  important  were  the  laws  which  dealt  with  the 

590.  Civil       church.    Tithes  were  abolished,  monasteries  were  dissolved, 

constitution    and  freedom  of  worship  was  established  for  all  religions. 

ergy  To  meet  the  pressing  financial  needs  of  the  government, 

the  property  of  the  church   was   confiscated,   and  the  state 


THE  NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  493 

thenceforth  undertook  the  support  of  the  clergy.  At  the  same 
time  a  " civil  constitution"  for  the  clergy  was  adopted,  by  which 
all,  from  bishops  to  parish  priests,  were  to  be  elected  by  the  people- 
The  number  of  bishoprics  was  reduced  more  than  one  third,  so 
that  there  should  be  only  one  for  each  department.  By  these 
arrangements  the  bishops  were  made  practically  officers  of  the 
state.  All  clergymen  who  refused  to  take  an  oath  to  support 
this  constitution  were  dismissed  from  their  offices.  Only  four 
of  the  old  bishops,  and  about  one  third  of  the  parish  priests, 
took  the  prescribed  oath.  Many  glaring  abuses  in  the  church 
were  remedied  by  this  reorganization.  Nevertheless,  the  meas- 
ure proved  a  great  mistake,  since  it  shocked  religious  sensi- 
bilities and  alienated  from  the  revolution  many  thousand  per- 
sons who  hitherto  had  supported  it. 

The  use  which  was  made  of  the  confiscated  church  lands  was 
also  unwise.     Along  with  crown  lands  and  the  confiscated  estates 
of  Emigres,  the  church  lands  —  (aside  from  those  immedi-  591-  As- 
ately  attached  to  cathedrals  and  other  churches,  which  JJieiMle-"1' 
remain  to  this  day  the  property  of  the  nation)  —  were  preciation 
ordered  to  be  sold.     Pending  their  sale,  assignats  (a-sen'ya),  a 
form  of  legal-tender  paper  currency,  were  issued  on  the  credit  of 
these  lands.     The  overissue  of  these  assignats,  however,  caused 
their  value  to  decline  until  they  passed  only  at  a  hundred  for 
one  in  silver.     Ultimately  they  were  repudiated. 

Louis  XVI  accepted  the  above  laws  and  solemnly  swore  to 
abide  by  the  new  order  of  things.  Had  he  been  allowed  by 
those  about  him  to  keep  this  oath,  the  revolution  might  Death 
have  been  stopped  at  this  point,  and  all  would  have  been  of  Mirabeau 
well.  But  the  king  was  weak  and  vacillating.  He  was  ^I791' 
easily  swayed  by  his  frivolous  and  unreasoning  queen,  Marie 
Antoinette,  and  by  members  of  the  court  who  resented  the  loss 
of  their  privileges.  Mirabeau  was  the  one  real  statesman  that 
France  possessed  at  that  time.  He  sought  to  induce  the  king 
to  abide  loyally  by  the  promises  he  had  made,  but  to  retire  to 
some  city  in  the  interior  of  the  country  on  the  ground  that  he 
was  not  free  at  Paris,  and  there  "throw  himself  into  the  arms  of 


494  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

his  people."  Thus  the  growth  of  radicalism  and  mob  control, 
which  Mirabeau  foresaw,  would  be  checked.  The  one  thing 
that  Mirabeau  urged  the  king  not  to  do  was  to  retire  to  the 
frontier,  where  the  Emigres  were  gathering  armed  forces  and 
stirring  up  foreign  intervention.1  Unfortunately  Mirabeau  had 
compromised  his  influence  by  living  dissolutely  in  his  youth, 
and  by  accepting  a  secret  pension  from  the  king  to  relieve  him 
from  his  burden  of  debts.  His  advice  went  unheeded.  If 
Lafayette  had  been  willing  to  join  his  influence  to  that  of  Mira- 
beau, the  views  of  the  latter  might  have  prevailed  and  the  mon- 
archy been  saved.  In  April,  1791,  Mirabeau  died,  worn  out 
with  dissipation,  hard  work,  and  disappointments.  His  death 
removed  the  only  counselor  in  these  troublous  times  who  could 
have  guided  the  ship  of  state  to  a  safe  haven. 

In  June,  1791,  Louis  resolved  to  do  the  very  thing  which 
Mirabeau  had  urged  him  not  to  do.     After  secretly  drawing  up 
593.  Growth  a  declaration  in  which  he  disavowed  the  measures  of  the 
Ucanparty"     Assembly,  Louis  and  the  royal  family  fled  by  night  from 
(1791)  Paris.     They  directed  their  course  toward  the  frontier  of 

the  Netherlands  (Belgium),  where  a  force  of  Emigres  and  Aus- 
trians  awaited  them.  Within  a  few  hours'  ride  of  the  frontier, 
the  royal  carriage  was  stopped  and  turned  back  to  Paris. 
France  realized  with  a  shock  that  Louis  XVI  participated  un- 
willingly in  the  work  of  reform,  and  would  use  foreign  aid  to 
overthrow  it.  A  few  weeks  later  a  disorderly  crowd  gathered 
at  Paris  to  sign  a  petition  for  his  dethronement.  In  dispersing 
the  mob  the  national  guard  under  Lafayette  fired  and  killed 
several  persons.  These  events  completed  a  separation  which 
had  long  been  growing  among  the  supporters  of  the  revolution. 
From  this  time  its  supporters  may  be  divided  into  constitutional 
royalists  and  democratic  republicans. 

In  September,  1791,  the  National  Assembly  completed  its 
labors.  Louis  formally  ratified  the  constitution,  and  the  As- 
sembly was  dissolved.  So  far  the  revolution  was  under  the 

1  See  Mirabeau's  secret  memoir  drawn  up  for  the  king  in  October,  1789.  —  Robin- 
son, Readings  in  European  History,  II,  412-417. 


A  REPUBLIC    ESTABLISHED  495 

control  of  the  upper  middle  classes.     In  spite  of  some  threaten- 
ing outbreaks  of  mob  violence,  liberal  men  in  other  coun-  594  The 
tries  applauded  its  results.     But  from  three  sources  the  National 
stability  of  the  new  constitution  was  threatened:  (i)  From  en^s7ts  y 
the  emigrant  nobles,  who  stirred  up  foreign  intervention,  labors 
(2)    From   the   democratic  party,  who  wished   a   more  (I791) 
radical  reform.     (3)  From  the  continued  weakness  and  indeci- 
sion of  the  king. 

C.  A  REPUBLIC  ESTABLISHED  (1791-1793) 

An  unwise  law  passed  by  the  National  Assembly  excluded  its 
members  from  the  Legislative  Assembly  which  was  provided 
for  in  the  newly  adopted  constitution.     The  latter  body,   5  s  The 
when  it  met  in  October,  1791,  was  thus  without  experienced  Legislative 
guides.     It  proved  more  radical  than  the  former  Assembly.     ss< 
The  constitutional  royalists  at  first  controlled  the  government. 
But  gradually  the  power  passed  to  a  group  of  theoretical  re- 
publicans who  were  called  "  Girondists,"  from  the  region  whence 
came  their  principal  orators.     A  still  more  radical  party,  called 
the  "Mountain"  from  its  elevated  seats  in  the  assembly  hall, 
developed  when  foreign  danger  and  internal  disorders  arose. 

The  power  which  the  "Mountain"  possessed  in  the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  was  due  to  the  organized  support  which  it 
received  outside  that  body.     From  the  beginning  of  the      6  The 
revolution  the  people  of  France  had  followed  the  proceed-  Jacobin 
ings  at  Paris  with  great  eagerness.     Many  newspapers  c 
had  sprung  up  as  a  result  of  the  new  liberty  of  printing,  and 
these  represented  the  widest  variety  of  opinions.     The  freedom 
of  discussion  also  led  to  the  formation  of  a  number  of  political 
clubs  of  various  sorts.     The  most  important  of  these  was  the 
society  of  the  "Jac'obins."     It  was  formed  by  some  provincial 
members  of  the  Third  Estate,  who  hired  a  hall  in  the  disused 
monastery  of  the  Jacobin  monks,  from  which  the  club  received 
its  name.     Leading  men  of  Paris,  who  were  not  members  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  were  taken  into  the  society;   and  finally 


496 


THE  FRENCH   REVOLUTION 


its  meetings  became  public  and  any  one  could  attend.  The 
policy  of  the  Jacobins  at  first  was  merely  to  preserve  and  defend 
the  work  of  the  revolution  against  the  attacks  of  the  "aristo- 
crats" who  sought  to  overthrow  it.  To  assist  in  this  work  it 
organized  a  chain  of  daughter  societies  in  the  provinces. 
Through  their  aid  it  did  much  to  form  and  organize  public 
opinion,  —  a  much  needed  work  in  a  land  so  new  to  political  life 
and  so  long  oppressed  by  despotism.  Gradually,  however,  the 
views  of  the  club  grew  more  radical,  and  the  name  Jacobin  be- 
came a  synonym  for  extreme  democratic  views  and  mob  violence. 
The  leaders  of  the  " Mountain"  belonged  to  this  club,  and 
were  able  to  bring  to  the  support  of  their  views  in  the  Assembly 
the  organized  popular  support  which  that  club  offered  them. 


THE  JACOBIN  CLUB  (exterior).    From  an  old  print 

The  fact  that  the  queen  was  related  to  the  Austrian  royal 
family,  and  the  intrigues  of  the  Emigres,  made  foreign  interven- 
tion certain.  Early  in  1792  the  Assembly  declared  war  upon 
Austria,  and  this  involved  war  with  Prussia,  also,  which  was  allied 


A  REPUBLIC   ESTABLISHED 


497 


with  Austria.  The  war  opened  badly  for  France,  because  the 
zeal  for  liberty  had  disorganized  and  weakened  the  whole  ad- 
ministration, and  had  destroyed  the  discipline  of  the  army. 


THE  JACOBIN  CLUB  (interior) .     From  an  old  print 

After  the  first  reverses,  a  cry  of  "Treachery  !"   was  raised. 
Because  the  king  had  begun  to  show  open  hostility  to  the  revo- 
lution, the  Jacobin  leaders  now  began  to  plot  his  over-  597-  The 
throw.     On  August  10,  a  Parisian  mob  —  aided  by  some  S^T^^ 
volunteers  from  Marseilles   (mar-salz'),   who   raised  en-   (August  10) 
thusiasm  to  a  white  heat  with  the  new  revolutionary  hymn, 
the  Marseillaise  (mar-se-yaz')  —  stormed  the  royal  palace  of 
the  Tuileries.     They  massacred  the  Swiss  guards  of  the  king, 
and  Louis  and  his  family  were  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  the  hall 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly. 

This  whole  movement  was  organized  and  carried  out  in  prac- 
tical independence  of  the  Assembly.     Nevertheless  that  body, 
when   the   insurrection   was   accomplished,   accepted   its  598.  The 
results.     It  decreed  the  suspension  of  the  king  from  his  convention 
office,  and  ordered  him  and  his  family  into  confinement,   called 


498 


THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 


At  the  same  time  steps  were  taken  to  call  a  National  Conven- 
tion, which  was  to  decide  the  question  whether  the  monarchy 
should  continue  or  France  be  declared  a  republic.1 

Before  the  new  body  met,  Lafayette  had  abandoned  the  revo- 
lution. He  was  now  in  harmony  with  neither  the  radicals  nor 
the  royalists.  He  attempted  to  win  over  his  army  to  the  cause 
of  the  imprisoned  king.  Failing  in  this,  he  himself  deserted  to 
the  Austrians,  and  was  by  them  imprisoned  for  five  years. 

The  executive  government  meanwhile  was  put  in  the  hands 

of  a  provisional  ministry,  of  which  the  able  and  patriotic  Danton 

599.  In-         was  the  heart  and  soul. 

France  °f         ^e     WaS      tne     secon(^ 
repulsed         great     leader     of     the 

revolution  to  arise.  He 
combined  the  eloquence  and 
ability  of  Mirabeau  with  a 
purer  life  and  more  radical 
political  views.  But  his  face 
was  pitted  by  smallpox,  and 
his  personal  appearance  was 
repulsive.  Under  his  direc- 
tion great  energy  was  shown 
in  organizing  the  defense  of  DANTON 

France  against  its  foreign  in- 
vaders.2    The  fruits  of  this  were  soon  seen  in  a  French  victory 
at  Valmy  (val-me';    September  20,  1792).     Influenced  partly 
by  jealousy  of  Austria,   the    Prussians   then  retreated.     The 

1  The  demand  for  a  republic  came  originally  from  the  Parisian  club  of  the  Cor- 
deliers, which  in  the  beginning  was  more  radical  than  the  Jacobins.     Its  chief  member 
was  DANTON  (1759-1794),  a  lawyer  of  Paris  who  possessed  great  eloquence,  energy, 
and  practical  ability.    The  calling  of  the  National  Convention  to  end  the  mon- 
archy came  when  the  Girondists  and  Jacobins  joined  the  Cordeliers-  in  demanding  a 
republic. 

2  The  continued  advance  of  the  Prussians  produced  a  frenzy  of  rage  and  fear  at 
Paris.     In  September,  bands  of  assassins  entered  the  prisons  and  systematically 
massacred  hundreds  of  royalists  who  had  been  arrested  after  the  king's  suspension 
(the  "September  Massacres").     The  Commune  looked  on  approvingly;    the  Legis- 
lative Assembly  disapproved  but  was  helpless. 


A  REPUBLIC   ESTABLISHED 


499 


National  Convention  was  thus  enabled  to  deal  with  the  ques- 
tion of  the  monarchy  without  the  menacing  presence  of  a 
foreign  army  on  French  soil. 

In  the  National  Convention,  which  met  September  21,  1792, 
most  of  the  members  were  men  who  had  gained  experience 

through  sitting  in  one  of  600.  The 

the    two    preceding   As-  monarchy 
abolished 

sembhes.  The  Conven-  (Sept.  21, 
tion  was  more  radical  T792) 
than  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
just  as  that  body  had  been 
more  radical  than  the  National 
Assembly.  Almost  its  first 
act  (in  which  all  members 
united)  was  to  decree  that 
"  royalty  is  abolished  in 
France,"  and  to  proclaim  a 
republic. 

Violent  disputes  arose,  how- 
ever, over  further  proceedings. 
The  Girondists,  who  at  6ol 
first  controlled  the  Con-  in  the 

vention,  feared  the  dictation  of  Parisian  mobs.  They 
wished  to  reduce  the  influence  of  the  capital  until  it  should  be 
no  greater  than  that  of  any  other  "department."  They  also 
wished  to  carry  on  the  government  in  as  orderly  a  way  as  if 
France  were  at  peace.  They  were  eloquent  and  patriotic  men, 
but  they  did  not  understand  the  nature  of  the  crisis  which 
confronted  France.  They  were  "  too  full  of  vanity  and  exclusive 
•party  spirit,  and  too  fastidious  to  strike  hands  with  the  vigorous 
and  stormy  Danton."  On  the  other  side  stood  the  party  of 
the  Mountain,  chief  of  whom  were  Danton,  Ro'bespierre,  and 
Marat  (ma-ra/).1  They  saw  the  need  of  a  strong  centralized 

1  ROBESPIERRE  (1758-1794)  was  a  visionary  provincial  lawyer,  who  had  sat  in  the 
Estates-General  of  1789.  He  believed  fanatically  in  the  doctrines  of  Rousseau,  and 
won  many  followers  among  the  people  by  his  sincerity  and  boasted  honesty.  He 


ROBESPIERRE 

From  a  painting  in  the  Musee  Carnavalet, 
Paris 


Convention 


500  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

government  for  national  defense,  and  were  willing  to  override 
the  law  to  secure  this.  They  accepted  the  dictation  of  Paris 
as  long  as  the  crisis  lasted,  and  were  ready  to  employ  violent 
means  to  keep  the  royalists  in  subjection.  The  majority  of  the 
members  of  the  Convention,  however,  adhered  steadfastly  to 
neither  of  these  groups. 

The  battle  of  Valmy  was  followed  by  a  tide  of  French   suc- 
cesses.    French  armies  now  carried  the  war  into  the  lands  of 
602.  Revo-     t^r  enemies-     Savoy  was  occupied,  the  principalities  of 
lutionary        the  middle  Rhine  were  overrun,  and  the  Belgians  were 
conquests       assisted  in  their  efforts  to  expel  the  Austrian  rulers.     These 
successes  intoxicated  the  Convention,  and  its  members  believed 
their  armies  to  be  invincible.     A  decree  of  November  19,  1792, 
Lavisseand     promised  "  fraternity  and  assistance  to  all  peoples  who 
Rambaud,       desire  their  liberty."     "  All  governments  are  our  enemies," 
centraL          cried  an  orator  of  the  Convention,  "all  peoples  are  our 
VIII,  243,       friends.     We  shall  be  destroyed,  or  they  shall  be  free." 
When  democracy  of  the  French  sort  proved  unaccept- 
able, it  was  forced  upon  the  liberated  peoples.     Belgium  (the 
Austrian    Netherlands),    Nice,    and    Savoy  were    annexed    to 
France. 
To    complete  the    destructive  work   of   the   revolution,  the 

became  a  member  of  the  Jacobin  club,  and  was  converted  with  that  club  to  repub- 
licanism. The  measure  by  which  the  members  of  the  National  Assembly  excluded 
themselves  from  the  Legislative  Assembly  was  chiefly  his  work.  His  weak  points 
were  the  impractical  character  of  his  views,  and  his  extreme  vanity. 

MARAT  (1743-1793)  was  a  noted  physician  and  writer,  who  in  1789  began  to  pub- 
lish a  paper  in  Paris  called  The  Friend  of  the  People.  He  was  moved  by  sincere  pity 
for  the  sufferings  of  the  common  people,  but  was  half  crazed  by  jealousy  and  sus- 
picion of  the  "aristocrats."  For  a  time  he  was  forced  to  hide  in  cellars  and  sewers, 
where  he  contracted  a  loathsome  and  painful  disease  of  the  skin.  Before  Lafayette's 
desertion  he  wrote  that  "could  he  but  rally  at  his  call  two  thousand  determined  men 
to  save  the  country,  he  would  proceed  at  their  head  to  tear  out  the  heart  of  the  in- 
fernal Lafayette  in  tne  midst  of  his  battalions  of  slaves.  He  would  burn  the  monarch 
and  his  minions  in  his  paface ;  and  impale  on  their  seats  the  infamous  legislators 
who  negotiated  with  him  and  bury  them  in  the  burning  ruins  of  their  lair."  Marat 
preached  assassination  of  the  people's  enemies,  and  was  the  chief  agent  in  arousing 
the  Parisian  mob  to  action.  He  was  stabbed  to  death  in  1793  by  a  girl  named  Char- 
lotte Corday,  because  of  his  part  in  overthrowing  the  Girondists.  His  memory  was 
worshiped  by  the  lower  classes  of  Paris,  and  execrated  by  the  upper  classes. 


A  REPUBLIC   ESTABLISHED 


501 


Convention  ordered  that  Louis  XVI  should  be  brought  to  trial. 

The  charge  was  that  he  had  intrigued  with  foreign  courts  for 

the  invasion  of  France.     By  an  almost  unanimous  vote  603. 

the  Convention  declared  " Louis  Capet"  guilty,  and  by  a  ^ou^xv 

small  majority  it  passed  sentence  of  death.     Some  of  the   (jan.  21, 

Girondists  wished  to  submit  the  judgment  to  the  vote  J793) 

of  the  people.     But  the  leaders  of  the  Mountain  taunted  their 

opponents   with    being    concealed 

royalists,  and  caused  this  motion 

to    be    rejected.     The    next    day 

Louis  XVI  was  executed  by  means 

of  the  "guillotine."     This  was  an 

instrument  for  beheading,  named 

from  a  physician  (Doctor  Guillotin) 

whose  recommendation  brought  it 

into  use.     The  king  met  his  fate 

with  steadfast  courage.     But  when 

he  sought  to  address  a  few  words 

to  the  crowd,  his  voice  was  drowned 

by  the  roll  of  drums. 

Opinion  in  England  even  among 
the  Whigs,  who   favored   liberty, 

had  early  showed  signs  of  division  over  the  events  in  France. 
Upon  the  fall  of  the  Bastille,  Charles  James  Fox,  the  most  604.  Eng- 
liberal    of    English   Whig    leaders,   wrote,    "How   much  %£££** 
the  greatest  event  it  is  that  ever  happened  in  the  world!  Revolution 
and  how   much   the   best!"      On   the   other  hand,  Edmund 
Burke,  one  of  the  greatest  of  British  orators  and  political  phi- 
losophers, in  a  widely  read  pamphlet  (1790)  characterized  the 
French  Revolution  as  a   "strange  chaos  of  levity  and  Burke, Reflec- 
ferocity,  and  of  all  sorts  of  crimes  jumbled  together  with  ^^^ 
all  sorts  of  follies."     Its  probable  end,  he  thought,  would  in  France,  « 
be  a  military  despotism  under  some  popular  general.     The 
British  government  was  now  carried  on  by  William  Pitt   (a 
younger  son  of  the  Great  Commoner),  who  was  prime  minister 
almost  continuously  from  1783  until  his  death  in  1806.     He 


THE  GUILLOTINE 


502  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

agreed  with  Burke  rather  than  with  Fox,  but  wished  sincerely 
to  maintain  peace.  Several  factors,  however,  forced  him  into 
war  with  France.  Among  these  were  the  French  annexation  of 
Belgium,  the  threatened  conquest  of  Holland  (England's  ally), 
and  the  horror  excited  in  England  by  the  execution  of  the  French 
king. 

The  actual  declaration  of  war  came  in  1793  from  France,  whose 
leaders  misunderstood  British  politics,  and  expected  a  demo- 

605.  War       cratic  rising  in  their  aid.     Holland,  Spain,  Austria,  Prus- 
between         s[^  an(j  many  smaller  states,  at  about  the  same  time, 
and  France     took  up  arms  against  the  republic.     Until  the  final  down- 
(1793)  fall  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Great  Britain  was  thenceforth 

the  head  of  the  resistance  to  France,  and  the  paymaster  of  the 
coalitions  formed  against  her.  The  British  fleet  guarded  the 
seas,  and  British  subsidies  enabled  Prussia,  Austria,  and  other 
countries  to  maintain  the  war  by  land.  The  contest,  in  one 
aspect,  was  the  last  stage  of  the  war  between  France  and  Eng- 
land for  colonial  and  maritime  empire.  In  another  aspect  it  was 
the  struggle  of  two  systems  of  political  liberty,  —  the  orderly, 
conservative,  practical  system  of  England,  against  the  tumultu- 
ous, democratic,  theoretical  system  of  revolutionary  France. 

The  tide  of  success  which  followed  the  battle  of  Valmy  was 
of  short  duration.     By  March,  1793,  invasions  of  France  had 

606.  Failure  begun  from  the  north,  south,  and  east.     The  shock  of  these 
Girondist       events  rudely  awakeried  the  enthusiasts  of  the  Conven- 
govemment    tion.     A  call  for  300,000  troops,  to  be  raised  if  necessary 

by  conscription,  led  to  an  insurrection  in  the  district  called  La 
Vendee  (vaN-da/)  in  western  France.  This  was  directed  at  first 
against  conscription,  but  was  soon  turned  into  a  priestly  and 
royalist  reaction.  In  the  Convention  the  quarrels  between  the 
Girondists  and  the  Mountain  grew  ever  more  bitter.  Paris 
suffered  from  constant  scarcity  of  food  and  high  prices ;  and  the 
Girondists  were  loath  to  enact  the  stringent  laws  for  govern- 
mental regulation  which  their  opponents  demanded.  The 
populace  of  Paris,  in  patriotic  frenzy,  at  last  took  the  govern- 
ment of  the  city  and  the  command  of  the  civic  troops  entirely 


THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR  503 

into  its  own  hands.  The  stage  was  thus  set  for  the  next  act  in 
the  drama  of  the  French  Revolution,  —  the  overthrow  of  the 
incompetent  Girondists,  and  the  establishing  of  the  Reign  of 
Terror. 

D.  THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR 

The  crisis  in  the  quarrel  between  the  Mountain  and  the 
Girondists  came  on  June  2,  1793.  On  that  day,  the  Parisian 
mob,  supported  by  the  national  guard,  invaded  the  hall  607.  Fall  of 
of  the  Convention  and  demanded  the  arrest  of  the  Gi-  ^. 
rondist  leaders.  The  demand  was  perforce  complied  with,  1793) 
and  the  Girondists  as  a  political  party  ceased  to  exist.  Their 
fall  was  due  to  the  conviction  that  they  were  impractical 
visionaries,  and  that  their  rule  in  the  Convention  was  the  chief 
obstacle  to  unity  and  efficiency  in  the  government.1  The  Con- 
tention, now  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  Mountain,  drew 
up  a  republican  constitution  and  submitted  it  to  the  people  for 
ratification.  This  constitution  was  adopted,  but  it  never  came 
into  force.  The  military  situation  at  the  time  was  too  critical 
for  the  Convention  to  lay  down  its  power,  and  when  the  crisis 
was  past  new  ideas  of  government  prevailed.2 

1  Sixty-nine  out  of  the  eighty-three  "  departments  "  of  France  protested  against  the 
violence  done  to  the  Convention  by  the  mob  of  Paris.    The  Girondists  attempted  to 
raise  revolt  in  the  west,  the  south,  and  the  center  of  France,  but  were  soon  overpowered. 
"One  thing  strikes  us  in  these  poor  Girondins  —  their  fatal  shortness  of  vision; 
nay,  fatal  poorness  of  character,  for  that  is  the  root  of  it.     They  are  as  strangers  to 
the  People  they  would  govern ;  to  the  thing  they  have  come  to  work  in.     Formulas, 
Philosophies,  Respectabilities,  what  has  been  written  in  Books,  and  admitted  by  the 
Cultivated  Classes :  this  inadequate  Scheme  of  Nature's  working  is  all  that  Nature, 
let  her  work  as  she  will,  can  reveal  to  these  men.     So  they  perorate  and  speculate  ; 
and  call  on  the  Friends  of  Law,  when  the  question  is  not  Law  or  No-Law,  but  Life 
or  No-Life.    Their  Formalism  is  great ;   great  also  is  their  Egotism.     A  Republic 
founded  on  what  they  call  the  Virtues ;  on  what  we  call  the  Decencies  and  Respect- 
abilities :   this  they  will  have,  and  nothing  but  this.  .  .  .    The  men  were  men  of 
parts,  of  Philosophic  culture,  decent  behavior;  not  condemnable  in  that  they  were 
but  Pedants,  and  had  not  better  parts;   not  condemnable,  but  most  unfortunate. 
They  wanted  a  Republic  of  the  Virtues,  wherein  themselves  should  be  the  head  ; 
and  they  could  only  get  a  Republic  of  the  Strengths,  wherein  others  than  they  were 
head."  —  Carlyte,  French  Revolution,  Part  III,  Bk.  Ill,  chs.  iv  and  be. 

2  The  constitution  of  1793  is  of  interest  as  showing  the  ideas  of  the  men  of  the 
Mountain  on  the  subject  of  a  permanent  government.     It  provided :  (i)  that  France 


504  THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION 

As  a  result  of  the  overthrow  of  the  constitution  of  1791,  and 

the  suspension  of  the  one  framed  to  take  its  place,  the  whole 

608.  Gov-      government  was  left  in  the   hands  of  the  Convention.1 

emment  by    TO  use   this  power   there  was  created   a  new  executive 

Committee 

of  Public        body,  in  the  form  of  a  secret  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 

Safety  ^he  formation  of  this  committee  marks  the  beginning  of 

a  reaction  to  secure  greater  unity  and  strength  in  the  govern- 
ment, which  had  been  weakened  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the 
revolution.  It  was  composed  of  twelve  members  of  the  Conven- 
tion, who  at  first  were  to  hold  office  for  only  a  month  at  a  time. 
Soon,  however,  they  were  continued  from  month  to  month. 
The  creation  of  this  body  was  largely  the  work  of  Danton,  though 
he  did  not  long  continue  a  member.  His  work  was  chiefly  in  the 
Convention,  whose  members  he  aroused  to  energetic  action. 
"We  must  dare,"  he  cried,  "and  dare  again,  and  ever  dare,— 
and  France  is  saved!"  Robespierre  was  the  Committee's 
most  conspicuous  member,  because  of  his  reputation  for  in- 
corruptibility and  his  popularity  in  the  Jacobin  club.  Its  real 
work,  however,  was  performed  by  others.  Of  these,  the  most 
notable  person  was  Carnot  (car-no'),  who  by  his  efficiency  gained 
the  enviable  name  of  "Organizer  of  Victory." 

From  September,  1793,  to  July,  1794,  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety  ruled  France  almost  despotically.  Practically  all  power 

should  be  a  republic,  "one  and  indivisible" ;  (2)  that  all  Frenchmen  should  have  the 
right  to  vote,  without  regard  to  paying  taxes ;  (3)  that  the  legislature  should  consist 
of  a  single  chamber,  elected  for  one  year ;  (4)  that  all  laws  passed  by  the  legislature 
should  be  submitted  to  a  referendum  of  the  people;  (5)  that  the  executive  power 
should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  council  chosen  by  the  legislature.  —  Anderson, 
Constitutions  and  Documents,  pp.  170-182. 

1  In  order  to  break  completely  with  the  past,  the  Convention  adopted  an  entirely 
new  calendar.  The  date  of  the  establishment  of  the  republic  (September  22,  1792) 
was  taken  as  the  beginning  of  the  new  era.  Twelve  months  of  thirty  days  each  were 
instituted,  with  five  or  six  supplementary  days  at  the  end  of  the  year ;  and  the  months 
were  divided  into  three  "decades"  each,  instead  of  weeks.  For  the  old  names  of 
the  months  the  following  were  substituted :  Vendemiaire  (Vintage  month),  Brumaire 
(Fog  month),  and  Frimaire  (Frost  month)  for  autumn;  Nivdse  (Snow  month),  Plu- 
mose (Rain  month),  and  Ventose  (Wind  month)  for  winter;  Germinal  (Budding 
month),  Floreal  (Flower  month),  and  Prairial  (Meadow  month)  for  spring;  and 
Messidor  (Harvest  month),  Thermidor  (Heat  month),  and  Fructidor  (Fruit  month) 
for  summer.  This  calendar  was  used  by  France  until  January  i,  1806. 


THE  REIGN  OF  TERROR  505 

passed  into  its  hands,  and  the  Convention  became  little  more 
than  its  mouthpiece.  The  Committee  organized  and  fed  the 
armies,  directed  the  military  operations,  and  put  down  internal 
disaffection  with  a  stern  hand.  Representatives  of  the  Com- 
mittee (called  "Deputies  on  mission")  accompanied  the  armies 
to  watch  over  the  generals,  thus  guarding  against  disloyalty  and 
infusing  greater  zeal  into  their  efforts.  By  the  same  means  the 
elected  local  governments  throughout  France  were  practically 
suspended,  everything  being  managed  by  these  agents  of  the 
Committee.  During  the  time  that  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety  was  in  full  power,  it  put  fourteen  armies  in  the  field,  and 
expelled  from  France  its  foreign  invaders.1 

The  chief  means  used  to  break  resistance  at  home  was  the 
Reign  of  Terror.     The  menace  of  the  guillotine  fell  upon  all  6      Reign 
who  incurred  the  popular  wrath,  or  whom  policy  or  ambi-  of  Terror 
tion  found  in  the  way.     Two  laws,  passed  in  September,   t1793 
1793,  constituted  the  basis  of  the  system.     By  the  Law  of  the 

1  Carlyle  admirably  portrays  the  spirit  infused  into  the  armies  by  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety.  "These  soldiers  have  shoes  of  wood  and  pasteboard,  or  go  booted 
in  hay-ropes,  in  dead  of  winter.  What  then  ?  '  With  steel  and  bread,'  says  the  Con- 
vention representative,  '  one  may  go  to  China.'  The  generals  go  fast  to  the  guillo- 
tine, justly  and  unjustly.  Ill-success  is  death ;  in  victory  alone  is  life  !  To  conquer 
or  die  is  a  practical  truth  and  necessity.  All  Girondism,  Halfness,  Compromise  is 
swept  away.  Forward,  ye  soldiers  of  the  Republic,  captain  and  man  !  Dash,  with 
your  Gallic  impetuosity,  on  Austria,  England,  Prussia,  Spain,  Sardinia,  Pitt,  Co- 
bourg,  York,  and  the  Devil  and  the  World  !  Behind  us  is  but  the  Guillotine ;  before 
us  is  Victory,  and  Millennium  without  end  !  See  accordingly  on  all  frontiers,  how  the 
'  Sons  of  Night, '  astonished  after  short  triumph,  do  recoil ;  —  the  Sons  of  the  Repub- 
lic flying  at  them  with  the  temper  of  cat-o  '-mountain,  or  demon  incarnate ;  which  no 
Son  of  Night  can  stand  !  Spain,  which  came  bursting  through  the  Pyrenees,  and 
went  conquering  here  and  there  for  a  season,  falters  at  such  cat-o'-mountain  wel- 
come; draws  itself  in  again;  too  happy  now  were  the  Pyrenees  impassable.  Gen- 
eral Dugommier  invades  Spain  by  the  Eastern  Pyrenees;  General  Miiller  shall 
invade  it  by  the  Western.  'Shall,'  that  is  the  word.  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
has  said  it;  Representative  Cavaignac,  on  mission  there,  must  see  it  done.  'Im- 
possible!' cries  Miiller;  'Infallible!'  answers  Cavaignac.  Difficulty,  impossibility, 
is  to  no  purpose.  'The  Committee  is  deaf  on  that  side  of  its  head,'  answers  Cavai- 
gnac. ' How  many  wantest  thou,  of  men,  of  horses,  of  cannon?  Thou  shalt  have 
them.  Conquerors,  conquered,  or  hanged,  Forward  we  must.'  Which  things  also, 
even  as  the  Representative  spake  them,  were  done."  —  Carlyle,  French  Revolution, 
Part  III,  Bk.  V,  ch.  vi  (condensed). 


506  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

Suspects  all  persons  might  be  accused  who,  "by  their  conduct,  by 
their  relations,  or  by  their  conversation  or  writings,  have  shown 
themselves  partisans  of  tyranny  or  federalism  (i.e.  of  the  Gi- 
rondists) and  enemies  of  liberty."  The  only  safety  for  former 
nobles  or  royalists,  and  their  families,  lay  in  attachment  to  the 
revolution.  The  Law  of  the  Maximum,  in  defiance  of  the 
teachings  of  political  economy,  fixed  the  prices  in  paper  money 
at  which  provisions,  clothing,  firewood,  tobacco,  etc.,  must  be 
sold.  The  possibility  of  prosecution  under  this  law  extended 
the  Terror  to  the  petty  tradesmen.  To  judge  persons  accused 
under  these  acts,  as  well  as  those  accused  of  other  political 
offenses,  a  Revolutionary  Tribunal  was  set  up,  whose  almost 
invariable  sentence  was  death.  Through  the  "Deputies  on 
mission"  the  Terror  was  extended  into  every  part  of  France. 
In  some  places  (as  at  Nantes,  where  prisoners  were  drowned 
wholesale)  the  deputies  abused  their  powers.  But  revolt  was 
suppressed,  and  internal  peace  restored. 

At  Paris  the  number  of  executions  by  the  Revolutionary 
Tribunal  increased  rapidly.  It  became  the  established  custom 

610  Vic-       to  send  batches  of  prisoners  to  the  guillotine  each  day. 

tims  of  the  At  first  the  average  was  only  three  victims  a  week.  Then 
it  rose  to  thirty-two.  In  June  and  July,  1794,  the  number 
of  victims  reached  one  hundred  and  ninety-six  a  week.  Among 
the  early  victims  of  the  Terror  were  the  queen  (Marie  Antoi- 
nette), together  with  twenty-one  of  the  fallen  Girondist  leaders. 
The  total  number  who  perished  by  the  guillotine  at  Paris  was 
over  2500.  To  these  must  be  added  about  12,000  who 
perished,  with  or  without  the  semblance  of  a  trial,  in  the 
provinces. 

Two  points  concerning  the  Terror  should  be  noted,  (i)  It 
was  in  no  sense  the  work  of  a  mob,  but  was  a  government  policy 
gradually  adopted.  Designed  at  first  to  crush  the  enemies  of 
the  republic,  it  was  perverted  to  party  and  personal  ends. 
(2)  Outside  of  the  Vendee,  rural  France  suffered  very  little. 
Even  at  Paris  the  great  majority  of  the  people  were  unaffected, 
and  went  about  their  occupations  and  amusements  as  usual. 


THE  REIGN   OF  TERROR  507 

At  the  height  of  the  Terror,  there  were  twenty-three  theaters 
open  nightly,  and  some  sixty  places  for  dancing. 

From  two  quarters  in  the  Mountain  itself  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety  met  with  opposition,  (i)  The  extreme  radicals 
of  the  Commune  of  Paris  under  the  leadership  of  Hebert  6ll  Fall  of 
(a-bar'),  the  editor  of  a  coarse  and  violent  journal,  clamored  Danton 
for  more  bloodshed.  They  attacked  the  rich  as  the  ene-  ^I794' 
mies  of  the  people,  closed  the  churches,  and  set  up  with  wild 
orgies  the  worship  of  "the  goddess  Reason."  These  excesses 
led  Robespierre  (who  was  a  deist)  to  denounce  the  Hebertists 
as  atheists.  When  they  attempted  an  insurrection  of  the  city, 
they  were  seized,  condemned,  and  guillotined  (March,  1794). 
(2)  Danton,  on  the  other  hand,  soon  opposed  the  Committee 
because  he  believed  the  Terror  had  accomplished  its  work,  had 
gone  too  far,  and  now  (thanks  to  French  victories)  was  no  longer 
needed.  Robespierre  seized  this  opportunity  to  strike  down 
his  rival  in  popularity.  The  Committee  as  a  whole  aided  him, 
because  it  wished  to  insure  its  power  by  extending  the  Terror 
over  the  Convention  itself.  Danton  and  his  chief  adherents 
were  therefore  arrested,  accused  of  conspiracy,  and  after  the 
mockery  of  a  trial  were  hurried  to  execution  (April,  I7Q4).1 

Freed  from  competitors  for  public  favor,  Robespierre  proposed 
to  set  up  a  Reign  of  Virtue,  founded  upon  the  teachings  of  Rous- 
seau.    In  this  new  system  he  himself  was  to  be  the  prin-  6l2  Fall  of 
cipal  figure.     In  order  to  check  atheism,  the  worship  of  Robespierre 
"the  Supreme  Being"  was  established,  and  Robespierre   (I794) 

1  Danton  was  warned  of  his  danger,  but  declined  to  use  force  or  to  flee.  "Better 
to  be  guillotined  than  to  guillotine,"  he  said;  and  also:  "Where  should  I  go  that 
I  shall  not  be  thought  guilty  ?  If  France,  when  she  is  at  last  free,  casts  me  from  her 
bosom,  what  country  will  give  me  an  asylum?"  Probably  he  was  overconfident  of 
his  ability  to  outmatch  Robespierre,  whom  he  despised.  At  his  trial  he  cried  out : 
"Let. the  cowards  who  calumniate  me  confront  me.  My  life !  I  am  weary  of  it; 
1  long  to  be  quit  of  it.  Men  of  my  stamp  have  no  price.  On  their  foreheads  are 
stamped  in  ineffaceable  characters  the  seal  of  liberty,  the  genius  of  republicanism." 
At  his  execution  he  said,  thinking  of  his  newly  wedded  wife :  "My  darling,  shall  I  no 
more  behold  thee?"  Then  he  added:  "Come,  Danton,  no  weakness."  And  to 
the  executioner  he  said  :  "Show  my  head  to  the  people.  It  is  worth  while ;  they  do 
not  see  the  like  every  day."  —  Beesly,  Life  of  Danton,  ch.  xxix. 


SDDDDD-,  , 
g  i 

a  v 


THE    RETGN   OF   TERROR  509 

presided  at  a  great  festival  of  the  new  cult.     He  was  now  at 
the  height  of  his  power,  but  a  reaction  was  preparing.     "  Robes- 
pierre will  follow  me :  I  drag  down  Robespierre,"  Dan  ton  had 
predicted.     So  it  was  to  prove.     Robespierre's  colleagues  had 
little  sympathy  with  his  fine-spun  ideas,  and  they  felt  themselves 
menaced  by  his  ascendancy.     On  July  27,  1794  (9th  Thermidor), 
his  opponents,  after  a  stormy  scene,  arrested  him  on  the  floor 
of  the  Convention.     He  was  rescued  by  the  Jacobin  club ;   but 
his   enemies,  now  rendered  desperate,  recaptured  him.     The 
next  day  he  and  his  adherents  met  the  fate  which  they  had  in- 
flicted upon  the  Hebertists  and  the  Dantonists.     "  Not  Stephens, 
only  his  enemies  but  his  colleagues  threw  upon  him  the  Revolutionary 
responsibility  for  all   the  atrocities  included  under   the  Europe>  I47 
name  of  the  Terror."     But  the  blame,  as  well  as  the  credit,  for 
its  rule  belongs  chiefly  to  men  of  obscurer  name. 

With  the  fall  of  Robespierre  the  Terror  came  to  an  end.     New 
members  were  gradually  added  to  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  and  the  moderate  policy  for  which  Danton  had  613.  The 
pleaded  was   adopted.     The   club   of   the  Jacobins  was  e*™°£ 
closed,  the  Law  of  the  Maximum  was  repealed,  and  im-   (1794-1705) 
prisoned  deputies  were  restored  to  their  seats.     The  four  living 
persons  who  were  chiefly  responsible  for  the  Terror  were  ordered 
to  be  deported  to  French  Guiana  (April,  1795).     In  May  oc- 
curred a  revolt,  in  which  the  famished  Parisian  mob  broke  into 
the  Convention,  crying,  " Bread,  and  the  Constitution  of  1793." 
Victory  over  these  rioters  was  followed  by  new  condemnations 
of  Terrorists,  and  the  Mountain  as  a  party  was  broken  up.     The 
middle  classes,  enriched  by  the  spoils  of  the  revolution,  now 
came  to  the  front ;   and  concealed  royalists  emerged  from  their 
hiding  places  to  take  vengeance  on  their  enemies. 

While  order  was  restored  at  home,  the  number  of  France's 
enemies  abroad  was  reduced.     The  visionary  attempt  to  estab- 
lish democracies  everywhere  was  given  up,  and  this  broke  6l4  Peace 
the  league  of  her  foes.     In  1795,  Prussia  and  Spain  made  with  Prussia 
peace  with  France  at  Basel,  and  recognized  the  republic.   8 
Holland,  conquered  in  1794-1795,  was  organized  as  the  Bata- 


510  THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

vian  Republic,  and  brought  into  close  alliance.  With  Great 
Britain  and  Austria,  however,  the  war  still  continued. 

E.   THE  DIRECTORY  ESTABLISHED 

615.  "Con-  The   leaders   of   the    Convention   saw    the   continued 
stitution  of  necessity  of  a  permanent  executive  power  possessed  of 
III"  (1795)  sufficient   force   and   unity  to  cope  with  disorder.      To 
Anderson,  secure  this  they  prepared  the  "  Constitution  of  the  Year 
Constitutions  m»    (I79S).      This   was   the    third   constitution   to   be 

and  Docu- 
ments, 212-     adopted,  and  was  the  second  to  go  into  force.     Its  chief 

2S4  provisions  were :  — 

1.  The  executive  power  was  intrusted  to  a  Directory  of  five  members, 

chosen  by  the  legislature. 

2.  The  legislature  was  to  consist  of  two  houses,  the  members  of  which 

were  elected  for  three  years. 

3.  Only  those  citizens  who  paid  direct  taxes  and  had  a  fixed  residence 

were  allowed  to  vote. 

The  new  constitution  sought  to  guard  at  the  same  time 
Aulard,  against  mob  rule  and  against  the  despotism  of  an  in- 

totfa.tST  dividual.  " There  should  never  be  another  Robespierre, 
312  almost  every  line  of  the  Constitution  emits  that  cry." 

To  guard  themselves  against  proscription,  and  to  check  roy- 
alist intrigues,  the  Convention  decreed  that  two  thirds  of  the 

616.  Rising    first  members  of  the  legislature  must  be  elected  from  among 
Vendemi-       tne""  own  ran^s.     This  provision  provoked  what  was  prac- 
aire  (1795)     tically  the  last  of  the  revolutionary  revolts  of  Paris,  — 

the  rising  of  October  5,  1795  (i3th  Vendemiaire) .  It  was  an 
insurrection  of  the  middle  classes  and  royalist  sympathizers. 
The  defense  of  the  Convention  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
young  artillery  officer,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  had  lately 
been  dismissed  from  employment  because  of  his  refusal  to  accept 
an  unsatisfactory  appointment.  Bonaparte's  cannon  did  ter- 
rible execution  on  the  advancing  columns  of  the  mob,  and  the 
revolt  was  put  down.  This  "whiff  of  grapeshot"  taught  Paris 
that  the  day  of  riot  and  mob  rule  was  a  thing  of  the  past. 


THE  DIRECTORY   ESTABLISHED  511 

The  Convention  then  made  the  necessary  arrangements  for 
the  new  government,  and  quietly  disbanded.     Its  last  act  was 
an  amnesty  for  political  offenses  committed  since  the  be-  617.  The 
ginning  of  the  republic.    The  new  government  was  entirely  ^JJJushcd 
in  the  hands  of  men  of  moderate  opinions.     The  Directors   (1795) 
chosen  had  all  been  members  of  the  Convention,  and  had  voted 
for  the  execution  of  the  king.      Only  one  of  them  (Carnot) 
had  been  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 

Within  seven  years  France  had  experienced  almost  every  form 
of  government.  The  absolutism  of  the  Old  Regime  had  given 
way  to  a  weak  constitutional  monarchy ;  this  in  turn  had  6l8  Review 
been  followed  by  a  republic  in  which  practically  all  power  of  the  rev- 
was  vested  in  an  unwieldy  Assembly  (1792-1793);  and  ° 
following  this  came  the  executive  despotism  of  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety,  and  the  Reign  of  Terror  (1793-1794).  Leaders 
representing  all  shades  of  political  liberty  —  Mirabeau,  the  Gi- 
rondists, Dan  ton,  Robespierre  —  had  succeeded  one  another. 
The  excess  of  freedom  had  wrought  its  cure.  France  was  now 
prepared  to  try  a  government  which  promised  strength  of  ex- 
ecutive, with  reasonable  liberty,  fraternity,  and  equality.  The 
mistakes  and  atrocities  of  the  revolution  —  the  mob  violence, 
the  Terror,  the  revolutionary  propaganda,  the  theatrical  wor- 
ship of  Reason  and  of  the  Supreme  Being  —  were  in  part  due 
to  the  emotional,  volatile  temperament  of  the  French.  In 
part  also  they  were  due  to  the  lack  of  opportunity,  under  the 
Old  Regime,  to  acquire  experience  in  managing  their  own  affairs. 

It  remained  for  the  future  to  show  whether  the  new  govern- 
ment would  be  strong  enough  to  maintain  order  at  home  and 
secure  peace  abroad ;  or  whether,  upon  the  ruins  of  its  policies, 
there  should  arise  a  new  monarchy  based  on  military  power,  suc- 
cessful intrigue,  and  the  will  of  the  people. 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

1789.   Estates-General  meets  and  is  transformed  into  the  National 

Assembly. 
1791.   First  constitution  completed  and  accepted  by  the  king. 


512  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION 

1792.  War  with  Austria  and  Prussia  begun ;  growth  of  republican  ideas. 
The  National  Convention  abolishes  the  kingship. 

1793.  Jan.  21.   Louis  XVI  executed;    England  joins  the  war  against 

France. 

June.   Fall  of  the  Girondists. 
September.   Reign  of  Terror  begun. 

1794.  July.    Execution  of  Robespierre  ends  the  Reign  of  Terror. 
I795«   Peace  with  Prussia  and  Spain  signed.       Government  of   the 

Directory  established ;  end  of  violent  phase  of  the  Revolution. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Was  the  transformation  of  the  Estates- General 
into  the  National  Assembly  necessary  for  the  reform  of  the  abuses  under 
which  France  suffered?  Why?  (2)  What  was  the  significance  of  the 
fall  of  the  Bastille?  (3)  How  did  the  organization  of  the  national  guard 
contribute  to  the  success  of  the  Revolution?  (4)  Do  the  nobles  deserve 
much  credit  for  their  surrender  of  their  feudal  rights  on  August  4?  Why? 
(5)  To  what  extent  are  the  principles  of  the  Rights  of  Man  now  in  force 
in  the  United  States?  Were  any  of  them  in  force  in  France  before  the 
Revolution?  (6)  Was  the  Constitution  of  1791  more  or  less  radical  than 
the  constitution  in  Great  Britain  at  that  time?  What  was  the  chief 
difference  in  their  constitutions?  (7)  What  good  did  the  Jacobin  club  do? 
What  ill?  (8)  Sum  up  the  things  which  contributed  to  the  growth  of  a 
republican  party  in  France.  (9)  How  long  was  the  Constitution  of  1791 
in  force?  (10)  How  did  the  wars  contribute  to  its  overthrow?  (n)  Was 
the  execution  of  the  king  justifiable?  Was  it  expedient?  (12)  Was  Fox 
or  Burke  nearer  right  in  his  estimate  of  the  French  Revolution?  (13)  Why 
was  the  addition  of  Great  Britain  to  the  ranks  of  the  enemies  of  France 
so  important?  (14)  Was  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondists  deserved? 
Why?  (15)  What  arguments  might  be  used  for  and  against  the  Reign 
of  Terror?  (16)  What  is.  your  opinion  of  Robespierre?  (17)  In  what 
ways  does  the  establishing  of  the  Directory  mark  a  step  in  advance? 
In  what  ways  was  it  a  backward  step?  (18)  Was  the  Revolution  up  to 
1795  a  success  or  a  failure?  Give  your  reasons. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  CAHIERS.  Lowell,  Eve  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, ch.  xxi;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  248-251;  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  Translations,  IV,  No.  5,  24-36.  —  (2)  MEETING  or  THE 
ESTATES-GENERAL.  Stephens,  French  Revolution,  I,  55-67;  Mathews, 
French  Revolution,  ch.  ix ;  MacLehose,  From  the  Monarchy  to  the  Republic, 
chs.  iv-vi.  —  (3)  EARLY  LIFE  OF  MIRABEAU.  Von  Hoist,  French  Revolu- 
tion, I,  lect.  v.  —  (4)  MIRABEAU  AND  THE  REVOLUTION.  Johnston, 
French  Revolution,  ch.  vii;  Gardiner,  French  Revolution,  35-37,  56-58,  82- 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 


513 


85 ;  Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe,  73-76 ;  Von  Hoist,  II,  Lectures  vii,  xi ; 
Stephens,  French  Revolution,  I,  ch.  xiv.  —  (5)  FALL  OF  THE  BASTILLE. 
Mathews,  125-137;  Stephens,  French  Revolution,  I,  128-145;  MacLehose, 
ch.  viii ;  Carlyle,  French  Revolution,  Bk.  V,  chs.  v-vi.  —  (6)  THE  MOB  AT 
VERSAILLES.  MacLehose,  chs.  xi-xii;  Stephens,  French  Revolution,  I,  219- 
228;  Carlyle,  Bk.  VII,  chs.  iv-viii.  —  (7)  FLIGHT  OF  THE  ROYAL  FAMILY. 
Johnston,  ch.  viii;  Gardiner,  86-91 ;  Stephens,  French  Revolution,  I,  ch.  xv. 
—  (8)  WHY  THE  FRENCH  PEOPLE  HATED  MARIE  ANTOINETTE.  Lecky, 
VI,  545-550;  McCarthy,  French  Revolution,  chs.  xii-xiv. — -(9)  THE 
JACOBIN  CLUB.  Johnston,  94-95;  Farmer,  Essays  in  French  History  ("The 
Club  of  the  Jacobins");  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  285-287. 
•*-  (10)  THE  SEPTEMBER  MASSACRES.  Mathews,  195-206 ;  Stephens, 
French  Revolution,  II,  ch.  iv.  —  (n)  TRIAL  AND  EXECUTION  OF  Louis  XVI. 
Johnston,  ch.  xi;  Carlyle,  II,  Bk.  IV,  chs.  vi-viii.  —  (12)  THE  REIGN  OF 
TERROR.  Stephens,  French  Revolution,  II,  ch.  x;  Mathews,  224-233; 
Gardiner,  163-187.  —  (13)  ROBESPIERRE  AND  HIS  OVERTHROW.  Mathews, 
ch.  xxviii;  Ten  Brink,  Robespierre,  129-140,  378-405  (favorable). 

General  Reading.  —  The  histories  of  the  French  Revolution  by  Johnston, 
Mathews,  Mrs.  Gardiner,  and  Bellbc  are  all  brief  and  good.  Rose's  Revo- 
lutionary and  Napoleonic  Era  and  Stephens's  Revolutionary  Europe  are  brief 
general  histories  of  Europe  in  this  period.  Stephens's  History  of  the  French 
Revolution  (2  vols.)  is  the  best  account  in  English  to  the  point  at  which  it 
stops  (1795).  Aulard's  Political  History  of  the  French  Revolution  (4  vols.) 
is  the  work  of  a  master  in  this  field,  but  is  too  advanced  for  high  school  use. 
Carlyle's  French  Revolution  is  antiquated,  but  should  still  be  read  for  its 
brilliant  pictures  of  Revolutionary  scenes.  The  Cambridge  Modern  History, 
vol.  VIII,  is  valuable  for  advanced  students. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  RISE   OF  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE    (1795-1804) 
A.   EARLY  LITE  AND  THE  ITALIAN  CAMPAIGN 

THE  time  was  approaching  when  (as  Burke  prophesied)  the 
government  of  France  was  to  pass  into  a  military  despotism 

619.  Early      under  a  popular  general,  —  Napoleon  Bonaparte.     This 
Bcmaparte      great  soldier  was  born  of  a  good  Italian  family,  in  Corsica, 
(1769-1789)    in  1769,  —  the  year  following  the  annexation  of  that  island 

to  France.  He  embodied  "the  typical  Corsican  temperament, 
moody  and  exacting,  but  withal  keen,  brave,  and  constant." 
At  the  age  of  nine  young  Bonaparte  was  admitted  to  a  govern- 
ment military  school  in  northeastern  France.  At  sixteen  he 
began  his  service  in  the  French  army  as  junior  lieutenant  of 
artillery.  His  proud,  imperious  nature,  his  poverty,  and  his 
foreign  birth  and  speech  cut  him  off  from  his  fellows.  He  di- 
rected his  early  thoughts  and  ambitions  chiefly  toward  schemes 
for  the  independence  of  Corsica.  Only  gradually  did  the  French 
Revolution  "blur  his  insular  sentiments,"  and  cause  him  to. lay 
aside  his  local  patriotism. 

For  a  time  Bonaparte  was  much  in  the  company  of  Jacobins. 
But  the  sight  of  a  Parisian  mob  invading  the  Tuileries  and 

620.  Bona-     insulting  the  royal  family,  in  1791,  called  forth  the  sig- 
parte  and       nificant  exclamation :    "Why  don't  they  sweep  off  four  or 
tion  (1789-     five  hundred  of  that  rabble  with  cannon  ?     The  rest  would 
1795)  then  run  away  fast  enough  ! "    Trained  officers  were  scarce 

under  the  revolution,  so  his  promotion  was  rapid,  in  spite  of 
repeated  acts  of  insubordination.  In  1793,  at  Toulon  (too-loN'), 
he  first  gave  evidence  of  his  energy  and  genius  in  directing  the 
artillery  in  the  siege  of  that  rebellious  city.  In  1795  he  was 


EARLY   LIFE   AND   THE   ITALIAN   CAMPAIGN 


515 


back  in  Paris,  deprived  of  his  command,  without  money  or 
friends,  and  suspected  because  of  his  Jacobin  connections.  His 
defense  of  the  Convention  against  the  mob  in  October,  1795, 
proved  a  turning  point  in  his  career.  "From  the  first,"  says 
an  eyewitness,  "his  activity  was  astonishing.  He  seemed  Thiebault, 
to  be  everywhere  at  once.  He  surprised  people  by  his  Memoires 

laconic,  clear,  and 
prompt  orders.  Every- 
body was  struck  by  the 
vigor  of  his  arrange- 
ments, and  passed  from 
admiration  to  confi- 
dence, from  confidence 
to  enthusiasm."  In  re- 
ward for  his  services  he 
was  appointed  by  the 
Directory  to  his  first  im- 
portant command,  that 
of  the  French  army  op- 
erating against  the  Aus- 
trians  and  their  allies  in 
Italy. 

Bonaparte   was   now 
but  twenty-seven  years 
old.     He  was  below  the 
middle   height   in   stature,   excessively   thin,   and   very  pale. 
Some  of  the  ablest  generals  of  the  revolutionary  army  621.  The 
served  under  him.     All  yielded  to  the  indomitable  will  c^^  n 
revealed   in   his   flashing   eye,    to    the    brilliancy   of   his    (1796-1797) 
plans,  and  to  the  clearness  and  decision  of  his  orders.     The  rank 
and  file  were  thrilled  by  the  burning  words  of  his  first  proclama- 
tion:   "Soldiers,  you  are  ill-fed  and  almost  naked.     The  Correspon- 
government  owes  you  much,  but  can  do  nothing  for  you. 
Your  patience  and  courage  do  you  honor,  but  procure  you   107 
neither  glory  nor  profit.     I  am  about  to  lead  you  into  the  most 
fertile  plains  of  the  world.     There  you  will  find  great  cities  and 


BONAPARTE  IN  1795 
From  a  drawing  by  Guerin 


516  THE   RISE  OF  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 

rich  provinces.     There  you  will  win  honor,  glory,  and  riches. 
Soldiers  of  the  Army  of  Italy,  will  you  lack  courage  ?  " 

The  Italian  campaign  which  followed  was  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  in  history,  and  well  illustrates  Bonaparte's  military 
genius.  His  quick  mind  seized  upon  every  geographical  detail 
which  might  help  or  hinder  his  operations.  He  was  prompt  to 
guess  the  plans  of  his  enemies,  while  he  bewildered  them  by  the 
rapidity  and  daring  of  his  own  well-calculated  maneuvers.  His 
favorite  device  was  to  meet  the  detachments  of  the  enemy 
separately,  rapidly  concentrating  upon  each  the  whole  of  his 
effective  force.  In  this  campaign  his  first  step  was  to  separate 
the  troops  of  Sardinia-Piedmont  from  the  Austrians.  Then  he 
defeated  the  Piedmontese  five  times  in  eleven  days,  menaced 
their  capital  (Turin),  and  forced  their  king  to  sign  a  treaty 
of  peace.  He  next  skillfully  turned  the  flank  of  the  Austrian 
army,  and  compelled  it  to  fall  back.  He  forced  the  passage 
of  the  bridge  of  Lo'di  in  the  face  of  a  galling  fire  (an  exploit 
which  won  from  his  admiring  soldiers  his  lifelong  nickname  of 
"the  Little  Corporal"),  and  occupied  Milan.  A  part  of  the 
Austrian  army  took  refuge  in  the  strong  fortress  of  Man'tua, 
and  was  there  besieged  by  Napoleon.  Four  times  the  Austrian 
government  poured  its  armies  across  the  Alps  to  relieve  the 
beleaguered  fortress.;  but  in  February,  1797,  Mantua  fell.  The 
results  of  the  year  of  fighting  were  summed  up  by  Bonaparte 
in  a  proclamation  to  his  army  (here  somewhat  shortened) :  — 

"  The  capture  of  Mantua  has  put  an  end  to  a  campaign  which 
has  given  you  lasting  claims  to  the  gratitude  of  the  Fatherland. 
622.  Napo-     You  have  been   victorious   in   fourteen  pitched    battles 
maryS<>fUn]      and  ^n  seventy  combats.     You  have  taken  more  than  one 
results  hundred  thousand  prisoners,  five  hundred  fieldpieces,  two 

thousand  heavy  cannon,  and  four  pontoon  trains.     The  contri- 
butions laid  upon  the  lands  you  have  conquered  have  fed, 
Correspon-      maintained,  and  paid  the  army  during  all  the  campaign. 

ApoUone^°"    Besides   this>   Y°u   nave   sent    tnirty    million   francs   to 

372-373  '       the  Minister  of  Finance  for  the  relief  of  the  public  treasury. 

You  have  enriched  the  Museum  of  Paris  with  three  hundred 


EARLY  LIFE  AND  THE  ITALIAN  CAMPAIGN         517 

masterpieces  of  ancient  and  modern  Italy,  which  it  has  required 
thirty  centuries  to  produce.  The  kings  of  Sardinia  and  Naples, 
the  Pope,  and  the  duke  of  Parma  have  abandoned  the  coalition 
of  our  enemies  and  sought  our  friendship.  You  have  expelled 
the  English  from  Leghorn,  Genoa,  and  Corsica.  Of  all  the 
enemies  who  combined  to  stifle  the  Republic  at  its  birth,  only 
the  Emperor  remains  before  us.  There  is  no  hope  for  peace  save 
in  seeking  it  in  the  heart  of  the  hereditary  states  of  the  house 
of  Austria." 

The  invasion  of  Austria,  announced  in  this  proclamation, 
presented  few  difficulties.     By  April,  1797,  Bonaparte  had  ad- 
vanced to  within  eighty  miles,  of  Vienna.     Preliminaries  623.  Peace 
of  peace  were  then  signed,  which  in  October  were  con-  F0n^P° 
verted  into  the  treaty  of  Campo  For'mio.     In  the  interval   (1797) 
between  the  preliminaries  and  the  final  treaty,  Bonaparte  found 
pretexts  for  treacherously  conquering  the  once  glorious  republic 
of  Venice ;    and  the  treaty  provided,  among  other  things,  for 
its  partition.     By  this  treaty  — 

1.  The  Emperor  granted  Belgium   (the  Austrian  Netherlands)   to 

France. 

2.  He  accepted  the  Rhine  as  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  republic. 

3.  He  gave  up  Milan,  to  which  were  joined  lands  taken  from  the  Pope 

and  Venice  to  form  the  Cisalpine  Republic. 

4.  In  return  Austria  received  most  of  the  Venetian  territories. 

In  his  diplomatic  negotiations,  as  in  his  military  operations, 
Bonaparte  acted  as  though  he  were  practically  independent. 
His  services  were  too  important,  however,  to  permit  the  Direc- 
tors to  take  offense.  With  the  French  people  his  popularity 
was  increased  as  much  by  the  treaties  which  he  dictated  as  by 
his  victories  in  the  field.  Upon  his  return  to  Paris  he  was  given 
a  triumphal  reception  such  as  was  accorded  to  no  other  French 
general.  Already  the  way  was  opening  for  him  to  seize  political 
power. 

With  England  alone  —  called  by  one  of  the  Directors  the 
" giant  corsair  that  infests  the  seas"  —  the  war  still  continued. 


518  THE   RISE  OF   NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 

In  1796  a  French  expedition  to  Ireland  failed  because  of  storms. 

The  next  year  a  Spanish  fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  was  de- 
624.  War  feated  and  practically  destroyed  by  the  British  in  a  battle 
whuffing-  °ff  Cape  St.  Vincent.  The  Dutch  fleet,  which  put  to  sea 
land  in  obedience  to  orders  of  the  Directors,  was  crushed  in  the 

battle  of  Camperdown  in  the  same  year.     With  the  British  in 

complete  control  of  the  Channel,  an  invasion  of  England  or 

Ireland  became  hopeless. 

B.  THE  EXPEDITION  TO  EGYPT  (1798-1799) 

Bonaparte  now  urged  upon  the  Directors  an  expedition  to 
Egypt,  which  was  a  province  of  the  Turkish   Empire.     His 
625  Expe-     °bject  was  partly  to  prepare  the  way  for  an  attack  on 
dition  to         Great  Britain's  power  in  India.     His  purpose  was  also 
Egypt  (1798)   to  mamf-am  m's  own  prestige  in  France.     "The  people  cf 
Paris  do  not  remember  anything,"  said  Bonaparte.     "Were  I 
to  remain  here  long,  doing  nothing,  I  should  be  lost.     In  this 
great  Babylon  everything  wears  out.      My  glory  has  already 
disappeared.     This  little  Europe  does  not  supply  enough  of  it 
for  me.     I  must  seek  it  in  the  East.     All  great  fame  comes  from 
that  quarter."     The  Directors  were  not  sorry  to  be  rid  for  a 
time  of  their  most  ambitious  general,  and  gave  their  consent  to 
his  plan.     In  May,  1798,  the  Egyptian  expedition  set  out.     It 
included  veterans  of  the  army  of  Italy,  together  with  Bona- 
parte's favorite  generals.     He  took  with  him  also  a  corps  of 
Rose  Life       scholars  to  study  the  monuments  of  the  East.     "The 
of  Napoleon     true  conquests,"  said  Bonaparte  at  one  time,  "the  only 
conquests  which  cost  no  regrets,  are  those  achieved  over 
ignorance." 

On  the  way  to  Egypt  the  French  seized  the  island  of  Malta, 
which  had  been  under  the  rule  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  since 
the  sixteenth  century.  Escaping  a  British  squadron  cruising  in 
the  Mediterranean,  Bonaparte  landed  safely  in  Egypt.  Near 
Cairo  the  French  were  forced  to  fight  the  "battle  of  the  Pyra- 
mids" (July,  1798),  in  which  French  infantry  squares,  defended 


THE   EXPEDITION  TO   EGYPT 


519 


M,TISH  8H.PS 

AGROUN° 


Rute 


by  bayonets,  muskets,  and  grapeshot,  successfully  resisted,  with 
a  loss  of  but  forty  men,  the  charges  of  the  Egyptian  cavalry. 
This  battle  practically  completed  the  conquest  of  lower  Egypt. 

A  few  days  later  Admiral  Nelson,  in  command  of  the  British 
squadron  in  the  Mediterranean,  came  upon  the  French  fleet 
in  Aboukir  (a-boo-ker')  Bay,  and  fought  the  "battle  of  626  Failure 
the  Nile"   (August,   1798).       The  French,  who  slightly  in  Egypt 
outnumbered  the  British  in  guns  and  men,  swung  at  anchor 
just  outside  shoal  water.     "  Where  there  is  room  for  a  French 
ship  to  ride  at  anchor,"  said  Nelson,  "there  is  room  for  an  Eng- 
lish   ship    to    sail."      He    

thrust  part  of  the  British 
fleet  between  the  French 
and  the  shore  and  stationed 
the  remainder  on  the  other 
side.  The  ships  of  the 
French  line  were  thus  sub- 
jected to  a  deadly  cross  fire. 
The  battle  lasted  far  into 
the  night.  The  French 
flagship  took  fire  and  ex- 
ploded, and  nearly  all  the 

French  ships  were  captured  or  burned.  Nelson's  victory  cut  off 
the  French  in  Egypt  from  support,  and  foredoomed  the  expedi- 
tion to  failure.  It  also  deprived  France  of  communication  with 
its  best  troops  and  ablest  general  at  a  time  of  great  need. 

Encouraged  by  Nelson's  victory,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  as 
suzerain  of  Egypt,  prepared  a  vast  army  to  attack  the  French. 
Bonaparte  anticipated  the  attack  by  marching  into  Syria,  where 
he  defeated  the  Turks.  His  schemes  of  further  conquest  failed, 
however,  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  to  Egypt. 

In  July,   1799,  Bonaparte  received  from  the  British  naval 
commander,  under  flag  of  truce,  copies  of  European  news-  627.  Situa- 
papers  which  gave  alarming  news.      The  government  of  Jj^™ 
the  Directory  was  in  great  difficulties.     The  radical  repub-    (1798-1799) 
licans  regarded  it  as  "only  a  disguised  royalty,  composed  of  five 


BATTLE  OF  THE  NILE 


520  THE   RISE  OF   NAPOLEON   BONAPARTE 

tyrants";  while  a  reactionary  party  hoped  for  a  restoration  of 
the  Bourbon  monarchy.  The  Directors  had  not  hesitated  to 
arrest  illegally  their  leading  opponents,  and  to  force  out  col- 
leagues (including  Carnot)  who  disapproved  of  these  proceed- 
ings. To  arbitrary  rule  at  home  the  Directory  had  added  folJy 
and  unscrupulous  dealings  abroad.  At  Rome  and  at  Naples 
republics  of  the  French  type  had  been  set  up.  The  Swiss  Con- 
federation had  been  remodeled  in  the  interests  of  France.1 
Even  the  United  States,  by  the  insulting  demands  of  the  French 
authorities  for  money,  through  three  agents  called  X,  Y,  and  Z, 
had  been  goaded  for  a  brief  period  into  a  naval  war  (1798-1799). 
Resentment  at  these  acts,  and  the  prestige  of  Nelson's  victory , 
had  enabled  Great  Britain,  in  1799,  to  form  the  Second  Coalition, 
in  which  Austria,  Russia,  Naples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey  joined. 
By  the  middle  of  1799  Italy  was  lost,  the  French  had  suffered 
defeats  on  the  Rhine,  and  France  was  full  of  divisions  and 
despair. 

News  of  these  events  determined  Bonaparte  to  abandon  the 
army  in  Egypt,  to  brave  the  dangers  of  capture  on  the  way,  and 
to  return  secretly  and  with  but  a  small  following  to  France.2 


C.  BONAPARTE  AS  FIRST  CONSUL  (1799-1804) 

Landing  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  Bonaparte  found  the 
republic  already  saved  from  invasion   by   its  own  exertions. 
628.  Return  His  reception  was  enthusiastic  in  the  highest  degree.    Even 
of  Bona-        before   the   expedition   to   Egypt,   his   soaring  ambition 
rc         was  aroused.     "  Do  you  suppose,"  he  is  reported  to  have 


(1799)  said,  "  that  I  have  gained  my  victories  in  Italy  in  order  to 

advance  the  lawyers  of  the  Directory?     Do  you  think  either 
that  my  object  is  to  establish  a  republic  ?     What  a  notion  ! 

1  Switzerland  was  organized  as  the  Helvetic  Republic,  under  a  constitution  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  the  Directorate  in  France.     It  was  bound  in  close  alliance  with  France, 
and  its  Directors  were  practically  named  from  Paris.     The  number  of  the  cantons 
was  increased  from  thirteen  to  nineteen,  by  the  inclusion  of  new  territory. 

2  The  troops  which  Bonaparte  left  in  Egypt  surrendered  to  the  British  in  1801. 


BONAPARTE  AS  FIRST  CONSUL  521 

A    republic   of   thirty   millions   of  people,    with    our   morals 
and  vices !     How  could  that  ever  be  ?     It  is  a  chimera  Memoirs  of 
with  which  the  French  are  infatuated,  but  which  will   Miode  ^ 
pass  away  in  time  like  all  the  others.     What  they  want  University 
is  glory  and   the   satisfaction  of  their  vanity.     As  for  of  Pennsyl- 

vania  Trans- 

liberty,  of  that  they  have  no  conception.     The  nation  lotions,  II, 
must  have  a  head  which  is  rendered  illustrious  by  glory."   No-  2 
With    these   views,    Bonaparte    joined    some   discontented 
politicians  in  a  successful  plot  to  overthrow  the  government  of 
the  Directors.     The  people  acquiesced  in  the  change,  and  629.  The 
a  new  constitution  (that  of  the  Consulate)  was  prepared  forced*  * 
practically  at  the  dictation  of  Bonaparte.     His  resolute   (1799) 
ambition  overrode  the  plans  of  his  colleagues,  and  made  the 
new  government  an  almost  unlimited  dictatorship. 

1.  The  executive  power,  nominally  confided  to  a  board  of  three  Con- 

suls chosen  for  ten  years,  really  rested  in  Bonaparte  alone,  with 
the  title  of  First  Consul. 

2.  The  legislative  power  was  vested  in  two  houses   (the   Tribunate 

and  the  Legislative  Chamber)  entirely  subordinate  to  the  executive. 
New  laws  were  to  be  "proposed  by  the  government,  communi- 
cated to  the  Tribunate  and  detreed  by  the  Legislative  Chamber." 
There  was  also  a  Senate,  appointed  for  life,  with  little  to  do. 

3.  Manhood  suffrage  was  nominally  restored,  but  the  voters  had 

little  real  control  over  the  government. 

This  new  constitution,  when  submitted  to  the  people,  was 
accepted  by  a  vote  of  3,000,000  against  1500.  The  vote  shows 
that,  so  far  as  the  constitution  was  really  understood,  the  masses 
of  the  people  preferred  order  under  a  military  dictator  to  the 
inefficiency  and  corruption  of  the  Directory. 

After  setting  up  the  new  government,  Bonaparte's  first  care 
was  the  war  against  the  Second  Coalition.     To  surprise  the 
Au'strians,  he  led  an  army  over  the  Alps  into  Italy  by  the  630.  Peace 
difficult  route  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass  (1800).     At  of  Luneville 
Maren'go  he  crushingly  defeated  the  enemy  in  a  hard-  Amiens 
fought  battle.      In  Germany,  also,  the  French  were  vie-   (1801-1802) 
torious.     In  February,  1801,  the  Emperor  Francis  II  concluded 


522  THE  RISE  OF  NAPOLEON    BONAPARTE 

a  peace  at  Luneville  (lu-na-vel')>  which  confirmed  the  cessions 
made  at  Campo  Formic.  The  extension  of  France  to  the 
Rhine  was  again  recognized,  and  her  power  in  Italy  restored. 

Great  Britain  was  thus  left  a  second  time  to  continue  the  war 
alone.  Seeing  that  the  Jacobin  democracy  was  now  curbed; 
the  British  ministry  also  signed  a  treaty,  —  the  peace  of  Amiens 
(March,  1802).  By  its  terms  all  British  conquests  made  since 
the  beginning  of  the  war  (with  the  exception  of  the  islands  of 
Trinidad  and  Ceylon)  were  restored  to  their  former  owners. 
,  which  had  been  taken  from  the  French  in  1800,  was  to 
given  back  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John. 
In  the  interval  of  peace  which  followed,  Bonaparte  showed 
that  he  could  be  as  great  an  administrator  as  he  was  a  general. 
631.  Bona-  He  mastered  the  details  of  business  with  almost  super- 
parte's  re-  human  energy  and  intelligence.  A  sound  currency  was 
tion  of  established,  the  Bank  of  France  created,  roads  and  canals 

France  improved,  agriculture  and  industry  fostered.     His  legis- 

lation and  the  return  of  order  did  wonders  in  restoring  pros- 
perity to  France.  Four  of  his  measures  deserve  particular 
notice :  — 

(1)  Local  government  under   the  revolution    (except  for  a 
brief  interval)  was  despotically  administered  from  Paris,  as  it 
had  been  under  the  Old  Regime.     Bonaparte  simplified  and 
strengthened  the  machinery  for  this  purpose  by  a  system  (still 
in  use)  of  departmental  prefects  and  subprefects,  appointed  by 
the  central  authority. 

(2)  Although  personally  without  religious  convictions,  Bona- 
parte  saw  advantages  in  a  reestablishment  of   the    Catholic 
Church,  and  an  alliance  with  the  papacy.     A  Concordat  was 
accordingly  entered  into  between  France  and  the  papacy  in 
1801.     By  its  terms  Bonaparte  restored  the  Catholic  religion, 
though  he  retained  the  nomination  of  bishops  and  archbishops 
by  the  government.     The  Pope  on  his  part  abandoned  all  claims 
to  the  confiscated  church  estates,  on  condition  that  the  clergy 
should  be  paid  by  the  state  (§  590).    The  Concordat  did  not 
abolish  religious  toleration,  and  provision  was  soon  made  by 


BONAPARTE   AS   FIRST  CONSUL 


523 


which  the  state  paid  Protestant  ministers  and  Jewish  rabbis 
also.     This  Concordat  remained  in  force  until  1905. 

(3)  All  titles  of  nobility  had  been  swept  away  in  1790.  Bona- 
parte said  of  the  French  :  "They  are  what  the  Gauls  were,  fierce 
and  fickle.  They  have  one  feeling  — 
honor.  We  must  nourish  that  feeling  ; 
they  must  have  distinctions."  Hence, 
in  1802,  he  formed  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
to  be  composed  of  soldiers  and  civilians 
who  had  greatly  served  the  state.1 

(4)  Most  important  of  all  were  his 
measures  for  the   reform  of  the  law. 
The  "inextricable  labyrinth  of  laws  and 
customs,     mainly    Roman    and  632.  Code 
Frankish    in    origin,    hopelessly  ?*/°lfon 
tangled  by  feudal  customs,  pro-  Ros°e4  Napo_ 
vincial    privileges,    ecclesiastical  lean,  i,  265 
rights,  and  the  later  undergrowth  of 
royal  decrees,"  which  formed  the  law 
of  the  Old  Regime,  had  been  swept 
away  by  the  revolution.      Bonaparte, 
with  the  aid  of  a  -committee  of  learned 
jurists,    now    completed    the    construction    of    a    system    of 
rational  law  to  take  its  place.     "In   matters  of  inheritance, 
in  the  rules  which  govern  the  family  relations,  and  in  the 
law  of  marriage,  the  Customs  of  France  find  their  place.     In 
the  law  of  contract,  the  law  of  property,  the  rules  of  judi-  w00(jrow 
cial  trial,  and  all  questions  of  the  legal  burdens  which  Wilson,  The 
may  be  placed  upon  land,  Roman  law  has  had  a  chief     tate>  IQI 
place  of  influence."    This  Code  Napoleon  was  issued  in  1804, 
and  was  soon  adopted  by  Italy  and  Holland.     It  exerted  great 
influence  also  on  the  legislation  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  Spain, 
and   the   South  American   states.     Nowhere   does   Bonaparte 
appear  to  better  advantage  than  in  the  part  that  he  played  in 


CROSS  OF  THE  LEGION  OF 
HONOR 


1  When  he  became  Emperor,  Napoleon  also  created  a  new  nobility  composed  of 
the  officers  of  the  court  and  the  generals  of  his  army. 


524 


THE   RISE  OF   NAPOLEON   BONAPARTE 


directing  and  shaping  the  proceedings  of  the  committee  which 
formed  this  code.  "My  true  glory,"  said  he  after  his  down- 
fall, "is  not  that  I  have  gained  forty  battles.  Waterloo  will 
efface  the  memory  of  those  victories.  But  that  which  nothing 
can  efface,  which  will  live  forever,  is  my  civil  code." 


D.   THE  EMPIRE  ESTABLISHED  (1804) 

Not  content  with  the  large  powers  given  him  under  the  Con- 
sulate, Bonaparte  skillfully  set  about  making  his  rule  perma- 


6*3.  steps      nent  and  hereditary.     A  plot  against  his  life,  in  1800,  gave 

to  founding    him  the  opportunity  to  crush  the  extreme  republicans. 

empire      jn    igQ2   he   wag  made   CQJ}SU[   fo].  ^      Thencefortn  he 

signed  himself  "Napo- 
leon," using  his  first 
name  only,  like  other 
sovereigns.  In  1804, 
when  war  again  broke 
out,  a  royalist  plot 
was  made  the  excuse 
for  seizing  (on  neutral 
soil  and  by  Napo- 
leon's express  orders) 
a  young  Bourbon 
prince,  the  duke  of 
Enghien  (aN-gaN7). 
He  was  tried  by  court- 
martial,  without  any 
real  evidence  of  guilt, 
and  was  shot.  This 
.  deed,  which  excited 
the  horror  of  moder- 
ate men,  won  the  rem- 
nant of  the  Jacobins 
to  Napoleon.  It  made  it  impossible  for  him  ever  to  come  to 
terms  with  the  Bourbons. 


THRONE  OF  NAPOLEON 
Throne  room,  Fontainebleau 


THE  EMPIRE   ESTABLISHED  525 

With  the  press  gagged,  the  legislators  corrupted,  the  generals 
bound  to  him  by  grants  of  honors  and  rewards,  and  the  people 
inflamed  against  England,  it  was  easy  to  obtain,  in  1804,   634.  The 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  the  French,  with  hereditary  sue-  f^ded 
cession.     The  change  was  sanctioned  by  a  popular  vote   (1804) 
of  3,500,000  to  2500.     The  coronation  was  carried  out  with 
imposing  ceremonies,  the  Pope  giving  to  it  the  sanction  of  re- 
ligion by  coming  from  Rome  to  anoint  the  new  Emperor  with  oil. 
Napoleon  would  not,  however,  allow  the  Pope  to  crown  him. 
He  placed  the  crown  upon  his  head  with  his  own  hands,  thus 
guarding  against  any  claim  that  he  received  it  from  a  superior 
power.     Hitherto  the  imperial  title,  which  since  the  fall  of 
Constantinople  had  been  limited  to  the  Emperor  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,   had  possessed  a  peculiar  significance.   Bryce,  Holy 
" There  was  and  could  be  but  one  Emperor;   he  was  al-   J^T^  m~ 
ways  mentioned  with  a  certain  reverence ;  his  name  called  vised),  538 
up  a  host  of  thoughts  and  associations  which  moderns  do  not 
comprehend  or  sympathize  with."     Napoleon's  assumption  of 
the  name  Emperor  brought  about  a  cheapening  of  that  title, 
until  now  it  has  little  special  signification  beyond  that  of  king. 

With  amazing  rapidity  Bonaparte  had  risen  to  the  proudest 
position  in  Europe.  It  remained  to  be  seen  whether  this  would 
satisfy  him,  or  whether  through  rash  ambition  he  would  hazard 
all  in  an  effort  to  secure  universal  dominion. 

IMPORTANT    DATES 

1796.   First  Italian  Campaign  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

1798.  Expedition  to  Egypt. 

1799.  The  Consulate  formed. 

1802.   Peace  of  Amiens  with  Great  Britain. 
1804.   Napoleon  Bonaparte  becomes  Emperor. 

TOPICS    AND    REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  To  what  qualities  did  Bonaparte  owe  his  ad- 
vancement? (2)  To  what  was  due  the  success  of  his  first  Italian  campaign? 
(3)  What  exactions  mentioned  in  his  proclamation  of  1797  should  we 


526  THE   RISE   OF    NAPOLEON   BONAPARTE 

regard  as  unjustifiable?  (4)  Was  Bonaparte's  conduct  toward  Venice 
justifiable  or  not  ?  (5)  What  did  France  gain  by  the  Peace  of  Campo  Formio  ? 
(6)  Why  were  the  British  so  successful  at  sea  in  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution?  (7)  Was  Bonaparte's  expedition  to  Egypt  wise  or  unwise? 
(8)  Was  the  overthrow  of  the  Directors  justifiable?  Why?  (9)  Was 
the  government  during  the  Consulate  a  republic  or  a  monarchy?  (10)  Of 
what  value  was  the  right  to  vote  when  the  powers  of  the  elected  legislators 
were  so  restricted?  (n)  Why  did  Napoleon  assume  the  title  of  Emperor? 
(12)  Show  on  a  map  the  annexations  of  territory  to  France  made  between 
1789  and  1802.  (13)  What  qualities  made  Bonaparte  a  great  ruler  in 
peace?  (14)  Why  were  the  Consulate  and  Empire  accepted  by  such  large 
popular  majorities? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  BONAPARTE'S  EARLY  LIFE.  Rose,  Napoleon,  I, 
ch.  i ;  Fournier,  Napoleon,  chs.  i-ii ;  Sloane,  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  I,  chs.  iii,  v ; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  309-312.  —  (2)  BONAPARTE  AT  TOULON. 
Johnston,  Napoleon,  14—16;  Rose,  Napoleon,  I,  ch.  iii.  —  (3)  His  SUPPRES- 
SION OF  THE  REVOLT  OF  1795.  Johnston,  Napoleon,  17-19;  Rose,  Na- 
poleon, I,  ch.  iv.  —  (4)  METHODS  OF  WARFARE  DURING  THE  REVOLUTION. 
Johnston,  Napoleon,  20-25.  —  (5)  BONAPARTE'S  FIRST  ITALIAN  CAMPAIGN. 
Johnston,  Napoleon,  ch.  iii;  Ropes,  The  First  Napoleon,  12-28;  Fournier, 
Napoleon,  ch.  iv ;  Sloane,  I,  chs.  xxv-xxvi.  —  (6)  REASONS  FOR  THE  EXPE- 
DITION TO  EGYPT.  Johnston,  Napoleon,  47-50 ;  Rose,  Napoleon,  I,  159-167 ; 
Sloane,  II,  ch.  v.  —  (7)  OVERTHROW  OF  THE  DIRECTORY.  Johnston,  Napoleon, 
59-78;  Fyffe,  Modern  Europe  (Popular  ed.),  135-144;  Rose,  Napoleon, 
I,  ch.  x ;  Sloane,  II,  chs.  x-xi.  —  (8)  BONAPARTE'S  WORK  AS  LEGISLATOR  AND 
ADMINISTRATOR.  Johnston,  Napoleon,  88-101 ;  Rose,  Napoleon,  I,  ch.  xii; 
Cambridge  Modern  History,  IX,  148-164.  —  (9)  JOSEPHINE.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XV,  516;  Sloane,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  (revised  ed.), 
I,  452-455;  IT,  342-346;  III,  179-181,  245-247.  —  (10)  How  THE  UNITED 
STATES  SECURED  LOUISIANA.  Channing,  Students  History  of  the  United 
States,  337-340;  Turner,  in  Atlantic  Monthly,  May-June,  1904;  Morse, 
Thomas  Jefferson,  ch.  xiv;  Henry  Adams,  United  States  under  Je/erson 
and  Madison,  II,  ch.  ii.  —  (n)  NAPOLEON  BECOMES  EMPEROR.  Rose, 
Napoleon,  I,  ch.  xx;  Fournier,  Napoleon,  I,  ch.  ix  (last  part).  —  (12)  His 
BEHAVIOR  IN  SOCIETY.  Madame  de  Remusat,  Memoirs,  77,  171,  210,  223, 
493,  549- 

General  Reading.  —  The  lives  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte  by  Seeley  and 
Johnston  are  the  best  short  accounts.  Those  by  Rose  and  Fournier  are 
next  in  length  and  are  of  great  excellence.  Sloane's  Life  of  Napoleon  Bon- 
aparte (4  vols.)  is  issued  both  in  a  magnificently  illustrated  edition  and  in  a 
cheaper  reprint ;  it  is  a  standard  work.  J.  S.  C.  Abbot's  Life  of  Napoleon 
is  so  uncritical  as  to  be  valueless. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE   NAPOLEONIC  EMPIRE  (1804-1815) 
A.   ULM,  AUSTERLITZ,  AND  JENA  (1803-1807) 

PEACE  with  Great  Britain  lasted  less  than  fourteen  months. 
Its  rupture  was  due  to  Napoleon's  growing  impatience  of  oppo- 
sition and  to  his  great  ambition.     In  the  time  that  the  63S   Causes 
peace  lasted,  he  became  president  of  the  Italian  (formerly  of  war 
Cisalpine)  Republic ;  intervened  in  Switzerland ;  annexed   *  •  °3' 
Piedmont,  Parma,  and  the  isle  of  Elba  to  France ;     planned  a 
partition  of  Turkey;   and  projected  a  colonial  empire  which 
should  embrace  America  (where  he  had  just  acquired  the  prov- 
ince  of  Louisiana  from   Spain),  Egypt,   India,  and  the  new 
island  continent  of  Australia.     "The  safety  of  our  East  Rose  Na_ 
Indian  possessions  was  actually  at  stake,"  says  a  recent   pdeon,  i, 
English  writer,  aand  yet  Europe  was  asked  to  believe  that  388 
the  question  was  whether  England  would  or  would  not  evacuate 
Malta."     The  United  States  gained  Louisiana  through  the  re- 
newal of  hostilities;    for  Napoleon,  rightly  judging  that  the 
defense  of  that  province  was  impossible  for  France,  sold  the 
whole  vast  territory  to  the  envoys  of  President  Jefferson  (April 
30,  1803). 

To  invade  England,  Napoleon  established  a  naval  camp  at 
Boulogne  (boo-lon'),  and  made  ready  to  take  advantage  of  any 
event  which  should  give  him  even   momentary  control  6^6   Battle 
of  the  Channel.      " Eight  hours  of  favoring  darkness,"  of  Trafalgar 
said  he,  "would  decide  the  fate  of  the  universe."     But  the   (l8°s) 
British  power  at  sea  could  not  be  shaken.     The  last  possibility 
of  invasion  disappeared  in  OcJ^benjcSo^  with  the  destruction 
of  the  combined  French  and  Spanish  fleets  off  Cape  Trafalgar. 
This  was  Nelson's  greatest  victory,  but  it  was  won  at  the  cost 

527 


528  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 


of  his  life.  His  last 
signal  was:  "England 
expects  every  man  to 
do  his  duty." 

In  1805  the  Third 
Coalition  was  formed, 
in  which  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Sweden 


joined    Great    Britain  BATTLE  OF  TRAFALGAR 

against  France.     The 

637.  The        reentrance  of  Austria  into  the  war  led  Napoleon  to  break 
campaign       UP  ^s  camP  at  Boulogne  and  march  to  the  upper  Danube. 
(1805)  By  rapid  and  skillful  maneuvers  he  took  Ulm,  together 

with  an  Austrian  army  of  30,000  men  (October^  1805).  "Our 
Emperor,"  said  the  French,  "has  found  a  new  way  of  making 
war.  He  no  longer  makes  it  with  our  arms,  but  with  our 
legs." 

The  road  was  now  open  to  Vienna,  and  for  the  first  time  in 
modern  history  the  Austrian  capital  fell  into  the  hands  of  an 
enemy.  In  the  face  of  a  superior  force,  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile 
population,  and  with  his  line  of  communications  threatened  by 
the  vacillating  king  of  Prussia,  Napoleon's  position  was  for  a 
time  dangerous.  But  in  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  (December  2 T 
1805)  the  Austrians  and  Russians  were  entrapped  and  com- 
pletely defeated.  The  treaty  of  Pressburg  was  then  signed  by 
Francis  II.  Its  chief  provision  was  the  return  to  Napoleon  of 
the  Venetian  territories  which  Austria  had  received  in  1797. 

Against  Russia  and  Great  Britain  the  war  continued.  Prus- 
sia, which  since  the  treaty  of  Basel  (1795)  had  maintained 

638.  Con-      an    inglorious    neutrality,    was    forced    by    Napoleon's 
Prussia*         double-dealing  to  declare  war.     But  the  weak  and  vacil- 
(1806-1807)    lating  Prussian  king  (Frederick  William  III)  had  few  of 

the  qualities  of  Frederick  the  Great.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Jena  (ya'na)  Napoleon  crushed  the  Prussians  (October  14,  1806). 
Berlin  was  speedily  taken,  and  the  Prussian  king  was  forced  to 
flee  eastward. 


ULM,   AUSTERLITZ,   AND  JENA 


529 


Napoleon  followed  after,  — 
thaws,  over  roads  where  men 


amid  snow  and  rain,  frosts  and 
sank  to  their  knees,  horses  to 
their  bodies,  and  carriages  be- 
yond the  axles.  In  February, 
1807,  the  Russians  tried  to  sur- 
prise the  French  in  their  winter 
quarters.  The  result,  at  Eylau 
(I'lou),  was  the  bloodiest  and 
most  desperate  battle  of  a  cen- 
tury, without  decisive  results. 
In  June  the  Russians  were  thor- 
oughly defeated  at  Friedland 
(fret'lant).  After  this  reverse 
the  Tsar  (Alexander  I)  decided 
to  make  peace.  1 

The  outlines  of  the  treaty 
were  sketched  at  an  interview 
which  took  place  between  Alex- 
ander and  Napoleon  at  Tilsit 
(July  Tjjjoz)  on  a  raft  moored 


VENDOME  COLUMN  (AT  PARIS) 

The  bronze  bas-reliefs  (from  melted  Rus- 
sian and  Austrian  cannon)  illustrate 
the  campaign  of  1805. 

were  formed  into  a  duchy  of 
the  king  of  Saxony. 


in  the  river  Niemen,  mid-  63g  Peace 
way  between  the  two  ar-  of  Tilsit 
mies.  Alexander  aban-  '  °7' 
doned  the  British  alliance,  and 
by  a  secret  article  agreed  to  join 
France  in  war  against  Great 
Britain  in  case  that  country  re- 
fused to  make  peace.  More 
crushing  terms  were  exacted  of 
Prussia.  Her  recent  annexa- 
tions were  taken  from  her,  as 
well  as  her  territories  west  of 
the  Elbe.  Her  Polish  provinces 
(together  with  those  of  Austria) 
Warsaw,  under  Napoleon's  ally, 


530 


THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 


B.   RECONSTRUCTION  OF  EUROPE  BY  NAPOLEON 

The  peace  of  Tilsit  recognized  other  changes  which  constituted 
a  reconstruction  of  Europe.     For  some  time  Napoleon  had  been 
640.  Recon-  building  up  about  France  a  circle  of  vassal  kingdoms  in 
Europe*11        *ke  nan(^s  °f  h^s  relatives  and  dependents.     Thus,  in  1805, 
<i8o5-i8<>7)   he  exchanged  his  presidency  of  the  Italian  Republic  — 
enlarged  by  the  addition  of  Venice  (taken  from  Austria)  —  for 
the  title  of  king  of  Italy.    His  stepson,  Eugene,  was  made  viceroy 

of  the  new  kingdom. 
In  1 806  Napoleon  over- 
turned the  BatavianJ^J 
Republic,  and  estab- 
lished his  brother, 
Louis  Bonaparte,  as 
king  of  Holland.  Later 
in  the  same  year  Napo- 
leon drove  the  Bourbon 
king  of  Naples  1  from  ^A  \ 
the  peninsula,  and  gave 
the  crown  to  his 
brother,  Joseph  Bona- 
parte. A  new  kingdom 
of  Westphalia  was 
fQrmed  east  of  the 
Rhine,  and  conferred 
upon  Napoleon's 
youngest  brother,  Je- 
rome (1807).  In  addi- 
tion to  these  Bonapart- 
ist  kingdoms,  Napoleon 

raised  his  dependents,  the  dukes  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirttemberg, 
to  the  rank  of  king. 

1  In  1738  Austria  had  ceded  Naples  and  Sicily  to  a  younger  branch  of 
the  Spanish  Bourbon  house,  receiving  in  exchange  certain  territories  in  northern 
Italy. 


NAPOLEON  AS  EMPEROR 
From  the  painting  by  Delaroche 


/. 
I 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF   EUROPE   BY   NAPOLEON        531 

In  this  period,  also,  there  was  carried  out  a  territorial  consoli- 
dation of  Germany,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  political 
results  of  the  Napoleonic  era.  Since  the  Thirty  Years'  64I  Reor_ 
War,  Germany  had  been  a  horde  of  separate  states,  large  ganization 
and  small,  lay  and  ecclesiastical,  (i)  In  the  front  rank  ° 
stood  the  two  great  states,  Austria  and  Prussia.  Neither  of  these 
was  purely  German,  for  more  than  half  the  territory  of  each  was 
inhabited  by  non-German  (Slavic  or  Magyar)  peoples.  (2)  The 
second  rank  was  composed  of  about  thirty  middling  states,  in- 
cluding Bavaria,  Wiirttemberg,  Saxony,  and  Baden  (ba'den). 
(3)  In  the  third  rank  were  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  petty  states, 
many  of  them  ruled  by  a  bishop  or  abbot.  Here  we  may  place 
also  the  fifty  "free  cities"  of  the  empire.  At  least  one  third  of 
the  states  in  this  group  were  less  than  twelve  square  miles  in 
area.  (4)  Below  these  were  about  fifteen  hundred  "knights 
of  the  empire,"  whose  territories  averaged  less  than  three  square 
miles  each.  Most  of  these  states,  great  and  small,  were  absolute 
monarchies.  Each  made  its  own  laws,  had  its  own  court,  its 
-f  own  army,  and  often  its  own  coinage. 

Napoleon  had  begun  his  reorganization  of  Germany  in  the 
peace  of  Campo  Formio  (§  623),  when  he  first  advanced  the 
boundary  of  France  to  the  river  Rhine.  A  large  number  of  Ger- 
man rulers  west  of  the  Rhine  were  by  this  treaty  dispossessed 
of  the  whole  or  part  of  their  territories.  It  was  subsequently 
agreed  that  the  hereditary  rulers  (but  not  the  ecclesiastical 
princes)  should  be  compensated  for  their  losses  by  cessions  of 
lands  in  other  parts  of  Germany.  One  hundred  and  twelve 
sovereign  and  independent  states  to  the  east  of  the  Rhine  were 
thus  wiped  out,  by  being  annexed  to  the  larger  hereditary 
states  such  as  Prussia,  Bavaria,  etc.1  At  the  same  time  the 
larger  states  were  encouraged  to  absorb  the  territories  of  the 
knights,  towns,  and  petty  principalities  within  their  borders. 
In  this  way  the  eighteen  hundred  or  more  German  states  were  re- 

1  Incidentally  the  suppression  of  the  ecclesiastical  states  gave  a  Protestant  major- 
ity in  the  German  Diet,  when  it  was  restored  in  1815,  and  so  strengthened  German 
Protestantism. 


532  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

duced  to  about  fifty.  This  consolidation  survived  Napoleon's 
downfall,  and  helped  enormously  to  produce  the  later  union  of 
Germany  into  the  present  German  Empire  (§  777). 

Practically  all  of  Germany,  except  Austria  and  Prussia,  was 
at  the  same  time  (1806)  organized  into  a  "Confederation  of  the 
642.  Holy       Rhine,"  with  Napoleon  as  its  officially  recognized  "Pro- 
Roman          tector."     These  sweeping  changes  extinguished  the  last 
solved  spark  of  vitality  in  the  old  German  Empire.     To  meet  the 

(1806)  new  situation,  Francis  II  proclaimed  himself  hereditary 

Emperor  of  Austria  under  the  name  of  Francis  I.  Then,  in 
1806,  he  abdicated  the  throne  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  and 
dissolved  that  empire,  which  had  existed  since  the  days  of 
Charlemagne  and  Otto  I  (§§  28,  104).  /  f 


Great  Britain,  protected  by  the  sea  and  her  victorious  navy, 

still  defied   Napoleon.      To  reach  that   country,  Napoleon  es- 

643.  The        tablished  a  tariff  policy,  which  is  called  the  "Continental 

System0**1    system-"     Its  obJect  was  to  close  Europe  to  England's 

(1806)  commerce,  and  thereby  force  that  "  nation  of  shopkeepers," 

as  he  contemptuously  called  it,  to  sue  for  peace.     The  founda- 

tion of  the  "  Continental  System  "  was  laid  in  the  famous  "  Berlin 

decree,"  issued  from  the  Prussian  capital  soon  after  the  battle 

of  Jena.     Though  Napoleon  had  scarcely  a  war  vessel  at  sea, 

the  whole  of  the  British  Isles  was  declared  in  a  state  of  blockade. 

Commerce  and  correspondence  with  the  British  were  forbidden  ; 

and  British  subjects  and  British  products,  when  found  in  lands 

under  French  influence,  were  to  be  seized.     The  decree  was 

nominally  in  retaliation  for  a  British  blockade  of  the  conti- 

nental coast  from  Brest  to  the  Elbe  River.     Its  effect  was  to 

Mahan  in-     ca^  ^ortn  from  the  British  yet  more  stringent  measures.' 

fluenceofSea   These,   in   turn,  were  answered  by  Napoleon's  "Milan 

F™nch°Rw-     decree  "  of  December,  1807,  which  declared  that  all  neutral 

oiution,  TT,       vessels  obeying  the  British  orders  were  liable  to  seizure  as 

prizes.     "The  imperial  soldiers  were  turned  into  coast- 

guardsmen  to  shut  out  Great  Britain  from  continental  markets  ; 

the  British  ships  became  revenue  cutters  to  prohibit  the  trade 

of   France."      Neutral   commerce,  then  chiefly  carried  on  in 


RECONSTRUCTION  OF   EUROPE   BY   NAPOLEON        533 

American  vessels,  suffered  severely  from  this  double  system  of 
unjust  restrictions. 

The  chief  features  of  Napoleon's  policy  now  became  the  ex- 
tension and  maintenance  of  his  "  Continental  System."     Prussia 
was  forced  to  close  her  ports  to  Great  Britain.     Russia  6      For_ 
adopted  the  system  along  with  the  French  alliance.     To   cibie  ex- 
prevent  the  seizure  of  the  neutral  Danish  fleet  by  Napoleon,  to^Con-* 
the  British  bombarded  Copenhagen  and  themselves  seized  tinental 
the  fleet  (September,  1807) ;    whereupon  Denmark  went  system 
over  to  France.     Portugal  was  ordered  by  Napoleon,  on  penalty 
of  war,  to  close  her  ports  against  ships  of  Great  Britain.   The  \  t> 
demand  was  refused.     Upon  the  approach  of  a  French  army, 
the  royal  family  of  Portugal  fled  on  board  ship,  and  sailed  to 
the  Portuguese  province  of  Brazil  (1807). 

Napoleon's  next  step  was  to  seize  the  kingdom  of  Spain. 
Taking  advantage  of  a  quarrel  between  the  Spanish  king  and 
the  crown  prince,  Napoleon  forced  both  to  abdicate.  He  then 
transferred  his  brother  Joseph  from  the  Neapolitan  to  the  Span- 
ish throne.  Naples  was  given  to  Napoleon's  most  daring  cav- 
alry general,  Murat  (mu-ra/),  who  had  married  Napoleon's  J 
sister  (1808).  Tuscany  was  annexed  to  France.  Then  Rome 
was  seized,  and  the  Pope  imprisoned,  because  he  refused  to  join 
the  French  alliance  and  exclude  English  merchandise  (1809). 
Sweden,  after  being  robbed  of  Finland  by  Russia,  for  a  time 
entered  the  "Continental  System";  and  in  1810  the  Swedes 
chose  as  crown  prince  and  heir  to  the  throne  one  of  Napoleon's 
ablest  marshals,  Bernadotte  (ber-na-dot').  At  one  time  or 
another  every  state  of  Continental  Europe,  excepting  Turkey, 
was  forced  into  Napoleon's  commercial  system. 

Even  thus  Napoleon  found  it  impossible  to  exclude  English 
goods   from   the    Continent.     The   French   government   itself 
set  the  example  of  violating  the  "  Continental  System;"   645.  Eva- 
The  coffee,  sugar,  and  tea  for  Napoleon's  table  came  from  continental 
English  sources ;   and  when  fifty  thousand  overcoats  were  System 
ordered  for  the  army  in  1807,  they  could  be  obtained  only  from 
the  hated  British.     Smuggling  was  widespread,  and  the  com- 


534  THE    NAPOLEONIC    EMPIRE 

merce  of  Great  Britain  actually  prospered  in  this  period.  The 
"Continental  System"  was  foredoomed  to  failure;  and  the 
tenacity  with  which  Napoleon  clung  to  it,  and  the  tyranny  with 
which  he  enforced  it,  were  the  chief  causes  of  his  downfall. 

C.  THE  PENINSULAR  WAR  AND  THE  RUSSIAN  CAMPAIGN 

The  rising  of  Europe  against  Napoleon's  tyranny  began  in 
Spain,  in  1808;  and  the  British  government  sent  troops  to  aid 

646.  The        in  this  "Peninsular    War"    (1808-1814).     Napoleon    in 
War^iSo?-    person  restored  his  brother  to  Madrid;   but  a  new  war 
1812)  with  Austria  (1809)  soon  called  him  away.     The  French 

in  Spain  were  operating  in  a  hostile  country,  and  their  generals 
in  Napoleon's  absence  failed  to  support  one  another.  "In  war, 
men  are  nothing;  it  is  a  man  who  is  everything,"  said  Na- 
poleon, in  stinging  rebuke  of  their  ill  success.  The  British 
were  fortunate  in  having  in  command  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley, 
later  created  duke  of  Wellington.  By  1811  the  French  were 
driven  from  Portugal;  in  1812,  the  south  of  Spain  was  recov- 
ered; in  1813-1814,  the  north  was  freed.  The  French  were 
driven  across  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  British  followed  after  them. 
These  successes  in  Spain  would  have  been  impossible,  save 
,  for  troubles  caused  by  the  "Continental  System"  elsewhere. 

647.  New       In  1809  Austria  took  heart,  from  the  difficulties  in  which 
Austria          Napoleon  was  involved  in  Spain,  to  declare  war  once  more. 
(1809)  The  contest,  however,  was  brief  and  decisive.     Vienna 

was  again  taken ;  Napoleon  won  the  bloody  battle  of  Wagram 
(va'gram;  July,  1809) ;  and  Austria  again  made  peace.1 

The  fervor  of  the  Tsar's  admiration  for  Napoleon,  after  the 
interview  at  Tilsit,  had  gradually  cooled.     The  "Continental 

648.  Alex-      System"  weighed  heavily  upon  Russia,  which  depended 
Napoleon       mainly  upon  England  for  a  market.     Napoleon's  friendly 
(1807-1812)    attitude  toward  the  Poles  also  caused  anxiety  to  Alexander. 

Personal  affronts,  moreover,  were  not  lacking.     To  secure  a  son 

1  Treaties  follow  one  another  so  rapidly  and  are  of  such  short  duration  in  the 
Napoleonic  period  that  the  terms  of  only  the  most  important  can  be  given. 


PENINSULAR    WAR    AND   THE   RUSSIAN   CAMPAIGN 


535 


to  whom  his  crown  might  descend,  Napoleon  (in  December, 
1809)  divorced  his  wife  Josephine,  and  requested  a  bride  from 
the  Russian  royal  family.  But  before  the  answer  (which  was  a 
refusal)  could  be  received,  Napoleon  arranged  to  marry  Maria 
Louisa,  the  eighteen-year-old  daughter  of  the  Austrian  Emperor. 


HI  French  Empire 

W///&  Plates  dependent  on  Pfapoleon 

.  •  '>'|  States  allied  with  Napolam, 
FT^l  States  independent  offfapol, 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


0    100  200  300  400  500 


EUROPE  AT  THE  HEIGHT  OF  NAPOLEON'S  POWER  (1812) 

On  both  sides  the  irritation  grew,  until  it  resulted,  in  1812,  in 
open  war.     On  the  one  side  was  Napoleon,  master  of  France 
and  lord  of  seven  vassal  kingdoms  and  thirty  dependent  649.  Inva- 
principalities.     On  the   other  was    the   Tsar  Alexander,   R^ste. 
allied  with  Sweden  and  Great  Britain.     To  invade  Russia,   (1812) 
Napoleon  mustered  an  army  of  nearly  half  a  million  men,  drawn 
from  "twenty  nations,"  —  the  French  constituting  about  one 
third  of  the  whole.     The  passage  across  the  river  Niemen,  with 
which  the  invasion  began  (in  June,  1812),  took  three  days.     The 
Russians  systematically  refused  battle  and  retreated.     They 
thus  drew  the  French  farther  and  farther  into  the  heart  of  a 
hostile  country,  where  transportation  and  supply  were  increas- 


536  THE  NAPOLEONIC  EMPIRE 

ingly  difficult.  At  Smolensk'  (about  two  thirds  of  the  way  to 
Moscow)  the  Russians  made  a  stand.  After  desperate  fighting 
the  French  were  successful,  but  they  were  unable  to  prevent 
the  continuance  of  the  Russian  retreat.  At  Borodino  (bo-ro- 
de'no),  seventy-five  miles  from  Moscow,  the  Russians  again 


NAPOLEON'S  RUSSIAN  CAMPAIGN 

fought  a  determined  battle.  Though  they  were  defeated,  the 
Russians  were  not  crushed,  and  retreated  in  good  order. 

One  week  lacer  (September  14)  the  French  entered  Moscow,— 
with  its  "forty  times  forty  churches,"  — only  to  find  it  prac- 
tically deserted.     The  next  day  fire  broke  out,  probably  kindled 
by  the  Russians.     For  three  days  the  flames  raged,  and  were 
stayed  only  when  nine  tenths  of  the  city  was  in  ashes.     The 
situation  in  which  Napoleon  found  himself  was  grave  in  the 
extreme.     To  winter  in  the  ruined  city  was  impossible ;  yet  for 
five  weeks  he  lingered,  hoping  that  Alexander  might  yet  come 
to  terms  and  the  campaign  be  saved  from  failure.     But  it  was 
in  vain.     "I  have  learned  to  know  him  now,"  said  the  Tsar. 
"Napoleon  or  I ;  I  or  Napoleon :  we  cannot  reign  side  by  side." 
Napoleon  at  last  began  his  retreat  from  Moscow  (October 
19,  1812).     A  southerly  route,  which  he  attempted,  was  blocked 
650.  Retreat  an<^  ^s  troops  were  obliged  to  retreat  by  the  devastated 
from  Mos-     route  of  their  advance.     The  Russians  wisely  refrained 
cow  (1812)     from  the  nazard  of  a  pitche(i  battle.     Instead  they  hung 

upion  the  rear  and  flanks  of  the  retreating  forces,  and  cut  off 
stragglers.  Marshal  Ney  (na),  who  covered  the  French  retreat, 
here  won  his  title  "the  bravest  of  the  brave." 


DOWNFALL  OF  NAPOLEON  537 

Zero  weather  came  on,  and  at  every  camp  the  morning  showed 
stark  and  lifeless  forms  about  the  scanty  fires.  Horses  died  by 
hundreds  ;  guns  and  wagons  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  provi- 
sions ran  short;  discipline  was  almost  destroyed.  At  a  little 
river  (the  Beresina)  the  passage  was  blocked  by  a  sudden  thaw. 
Heroic  French  engineers  worked  for  hours  in  the  icy  waters,  and 
constructed  at  the  cost  of  their  own  lives  rude  trestle  bridges 
which  saved  the  army  from  utter  destruction.  A  few  days  later 
Napoleon  left  the  troops  and  hurried  on  to  Paris.  In  the  middle 
of  December  the  shattered  remnant  of  the  main  army,  less  than 
20,000  in  number,  staggered  across  the  Russian  frontier.  Of  the 
mighty  force  that  had  set  out  in  June,  130,000  were  left  in  Rus- 
sian prisons,  50,000  had  deserted,  250,000  had  perished,  —  of 
cold,  hunger,  disease,  and  the  casualties  of  war. 

D.   DOWNFALL  OF  NAPOLEON 

The  overwhelming  disaster  of  the  Russian  campaign,  together 
with  the  steady  progress  of  the  British  in  the  Peninsular  War, 
encouraged  the  oppressed  states  of  Germany  to  rise  against  651.  Revi- 
Napoleon's  tyranny.     In  this  movement  Prussia  took  the 


lead.  Able  and  patriotic  men  —  of  whom  the  chief  was  (1807-1813) 
Baron  Stein  —  had  labored  to  adapt  to  Prussian  needs  the  social 
reforms  of  the  French  Revolution  and  Napoleon's  military  ' 
system.  Serfdom  had  been  abolished,  the  privileges  of  the 
nobility  done  away  with,  and  a  system  of  election  to  municipal 
offices  introduced.  Universal  liability  to  military  service  took 
the  place  of  hired  service,  so  that  within  a  few  years  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  Prussian  youth  received  military  training.  Prus- 
sia, in  place  of  Austria,  now  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  natural 
head  of  Germany.  Poets  and  philosophers  did  valuable  service 
in  fanning  the  flame  of  German  patriotism. 

The  Prussian  general  Yorck  now,  on  his  own  responsibility, 
abandoned  the  French  forces  and  made  terms  with  the  invading 
Russians  (1813).  "The  army  wants  war  with  France,"  he 
wrote,  "the  people  want  it,  and  so  does  the  king.  But  the  king's 


538  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

will  is  not  free.     The  army  must  make  his  will  free."      Borne 
along  by  the  national  enthusiasm,  Frederick  William  declared 

652.  Rising    war'  and  issued  a  stirring  call  to  his  people.     "It  is  the 
of  Germany    last  decisive  fight,"  said  he,  "which  we  must  make  for 

our  existence,  our  independence,  our  well-being.  There  is 
no  other  issue  except  to  an  honorable  peace  or  a  glorious 
downfall." 

Napoleon  showed  astonishing  energy  in  raising  and  equipping 
a  new  army  from  exhausted  France.  By  the  end  of  April,  1813, 

653.  Battle     ne  was  back  in  Germany,  and  Saxony  became  the  battle- 
of  Leipzig       field  of  the  contending  forces.     In  the  first  half  of  this 

campaign  the  French  Emperor  displayed  his  usual  supe- 
riority. But  in  August  Austria  joined  the  allies,  and  the  tide 
turned.  At  Dresden,  Napoleon  again  won  a  great  victory.  On 
the  other  hand,  his  lieutenants  in  other  parts  of  the  field  lost 
five  battles  within  a  fortnight.  Amid  autumn  rains  and  fogs, 
the  struggle  shifted  to  Leipzig.  There,  in  a  great  three  days' 
battle,  the  French  were  outnumbered,  outgeneraled,  and  out- 
fought,—  and  were  overwhelmingly  defeated  (October,  1813). 

The  battle  of  Leipzig  marks  the  end  of  French  rule  in  Ger- 
many. All  central  Europe,  forgetful  of  the  benefits  of  French 
administration,  rose  in  revolt.  With  the  British  and  Spaniards 
about  to  cross  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Russians,  Prussians,  and 
Austrians  massing  their  forces  for  the  passage  of  the  Rhine,  it 
was  no  longer  a  question  of  Napoleon's  advancing  to  world 
empire.  Thenceforth  it  was  a  question  of  saving  the  Rhine 
frontier  won  by  the  revolutionary  wars,  and  even  of  maintaining 
Napoleon's  hold  on  France  itself. 

Even  after  the  invasion  of  France  had  begun,  the  allies  would 
gladly  have  signed  a  peace  which  should  leave  to  Napoleon  the 

654.  Abdi-     throne  and  the  French  frontiers  of  1792,  provided  that  he 
NapTeon       renounced  all  claims  to  interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Europe 
(1814)  outside  those  limits.     But  the  spirit  of  the  gambler  was 

strong  in  Napoleon.     He  would  have  all  or  nothing,  and  these 
terms  were  refused. 
In  the  campaign  of  1814,  Napoleon  in  vain  displayed  his  old 


DOWNFALL   OF   NAPOLEON 


539 


genius  and  audacity.  Slowly  but  surely  the  allies  closed  in 
upon  Paris.  The  populace  of  the  capital  showed  ominous  signs 
of  discontent  with  Napoleon's  rule,  and  partisans  of  the  exiled 
Bourbons  raised  their  heads.  On  the  last  day  of  March,  1814, 
the  allies  entered  the  city.  Napoleon  wished  still  to  continue 
the  conflict,  but  his  generals  refused  to  obey.  Baffled  at  every 
turn,  he  was  forced  (on  April  n)  to  sign  an  unconditional  ab- 
dication. He  was  allowed  to  retain  the  title  of  Emperor  and 
was  assigned  in  full  sovereignty  the  little  island  of  Elba,  with 
an  annual  subsidy  of  two  million  francs. 

The  wily  French  diplomat  Talleyrand  induced  the  French  Sen- 
ate (the  most  important  political  body  under  the  empire)  and 
the  allies  to  favor  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Bourbons  to  the 
throne  of  France.  The  dauphin 
Louis,  son  of  Louis  XVI,  had 
died  in  prison  in  1795,  as  the  re- 
sult of  shocking  ill-treatment. 
Louis  XVI's  brother  was  there- 
fore the  heir,  and  was  pro- 
claimed king  as  Louis  XVIII. 
The  Pope  now  returned  to 
Rome,  and  the  dispossessed 
Bourbon  king  of  Spain  to  his 
capital.  To  settle  further  terri- 
torial questions  —  particularly 
in  Germany  and  Poland,  con- 
cerning which  there  was  much 
dispute  —  a  congress  of  Euro- 
pean powers  met  at  Vienna,  in  the  late  fall  of  1814. 

For  Napoleon  to  remain  quietly  in  Elba,  however,  was  im- 
possible.    Eluding  the  guardships  placed  about  the  island,  he 
landed  in  southern  France  on  March  i,  1815,  with  a  force  655.  Napo- 
of  eleven  hundred  men.     "I  shall  reach  Paris,"  he  pre-  ^rn'from 
dieted,   "  without  firing  a  shot."    Avoiding  the  Rhone  Elba  (1815) 
valley,  where  the  royalists  were  in  control,  he  passed  through  the 


TALLEYRAND 
From  a  painting  in  Versailles 


540 


THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 


mountains  of  Dauphine  to  Lyons.  The  troops  sent  against  him 
deserted  to  his  standard.  Marshal  Ney,  who  left  Paris  boast- 
ing that  he  would  bring  back  his  former  master  "in  an  iron  cage," 
himself  declared  for  Napoleon.  The  peasants  and  poorer  classes 
hailed  Napoleon's  arrival  with  joy ;  but  the  wealthy  townsmen 
dreaded  a  restoration  which  meant  renewed  war.  Within  three 
weeks  after  Napoleon's  landing,  Louis  XVIII  was  again  an 
exile.  The  French  Emperor  was  restored  to  his  capital,  and 
there  began  the  "Hundred  Days"  of  his  second  reign. 

The  news  of  Napoleon's  return  ended  for  a  time  the  dissensions 
which  had  broken  out  among  the  allies  at  Vienna.  Declaring 
him  "an  enemy  and  disturber  of  the  peace  of  the  world,"  they 
prepared  to  take  the  field  anew.  Napoleon  found  himself  far 
stronger  than  in  1814,  through  the  return  of  prisoners  of  war 
and  of  troops  formerly  on  garrison  duty  in  Germany.  Follow- 
ing his  favorite  practice,  he  resolved  to  strike  before  his  enemies 
were  ready.  On  June  14,  he  crossed  the  northern  frontier. 

In  Belgium  there  was  a  British  army  under  Wellington  and  a 
Prussian  army  under  Bliicher  (blii'Ker).  Napoleon's  rapid 

656.  Battle    movements  practi- 
of  Waterloo 


(June  1 8, 
1815) 


cally  surprised  these 
veteran  commanders. 
By  defeating  Bliicher  at 
Ligny  (len-ye'),  on  June  16, 
Napoleon  broke  their  con- 
nection and  rendered  pos- 
sible, as  he  hoped,  the 
separate  overthrow  of  Wel- 
lington. But  Bliicher,  in- 
stead of  retreating  east- 
ward, turned  northward,  so 
as  again  to  come  in  touch 
with  the  British  forces. 

Relying  on  Bliicher's  as- 
sistance, Wellington  turned 
at  bay  on  the  ridge  of 


MOVEMENTS  LEADING  TO  WATERLOO 


DOWNFALL  OF  NAPOLEON  541 

Waterloo'.  There  he  was  attacked  by  the  French  on  the 
morning  of  June  18.  For  ten  hours  the  battle  raged,  Napo- 
leon repeatedly  hurling  his  columns  of  cavalry  against  the  bay- 
onet-wielding squares  of  the  stubborn  British  infantry.  Never 
did  Wellington  better  deserve  the  name  of  "the  Iron  Duke" 
than  while  anxiously  scanning  the  horizon  for  signs  of  the  prom- 
ised Prussian  aid.  The  roads  were  soft  and  bad  from  torrents 
of  rain,  and  it  was  not  until  late  in  the  afternoon  that  Bllicher 
arrived.  The  French,  attacked  on  the  right  flank  and  in  front, 
were  gradually  overborne,  and  about  nine  in  the  evening  their 
defeat  became  a  rout.  Seven  times  their  flying  forces  halted 
for  the  night,  but  each  time  they  were  driven  onward.  An 
eyewitness  reports  that  at  Waterloo,  the  next  morning,  "the 
whole  field,  from  right  to  left,  was  a  mass  of  dead  bodies." 

Napoleon's  defeat  was  decisive.  It  was  due  to  his  too  great 
confidence,  to  the  decline  of  his  powers  from  ill  health,  to  the 
slackness  of  some  t  of  his  generals,  and  to  the  steadiness  and 
courage  with  which  the  British  and  Prussians  performed  their 
allotted  tasks.  Had  Napoleon  shown  the  brilliancy  of  his  earlier 
generalship,  he  might  have  won  the  battle ;  but  it  would  only 
have  been  to  meet  his  downfall  on  some  other  field. 

After  Waterloo,  Paris  fell  a  second  time  into  the  hands  of  the 
allies.     Napoleon,  failing  to  secure  their  permission  to  with- 
draw to  America,  voluntarily  sought  refuge  on  board  a  6      Fate 
British  man-of-war  and  was  carried  to  England.     Had  of  Napoleon 
he  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Blucher,  it  is  possible  that   (I8l5-I82i) 
he  might  have  been  executed  as  an  outlaw,  under  the  Vienna 
proclamation.     As  it  was,  he  was  transported  to  the  British  isle 
of  St.  Helena,  in  the  south  Atlantic.     There  he  fretted  out  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  quarrels  with  his  English  jailers,  and  died 
in  1821. 

Napoleon  was  a  man  of  titanic  force,  with  a  remarkable  genius 
for  war  and  for  government.     The  opportunity  offered  to   6s8  Char_ 
his  talents  by  the  chaotic  state  of  Europe,  and  by  the   acter  of 
upheaval  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  unequaled  in   Napo1' 
history.      His   success   was    largely    due    to    the    remarkable 


542  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

combination  in  his  nature  of  the  dreamer  and  of  the  practical 
man  of  affairs.  He  had  prodigious  energy  and  capacity  for 
work,  and  a  marvelous  grasp  of  multitudinous  details.  He 
often  worked  eighteen  hours  a  day,  wearing  out  relays  of  secre- 
taries. He  could  go  without  sleep  for  long  periods ;  then,  when 
opportunity  offered,  he  could  sleep  anywhere,  at  any  time,  even 
in  the  saddle  while  on  the  march.  In  his  earlier  campaigns  he 
pored  over  the  muster  rolls  of  his  regiments  until  he  knew  hun- 
dreds of  his  soldiers  by  name.  This  accounts  in  part  for  his 
tremendous  popularity  with  the  rank  and  file  of  his  armies.  His 
mastery  of  geographical  detail  was  amazing.  He  carried  the 
map  of  Europe  in  his  mind ;  but  before  entering  jipon  a  campaign 
he  familiarized  himself  with  every  hill  and  valley,  every  road, 
stream,  and  mountain  pass  of  the  region  he  was  about  to  invade. 
His  personal  character,  as  described  by  Madame  de  Remusat 
(ra-mii-sa/),  a  lady  in  waiting  to  Empress  Josephine,  was  a  mix- 
ture of  attractive  and  repulsive  traits.  He  could  fascinate  men 
and  women  when  he  chose.  But  his  real  nature,  especially  in 
later  life,  was  marked  by  monstrous  selfishness,  cynical  unscru- 
pulousness,  and  a  blind  trust  in  the  infallibility  of  his  powers. 

E.  THE  CONGRESS  OF  VIENNA 

Europe  meanwhile  was  reconstituted  by  the  decrees  of  the 

Congress  of  Vienna.     In  general,  the  " legitimate"  rulers  were 

659.  Treat-    restored  and  barriers  erected  against  democratic  move- 

Vienna          ments  and  liberal  ideas.     The  wishes  of  the  people,  and 

(1815)  national  aspirations,  were  ignored.     But  disputes  over  the 

disposal  of  Polish  territory  and  of  Saxony  almost  brought  the 

allies  to  war  among  themselves.     The  Tsar  of  Russia  wished  to 

secure  for  himself  all  of  Napoleon's  duchy  of  Warsaw  (formed 

from  the  Polish  territories  taken  from  Prussia  and  Austria) ; 

and  he  offered  to  compensate  Prussia  by  giving  to  her  Saxony, 

whose  king  had  supported  Napoleon.     Austria  and  England 

opposed  this  plan,  and  formed  an  alliance  with  Louis  XVIII  of 

France  to  defeat  it.     Through  the  adroit  diplomacy  of  Louis's 


THE  CONGRESS  OF   VIENNA  543 

ambassador  Talleyrand,  France  recovered  a  voice  in  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna.  In  the  end  the  dispute  was  compromised.  The 
chief  provisions  of  the  treaties  of  Vienna  were  the  following :  — 

1.  Prussia  gave  up  some  of  her  former  Polish  provinces  and  was  com- 

pensated by  gains  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  part  (not 
the  whole)  of  Saxony. 

2.  Russia  was  allowed  to  erect  most  of  the  Polish  provinces  into  a 

new  kingdom  of  Poland,  which  was  annexed  to  the  Russian  crown. 

3.  Austria  gave  up  her  former  possessions  in  the  Netherlands,  in  ad- 

dition to  part  of  her  Polish  provinces,  and  was  compensated  with 
territory  in  northern  Italy. 

4.  Catholic  Belgium  was  joined  in  unstable  union  with  Protestant 

Holland  to  form  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands. 

5.  Norway  was  torn  from  Denmark,  with  which  it  had  been  united  for 

centuries,  and  joined  to  Sweden,  to  compensate  that  state  for  the 
loss  of  Finland,  which  was  retained  by  Russia. 

6.  Great  Britain  kept  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  Malta,  Ceylon, 

Trinidad,  and  other  islands  won  in  the  course  of  the  long  war; 
but  she  restored  more  than  she  kept. 

7.  Murat  was  at  first  allowed  to  remain  on  the  throne  of  Naples;  but 

after  the  Hundred  Days  he  was  deposed  and  shot,  and  the 
Bourbon  line  restored. 

8.  The  states  of  Germany  (which  now  numbered  thirty-eight,  in- 

cluding Austria  and  Prussia)  were  organized  into  a  loose  union 
called  the  German  Confederation,  to  take  the  place  of  the  old 
Holy  Roman  Empire. 

9.  Switzerland  was  restored  as  an  independent  state,  with  its  neu- 

trality guaranteed  by  the  Great  Powers.  The  number  of  its 
cantons  was  increased  from  19  to  22. 

Under  the  skillful  management  of  Talleyrand,  France  fared 
wonderfully  well  in  the  first  arrangements  for  peace,  but  was 
punished  for  its  adhesion  to  Napoleon  during  the  Hundred   ~     T     . 
Days.     In  the  treaty  of  Paris  (November,  1815)  Louis  of  Paris 
XVIII  was  obliged  to  accept  the  following  terms :  —  (I8is) 

i.  The  frontiers  were  fixed  as  they  had  been  in  1790,  thus  depriving 
France  of  Savoy,  which  at  first  she  had  been  allowed  to  retain. 


20 15 

T       ~T~ 

EUROPE  IN  1815 

SCALE  OF  MILES 

6      50    100    150    200    *5<f  300 


544 


cvr.X- 


54S 


546  THE   NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

2.  A  war  indemnity  of  700,000,000  francs  ($140,000,000)  was  imposed 

upon  her. 

3.  She  was  required  to  return  the  priceless  works  of  art  of  which 

Napoleon  had  despoiled  conquered  states. 

With  France  thus  weakened,  and  the  principles  of  legitimacy 
reestablished  throughout  Europe,  the  allied  sovereigns  thought 
themselves  free  to  return  to  the  policies  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, secure  against  any  renewal  of  popular  revolts. 

For  Great  Britain  the  struggle  with  revolutionary  France 

and  the  Napoleonic  empire  was  "a  mortal  struggle,  the  most 

661.  Cost       dangerous,  the  most  doubtful,  the  most  costly  she  had 

to  Great"      ever  waged-"    It  was  entered  upon  with  reluctance,  but 

Britain  when  it  was  once  begun  the  English  were  the  soul  of  every 

coalition.     "England  has  saved  herself  by  her  exertions,"  said 

the  British  prime  minister  Pitt,  at  one  time,  "and  will  save 

Europe  by  her  example."     She  contributed  much  more  than  an 

example.     Her  command  of  the  sea,  firmly  fixed  by  Nelson's 

victory  at  Trafalgar,  was  the  chief  menace  to  all  French  plans 

of  conquest ;   and  her  grants  of  money  to  France's  continental 

enemies  were  an  indispensable  means  for  carrying  on  the  war. 

Her  triumph,  however,  was  dearly  bought.  The  total  expen- 
diture of  Great  Britain  was  soon  treble  what  it  had  been  in  time 
of  peace.  By  1797  the  drain  of  gold  from  the  country  forced 
the  Bank  of  England  to  cease  redeeming  its  notes  in  gold  and 
silver,  and  specie  payments  were  not  resumed  until  1821.  The 
public  debt  increased  by  leaps  and  bounds.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  French  war,  in  1793,  it  was  £239,000,000.  At  the  close 
of  the  war,  in  1815,  it  had  reached  the  enormous  total  of 
£861,000,000,  with  annual  payments  for  interest  amounting  to 
£25,000,000.  The  amount  of  this  debt  has  since  been  decreased, 
but  in  1898  it  was  still  £634,000,000. 

The  costs  of  war  and  the  depreciation  of  paper  currency 
raised  prices  in  England  until  wheat  sold,  in  1801,  at  about 
$4.00  a  bushel.  Wages,  on  the  contrary,  rose  but  little.  There 
followed  a  great  increase  of  pauperism  among  the  people,  a 
result  partly  due  to  a  bad  system  of  poor  relief.  A  change 


THE   CONGRESS  OF   VIENNA  547 

also  wrought  by  the  war  in  British  politics.  For  a  generation 
after  1792  the  Whig  party  was  discredited,  because  of  the  sym- 
pathy of  some  of  its  leaders  for  the  French  Revolution.  The 
Tories,  who  opposed  every  reform  as  likely  to  lead  to  revolution, 
were  firmly  seated  in  power.  Thus  England,  the  land  of  lib- 
erty and  the  champion  of  freedom,  came  to  be  for  a  time  a 
land  of  reaction  and  harsh  measures,  under  the  tyranny  of  a 
narrow  and  unrepresentative  Tory  Parliament. 

The  treaties  of  Vienna  were  far  from  reestablishing  the  old 
states-system  of  Europe  as  it  had  existed  before  1789.  Still 
less  did  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon,  taking  Europe  as  a  662.  Per- 
whole,  produce  a  restoration  of  the  Old  Regime.  A  great 
part  of  the  work  of  the  revolution  and  of  Napoleon  (not  period 
including  his  military  conquests)  proved  permanent.  The 
three  great  ideas  which  the  revolution  spread  throughout. 
Europe  were  these :  popular  sovereignty,  nationality  as  the 
basis  of  states,  and  social  and  political  equality.  Although 
the  first  two  of  these  ideas  were  ignored  by  the  Powers  at 
Vienna,  they  continued  to  live  among  the  people.  In  the 
end,  as  we  shall  see,  they  brought  about  the  overthrow  of  the 
system  embodied  in  the  Vienna  treaties.  To-day  the  principle 
of  popular  sovereignty,  that  is,  that  "  governments  derive 
their  just  powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed,"  •  —  and  of 
nationality,  that  is,  that  the  territorial  limits  of  the  state 
should  generally  coincide  with  the  limits  of  the  nation, — are  rec- 
ognized by  all  the  countries  of  western  Europe.  They  are  even 
making  their  way  in  eastern  Europe,  and  in  far-distant  Asia. 

Even  more  lasting  and  fundamental  in  its  effects  was  the 
social  and  political  equality  introduced  by  the  revolution. 
Instead  of  overthrowing  equality  before  the  law  (which  marked 
the  chief  difference  between  the  France  of  the  Old  Regime  and 
that  of  the  revolution),  Napoleon  had  preserved  and  strength- 
ened this  principle,  and  had  spread  it  throughout  his  vassal 
and  subject  countries.  Thus  western  Europe  owes  to  Napoleon 
much  of  its  modern  social  system,  with  its  abolition  of  serfdom 
and  of  personal  subjection,  its  legal  equality  of  all  persons,  and 


548  THE  NAPOLEONIC   EMPIRE 

its  system  of  law  founded  on  the  Code  Napoleon.  France  par- 
ticularly owes  to  him,  in  addition,  its  highly  organized  and  cen- 
tralized system  of  education.  The  system  of  strongly  centralized 
government  which  he  fostered  has  persisted  under  every  govern- 
ment, republican  or  monarchical,  which  France  has  seen  since 
the  Reign  of  Terror.  Except  the  Industrial  Revolution  (ch. 
xxviii),  no  event  in  modern  history  has  so  profoundly  affected 
the  life  and  status  of  modern  peoples  as  did  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. And  of  few  rulers  in  history  can  it  be  said  that  the  results 
of  their  work  were  so  far-reaching  and  permanent  as  was  the 
case  with  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1803.  War  with  Great  Britain  renewed. 

1805.  Nelson  defeats  French  and  Spanish  fleets  off  Cape  Trafalgar. 

1805.  Battle  of  Austerlitz. 

1806.  Battle  of  Jena;    Confederation  of  the  Rhine  formed;    Holy 

Roman  Empire  dissolved. 

1807.  Peace  of  Tilsit. 

1808.  Uprising  in  Spain  against  French  rule. 

1809.  Battle  of  Wagram. 

1812.  Invasion  of  Russia. 

1813.  Uprising  of  Germany;  battle  of  Leipzig. 

1814.  First  abdication  of  Napoleon. 

1815.  Return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba;    battle  of  Waterloo;   treaties 

of  Vienna ;  Napoleon  transported  to  St.  Helena. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Was  Great  Britain  or  France  chiefly  responsible 
for  the  renewal  of  war  in  1803?  (2)  Do  you  think  Napoleon  could  have 
conquered  England  if  he  had  been  able  to  land  his  armies  there  ?  (3)  Why 
was  the  military  strength  of  Prussia  relatively  less  in  1806  than  in  the  days 
of  Frederick  the  Great  ?  (4)  Make  a  list  of  Napoleon's  vassal  kingdoms 
and  dependencies  at  the  height  of  his  power.  (5)  Was  the  reorganization 
of  Germany  a  good  or  a  bad  thing  for  that  land?  Why?  (6)  How  might 
Napoleon  expect  his  Continental  System  to  bring  England  to  terms?  (7) 
Why  were  his  expectations  disappointed?  (8)  What  part  did  the  Penin- 
sular War  play  in  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  ?  (9)  How  did  his  invasion  of 
Russia  contribute  to  his  fall?  (10)  Why  was  the  military  success  of  Prussia 
greater  in  1813-1814  than  in  1806-1807?  (n)  Were  the  terms  granted  to 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  549 

Napoleon  in  1814  unduly  harsh?  (12)  Was  the  Congress  of  Vienna  justi- 
fied in  proclaiming  him  an  outlaw  upon  his  return  from  Elba?  (13)  What 
enabled  Napoleon  so  easily  to  recover  possession  of  France?  (14)  Which 
was  the  greater  general,  Napoleon  or  Wellington?  (15)  Were  the  British 
justified  in  keeping  Napoleon  prisoner  at  St.  Helena?  (16)  Set  down  in 
one  column  the  acts  for  which  Napoleon  deserves  praise,  and  in  another 
those  for  which  he  deserves  censure.  (17)  Was  Great  Britain's  victory 
over  Napoleon  worth  to  her  what  it  cost? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  BATTLE  or  TRAFALGAR.     Mahan,  Sea  Power  and 
the  French  Revolution,  II,  ch.  xvi  (latter  part).  —  (2)  NELSON.     Mahan, 
Nelson,  I,  ch.  x;  II,  chs.  xvi,  xxiii;    Russell,  Nelson,  chs.  xiv-xv,  xix-xx.  — 
(3)  THE  AUSTERLITZ  CAMPAIGN.     Johnston,  Napoleon,  119-129;  Rose,  Na- 
poleon, II,  ch.  xxiii.  —  (4)    NAPOLEON'S  RECONSTRUCTION  OF   GERMANY. 
Fournier,  Napoleon,    325-335;    Rose,    Napoleonic  Era,    167-168;     Fyffe, 
Modern  Europe,  166-173;    Stephens,  Revolutionary  Europe,  257-261.  —  (5) 
JENA,  EYLAU,  AND  FRIEDLAND.     Johnston,  Napoleon,  131-140;    Rose,  Na- 
poleon, II,  chs.  xxv-xxvi.  —  (6)    TILSIT.     Johnston,   Napoleon,    146-147 ; 
Stephens,  249-250;    Rose,  Napoleon,  II,  ch.  xxvi.  —  (7)  THE  CONTINENTAL 
SYSTEM.     Beard,  English  Historians,  520-537;  Rose,  Napoleon,  II,  ch.  xxvi 
(first  part) ;    Robinson,  Readings,   II,  503-508.  —  (8)  How    THE    CONTI- 
NENTAL SYSTEM  AFFECTED  THE  UNITED  STATES.     Channing,  Student's  His- 
tory, 343-354;  Henry  Adams,  History  of  the  United  States,  III,  43-47,  49~53, 
91-96,  143-146,  388-390,  395-399;    IV,  76-104,  109-111,    125-127. —  (9) 
REGENERATION  OF  PRUSSIA,  1807-1813.     Henderson,  Short  History,  II,  270- 
284,  298-302;  Rose,  Napoleonic  Era,  184-193.  —  (10)  RETREAT  FROM  Mos- 
cow.   Rose,  Napoleonic  Era,  255-262  ;  Johnston,  Napoleon,  181-187 ;  Four- 
nier, Napoleon,  II,  ch.  xvi.  —  (n)  BATTLE  OF  LEIPZIG.     Rose,  Napoleon,  II, 
324-338;    Fournier,  II,  ch.  xvii.  —  (12)    RETURN  FROM  ELBA.     Johnston, 
Napoleon,  212-218;   Fournier,  II,  ch.  xviii.  —  (13)    NAPOLEON'S  HOLD  ON 
HIS  SOLDIERS.     Ropes,  Napoleon,  310-319.  —  (14)  WATERLOO.     Johnston, 
Napoleon,  223-234;  Rose,  Napoleon,  II,  ch.  xi;  Ropes,  Napoleon,  lect.  7; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  "Waterloo";   Hugo,  Les  Miserables^  Pt.  II,  Bk.  I. 
—  (15)  DUKE  OF  WELLINGTON.    Green,  Short  History,  824-827, 831-832, 834- 
836.  —  (16)  NAPOLEON  AT  ST.  HELENA.     Rosebery,  Napoleon,  chs.  xiv-xv; 
Bourrienne,  Memoirs,  IV,  ch.  xiii;   Fournier,  II,  ch.  xx.  —  (17)  WAS  NAPO- 
LEON'S WORK  BENEFICIAL  ?     Compare  Seeley,  Napoleon,  299-303  (unfavor- 
able), with  Ropes,  Napoleon,  302-308  (very  favorable).  —  (18)  TALLEYRAND. 
Fyffe,  Modern  Europe,  380-387;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  372-375. 
General  Reading.  —  In  addition  to  the  books  referred  to  in  the  preceding 
chapter,  see  Rosebery,  Napoleon,  the  Last  Phase.      Oman's  History  of  the 
Peninsular  War  (4  vols.)  is  a  recent  study  of  the  war  in  Spain  and  Portugal; 
Seeley 's  Life  and  Times  of  Stein  (3  vols.)  covers  the  Napoleonic  period  for 
Germany. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII 
THE    INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 

A.   CHANGES  IN  AGRICULTURE  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

ONLY  recently  have  historians  come  to  appreciate  the  very 
important  part  which  practical  inventions  play  in  the  history 
663.  Impor-   of  human  progress.     Competent  writers  now  assert  that 
industrial16    ^  advancement  of  mankind  from  a  condition  of  beast- 
Revolution     like  savagery  to  the  height  of  civilization  is  to  be  explained 
"as  the  result  of  accumulated  changes  that  found  their  initial 
impulses  in  a  half-dozen  or  so  of  practical  inventions."     The 
Henry  Smith  following  may  be  named  as  the  steps  in  this  progress  which 
Williams,  in     were  taken  in  the  Prehistoric  Age:  the  discovery  of  fire, 
Britawdca^    ^e  invention  of  the  bow  and  arrow  and  of  pottery  mak- 
(mh  ed.),       ing,  the  domestication  of  animals,  the  development  of  spin- 
'  4°3  ning  and  weaving,  the  smelting  of  iron,  and  the  invention  of 

writing.  In  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  came  the  introduction 
of  the  mariner's  compass,  the  discovery  of  gunpowder,  and  the 
invention  of  the  printing  press.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  occurred 
a  series  of  inventions  and  changes  in  industry  which  altered 
practically  the  whole  of  man's  former  mode  of  living.  It  is  to 
these  later  inventions  and  changes  that  we  give  the  name  "the 
Industrial  Revolution."  With  a  recent  educational  speaker  we 
may  well  say  that  the  Industrial  Revolution  constitutes  "the 
greatest  single  event  in  the  world's  history."  It  came  first  in 
Great  Britain,  and  it  was  only  after  the  close  of  the  wars  with 
Napoleon  that  it  began  to  obtain  a  footing  outside  that  island. 
To  understand  the  nature  of  the  changes  wrought  by  the  In- 
dustrial Revolution,  we  must  picture  to  ourselves  the  economic 
conditions  which  preceded  it.  Agriculture,  manufacturing,  and 

550 


CHANGES  IN  AGRICULTURE  AND  TRANSPORTATION     551 

land  transportation  were  unaffected  by  the  inventions  of  the 
Renaissance  period.  They  continued  to  be  carried  on  by  methods 
and  with  implements  which  were  little  improved  since  the  664.  The 
days  of  the  Roman  Empire.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eight-  j 
eenth  century  the  plows  were  still  clumsy  wooden  affairs  tions 
which  did  little  more  than  scratch  the  ground.  Reaping  was  done 
entirely  with  sickles  and  scythes.  The  grain  was  threshed  by 
hand,  by  beating  it  with  jointed  sticks  called  flails.  Wind-  and 
water-driven  sawmills  had  been  introduced  in  the  seventeenth 
century ;  but  with  this  exception  carpenters  and  joiners  dressed 
their  lumber  with  the  same  tools  as  in  ancient  times.  The 
implements  of  the  blacksmith,  the  mason,  and  other  crafts- 
men remained  much  what  they  had  been  two  thousand  years 
before.  There  were  no  machines,  such  as  now  perform  ninety- 
nine  per  cent  of  man's  work  for  him.  There  were  only  the  long- 
familiar  hand  tools.  Since  there  were  no  machines,  there  were 
no  factories,  with  their  thousands  of  men,  women,  and  children 
employed  as  machine  operatives.  And  since  there  were  no 
factories,  there  were  no  great  factory  towns,  with  their  huge 
smoking  chimneys  blackening  the  atmosphere  and  spreading 
squalor  and  desolation  about  them. 

Town  and  country  were  then  much  more  alike  than  they  now 
are ;  and  the  ties  of  commerce  and  communication  which  knit 
place  to  place  were  much  less  strong  and  numerous.  Since  the 
old  Roman  days,  there  had  been  little  building  of  new  roads,  and 
the  old  ones  contrasted  unfavorably  with  those  of  the  fourth 
century.  Six  horses  were  required  to  haul  one  of  the  heavy 
coaches  of  the  time;  and  when  it  was  stalled  in  one  of  the 
numerous  mudholes,  the  ox  teams  of  neighboring  farmers  were 
employed  to  drag  it  out.  Goods  were  usually  carried  by  pack 
animals,  and  most  of  the  traveling  was  done  on  horseback.  The 
transportation  of  heavier  articles  was  almost  impracticable. 
The  isolation  of  the  smaller  communities  before  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century  is  scarcely  conceivable.  Many  villages 
lay,  an  hour's  ride  by  muddy  lanes,  back  from  the  highway,  and 
their  inhabitants  saw  few  strange  faces  except  those  of  wandering 


552  THE   INDUSTRIAL    REVOLUTION 

peddlers.  Each  community  was  almost  wholly  self-sufficing. 
It  supplied  its  needs  by  its  own  produce  and  household 
manufactures,  and  knew  little  of  what  went  on  in  the  great 
world  outside. 

Agriculture  was  the  first  occupation  to  undergo  a  transforma- 
tion.    The  slow  accumulation  of  money  (capital)  in  the  modern 
665.  im-        period  made  possible  the  undertaking  of  drainage,  fer- 
hT^ricu]1- S    tilization,  and  other  permanent  improvements  of  the  soil, 
ture  The  area  of  tillable  land  was  thereby  increased,  and  its 

productivity  enhanced.  Only  rich  men,  however,  could  under- 
take such  improvements ;  hence  the  medieval  system  of  small 
intermixed  holdings  was  gradually  broken  up,  and  large  farms 
arose.  In  part  these  resulted  from  the  Enclosure"  by  landlords 
of  common  lands  and  open  fields.  Agriculture  was  thus 
improved ;  but  the  condition  of  the  peasantry  became  worse,  for 
the  landlords  showed  a  high-handed  disregard  for  the  rights  of 
cottagers  and  small  tenants.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century 
came  other  improvements,  in  the  form  of  better  tools  and  meth- 
ods of  cultivation,  and  new  rotations  of  crops.  Root  crops  — 
such  as  turnips  and  beets  —  were  made  to  alternate  with 
grain  crops.  A  field  planted  to  root  crops  received  as  much 
rest  as  under  the  old  plan  of  lying  fallow,  while  the  loss  of  its 
use  every  third  year  was  avoided.  The  turnips  and  beets 
grown  were  used  for  feeding  stock.  It  thus  became  pos- 
sible to  keep  cattle  over  winter,  where  formerly  many  were 
killed  in  the  fall  because  of  lack  of  feed.  By  careful  breed- 
ing, the  varieties  of  cattle  and  sheep  were  also  much  improved, 
so  that  a  bullock  produced  more  beef,  and  a  sheep  more  mutton 
and  better  wool,  than  formerly.  The  increased  keeping  of  live 
stock  also  made  possible  better  fertilization  of  the  soil,  and  so 
improved  its  productiveness.  In  these  various  ways  the  land 
became  capable  of  supporting  a  larger  population  than  was 
hitherto  the  case. 

In  the  middle  and  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  great 
improvements  were  also  made  in  the  roads  of  Great  Britain. 
The  main  highways  between  the  north  and  south,  which  were 


THE  NEW   INVENTIONS  553 

needed  for  military  purposes  in  keeping  down  disaffection  in 
Scotland,  were  first  improved.  A  host  of  "turnpike"  roads 
were  also  established,  which  were  kept  in  repair  through  666  Better. 
money  collected  as  tolls.  At  the  same  time  skilled  ment  of  the 
engineers  introduced  better  methods  of  road-making.  T 
The  chief  of  these  was  a  Scotchman  named  MacAdam,  whose 
fame  is  still  commemorated  in  our  "macadamized"  roads. 
Better  highways  made  possible  the  use  of  carriages  all  the  year 
round.  "Fast  mail  coaches"  were  established,  to  run  between 
the  chief  parts  of  England  in  what  then  seemed  incredibly  short 
times.  A  writer  in  1767  described  these  changes  in  the  following 
words:  "There  never  was  a  more  astonishing  revolution  ac-  • 
complished  in  the  internal  system  of  any  country  than  has  been 
within  the  compass  of  a  few  years  in  that  of  England.  The 
carriage  of  grain,  coal,  merchandise,  etc.,  is  in  general  conducted 
with  little  more  than  half  the  number  of  horses  with  which  it 
formerly  was.  Journeys  of  business  are  performed  with  more 
than  double  expedition.  Everything  wears  the  face  of  dispatch ; 
every  article  of  our  produce  becomes  more  valuable ;  and  the 
hinge  upon  which  all  the  movements  turn,  is  the  reformation 
which  has  been  made  in  our  public  roads." 

B.   THE  NEW  INVENTIONS 

These  changes  in  agriculture  and  transportation  sink  into 
insignificance,   however,   in   comparison   with   the   changes  in 
manufacturing.     The  latter  changes  began  in  the  second  667 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  it  is  to  them  especially  Changes 
that  we  give  the  name  of  "Industrial  Revolution."     We  ^Indus-" 
may  best  consider  this  subject  by  taking  up  in  succession  trial  Revo- 
(i)  the  new  inventions  in  spinning  and  weaving,  (2)  the  * 
application  of  water  and  steam  power  to  manufacturing,  (3)  the 
rise  of  the  factory  system,  and  (4)  the  changes  caused  by  the 
construction  of  canals,  railroads,  and  steamships. 

Spinning   and  weaving,   equally   with  other  manufacturing 
processes,  had  undergone  little  change  in  two  thousand  years. 


554 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


Until  the  seventeenth  century  the  distaff  and  spindle,  such  as 
are  depicted  on  the  ancient  monuments  of  Egypt,  were  almost 
668  The       universally  used  for  drawing  out  and  twisting  the  fibers  of 
Domestic       wool,  flax,   etc.,  into   yarn  or   thread.1     The  spinning 
System          wheel  —  first  the  high  wheel,  revolved  by  the  hand,  and 
then   the   low  wheel,  revolved  by  the  foot  —  marks  the  first 
advance  in  spinning.     By  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury spinning  wheels  were  in  general  use  in  England.     These 
implements  enabled  the  women  (who  usually  did,  this  work)  to 
spin  faster  and  to  produce  better  yarn,  but  they  could  still  spin 

only  one  thread  at  a  time.     The 
manufacture  of  cloth  continued  to 
be  a  household   occupation.     "The 
sheep    were     shorn,     their     fleeces 
carded,  the  thread  spun,  the  cloth 
woven,   all   by   hand,  and   by  the 
farmer,  his  family,  and  his  laborers." 
Even  where  spinning  or  weaving  was 
carried  on  as  a  distinct  trade,  the 
workman  rarely  lived  by  his  trade 
alone.     He  did  his  work  with  the 
aid  of  his  wife  and  children  in  his 
own  little  cottage ;  and  at  odd  times 
he  cultivated  the  few  acres  of  ground 
attached  to  it.     We  have  a  description,  dated  1770,  of  a  village 
in  Lancashire,  which  later  became  a  great  center  of  the  cotton 
industry.     Of  the  fifty  or  sixty  villagers  who  then  resided  in 
it,  not  more  than  six  or  seven  gained  their  rent  directly  from 
the  land.     "All  the  rest  got  their  rent  partly  from  some  branch 
of  trade,  such  as  spinning  wool,  linen,  or  cotton.     The  father 
Radcliffe,        of  a  family  would  earn  from  eight  shillings  to  half  a  guinea 
Power  Weav-    la  tittk  °ver  $2- 5°1  at  his  loom,  and  his  sons,  if  he  had  one, 
ing,  59  ff.        two,  or  three  alongside  him,  six  or  eight  shillings  per  week. 
But  the  great  sheet-anchor  of  all  the  cottages  and  small  farms 


SPINNING  WHEEL 


1  Even  at  the  present  time  these  primitive  instruments  may  sometimes  be  seen 
in  use  in  the  backward  regions  of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 


THE   NEW   INVENTIONS 


555 


was  the  labor  attached  to  the  hand- wheel.     And  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  it  required  six  or  eight  hands  to  prepare  and  spin 
sufficient  yarn  for  the  consumption  of  one  weaver,  this  shows 
clearly  the  inexhaustible  source  there  was  for  every  person  from 
the  age  of  seven  to  eighty  years  of  age  (who  retained  their  sight 
and  could  move  their  hands)  to  earn  their  bread."    This  system 
of  household  manufacture  we  call  the  Domestic  System  of  in- 
dustry, as  opposed  to  the  Factory  System  which  supplanted  it. 
Spinning  was  the  first  branch  of  cloth-making  to  be  revolution- 
ized by  new   invention?.     About  1764  a  poor   carpenter  and 
weaver,  named  James  Hargreaves,  got  an  idea  from  seeing   66     N 
his  wife's  overturned  spinning  wheel  revolving  on  the  floor,   spinning 
and  invented  a  new  spinning  machine  which  he  called  mac  ines 
a  "jenny,"  in  her  honor.     It  was  a  rectangular  frame  with 
eight  upright  spindles.     These  were  rotated  by  turning  a  wheel 
with  the  right  hand,  while 
the  left  hand  drew  toward 
the  spinner  a  sliding  frame 
which   clamped   and    drew 
out  the   eight  threads,  the 
spindles    meanwhile   twist- 
ing   them.      In.  this   way 
eight  threads  were  spun  at 
the  same  time.    By  later  im- 
provements the  number  was 

increased  to  sixteen  threads  SPINNING  JENNY 

and  even  more.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  "spinning  jenny"  greatly  increased  the  supply  of 
yarn.  But  the  thread  which  it  spun  was  neither  fine  enough 
nor  tightly  enough  twisted  to  be  used  for  "warp,"  as  the  longi- 
tudinal threads  of  cloth  are  called.  A  spinning  invention  of 
another  sort,  perfected  by  Richard  Arkwright  a  few  years 
later,  not  merely  supplied  this  defect  but  still  further  increased 
the  productiveness  of  spinning.  Arkwright 's  plan  discarded 
the  spindles,  and  passed  the  prepared  wool  or  cotton  through 
two  sets  of  rollers,  the  second  of  which  revolved  more 


556  THE  INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 

rapidly  than  the  first.  The  fibers  were  thus  drawn  out  into 
threads,  which  were  twisted  by  a  second  operation.  This  ma- 
chine was  called  a  "water  frame,"  because  it  was  intended  to 
be  operated  by  water  power  instead  of  by  hand  power.  Pres- 
ently a  third  step  was  taken,  in  1775,  by  Samuel  Crompton. 
He  had  the  happy  thought  to  combine  the  best  features  of  the 
"jenny"  and  the  "water  frame"  into  a  new  machine,  which 
because  of  its  hybrid  character  he  called  "the  mule."  With  the 
improved  machines  it  became  possible  for  one  person  to  spin  as 
many  as  one  hundred  and  fifty  threads  at  a  time.  Subsequent 
improvements  have  produced  great  automatic  machines  which 
—  when  tended  by  a  single  operative  and  one  or  two  children  to 
mend  the  broken  threads  —  draw  out,  twist,  and  wind  twelve 
thousand  threads  at  one  operation. 

The  new  inventions  so  enormously  increased  the  output  of  the 
spinners  that  it  became  impossible  for  hand  weavers  to  keep 
670.  The  UP  with them.  With  the  old  hand  loom  it  was  necessary  for 
power  loom  the  weaver,  sitting  before  his  loom,  to  throw  the  shuttle 
invented  containing  the  "weft"  (crosswise  threads)  back  and  forth 
by  hand  through  the  separated  threads  of  the  "warp"  (length- 
wise threads).  When  broadcloths  were  woven,  it  had  formerly 
been  necessary  to  have  two  persons,  one  to  throw  the  shuttle 
from  each  side.  This  necessity  had  been  done  away  with 
through  the  invention  (in  1738)  pf  a  "flying  shuttle,"  which  was 
operated  by  the  weaver  pulling  alternately  two  cords,  one  with 
his  right  and  one  with  his  left  hand.  Nevertheless,  there  was 
imperative  need  of  a  power  loom  in  which  the  shuttle  should  be 
automatically  thrown.  To  the  invention  of  such  a  loom,  a  clergy- 
man named  Edmund  Cartwright  set  himself,  and  in  1785  he 
patented  his  first  crude  production.  By  later  inventions  he 
greatly  improved  this  first  effort.  When  Cartwright's  power 
loom  came  into  general  use,  weavers  were  enabled  to  keep  up 
with  the  spinners.  A  single  weaver  can  now  tend  four  or  more 
automatic  looms,  each  working  at  a  much  faster  rate  than  was 
possible  with  the  old  hand  looms. 

As  a  combined  result  of  the  foregoing  inventions,  cloth  of  all 


THE  NEW  INVENTIONS  557 

sorts  is  now  much  cheaper  and  more  plentiful  than  it  has  ever 
been  before  in  the  history  of  the  human  race.  The  working 
classes  have  profited  by  this  fact,  equally  with  other  classes. 
But  the  immediate  effect  of  the  introduction  of  machinery  was 
usually  the  loss  of  employment-  by  hand  workers,  so  it  is  not 
surprising  that  spinners  and  weavers  opposed  the  new  inventions. 
They  frequently  incited  riots,  attacked  factories,  and  broke  to 
pieces  the  new  labor-saving  machines.1 

At  first,  the  power  looms  and  spinning  machines  were  run  by 
water  power,  which  had  long  been  used  to  turn  flour  and  grist 
mills.     But   water   power   was   very   uncertain,   for   the  67I.  use  of 
amount  of  water  in  the  streams  changes  with  the  seasons  ;  water  power 
moreover,  it   is  not   to   be   had   in  all  places.     Fortunately, 
it   was   not   long   before   the   steam   engine  was  invented,  to 
aid  not  only  spinning  and  weaving,  but  the  countless  other 
operations    of    modern    life    to    which    machinery  was    soon 
applied. 

For  nearly  two  thousand  years  men  had  known  of  the  expan- 
sive power  of  steam,  but  it  was  not  until  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  this  force  was  made  practically  672.  inven- 
useful.     Its  first  use  was  in  the  form  of  a  steam  pump  for  * 


pumping  water  out  of  mines.  The  illustration  on  page  engine 
558  shows  the  working  of  this  crude  engine.  The  steam  entered 
a  "cylinder"  under  the  "  piston  head,"  thus  raising  one  end  of 
the  crossbeam.  The  top  of  the  cylinder  was  open,  and  when  the 
steam  under  the  piston  head  was  sufficiently  condensed  by  cool- 
ing, the  pressure  of  the  air  forced  back  the  piston,  and  all  was 
ready  for  another  stroke.  The  troubles  with  this  early  engine 
were  that  it  was  slow  and  weak  in  its  action,  it  wasted  a  great 

1  The  changes  which  have  been  described  above  are  far  from  exhausting  the  list 
of  improvements  made  in  cloth  manufacturing.  The  additional  improvements 
include  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  the  American  inventor  Eli  Whitney  (1794) 
for  cleaning  the  seed  from  raw  cotton  ;  the  application  of  machinery  to  carding 
or  combing  straight  its  fibers,  and  for  forming  it  into  small  rolls  or  "rovings"  as  a 
preliminary  to  spinning  ;  the  use  of  the  chemical  called  chlorine  (1787)  for  the  rapid 
bleaching  of  white  goods  ;  and  the  printing  of  calicoes  by  rollers  on  which  the  patterns 
are  cut,  so  that  all  the  colors  are  applied  at  one  printing,  in  place  of  the  old  hand 
p  inting  by  hammering  small  blocks  successively,  one  for  each  color. 


558 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 


amount  of  steam  and  so  used  up  much  fuel,  and  it  could  work 
only  in  one  direction. 


EARLY  PUMPING  STEAM  ENGINE 

The  real  inventor  of  the  modern  steam  engine  was  James 
Watt,  a  maker  of  mathematical  and  astronomical  instruments. 
673   James    While  repairing  a  model  of  one  of  these  early  steam  pumps, 
Watt  noticed  its  waste  of  steam,  and  set  to  work  to  remedy 
it.     It  would  take  too  long  to  describe  in  detail  the  changes 
which  he  made.     It  is  enough  to  say  that  his  first  improvements 
made  the  steam  engine  quick-acting,  powerful,  and  saving  of 
fuel;   but  it  was  still  useful  only  for  pumping.     His  later  in- 
ventions enabled  it  to  turn  a  wheel,  and  so  adapted  it  to  all 
kinds  of  work.     In  1785  the  steam  engine  was  first  applied  to 


Watt  im- 
proves it 


FACTORY  SYSTEM,    CANALS,   AND   RAILWAYS          559 

running  -spinning  machinery,  and  its  use  spread  rapidly.  By 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there  were  as  many  steam 
engines  in  use  in  England  as  there  were  water-  and  wind-mills. 

But  engines  and  machinery  are  largely  made  of  iron;  and, 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  iron  was  scarce 
and  costly.  So  all  these  inventions  would  have  been  of  little 
value  if  they  had  not  been  accompanied  by  improvements  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel. 

For  ages  iron  ore  had  been  "smelted"  —that  is,  the  metal 
extracted  from  the  ore  —  by  mixing  it  with  burning  charcoal. 
But  the  forests  of  England,  from  which  the  charcoal  was  674.  Im- 
made,  were  decreasing  rapidly,  and  it  was  clear  that  little  J 


increase  could  be  made  in  the  amount  of  iron  produced  making 
so  long  as  charcoal  was  used  as  fuel.  It  was  found,  however, 
that  the  smelting  could  be  done  just  as  well,  and  more  cheaply, 
by  using  coke  made  from  ordinary  coal;  and  the  supply  of 
coal  was  abundant.  At  the  same  time  the  bellows,  which  blew 
the  fire  and  made  it  burn  with  sufficient  heat,  were  replaced  by 
other  inventions  which  gave  a  stronger  and  steadier  draft. 
Improvements  were  also  made  in  the  quality  of  the  iron,  and 
in  the  tools  for  hammering  it  out  and  in  methods  of  casting. 
Furthermore,  Watt's  improved  engines  benefited  mining  by 
making  it  easier  and  cheaper  to  pump  out  water,  and  so  to 
operate  deep  mines.  From  year  to  year  improvements  in  min- 
ing and  iron-making  have  gone  steadily  on.  The  result  is  that 
this  necessary  metal  has  constantly  become  cheaper  and  more 
plentiful,  as  the  increased  use  of  machinery  has  created  new 
demands  for  it. 

C.   FACTORY  SYSTEM,  CANALS,  AND  RAILWAYS 

Not  the  least  of  the  changes  wrought  by  the  Industrial  Revo- 
lution —  for  good  or  for  ill  —  was  the  overthrow  of  the  old 
domestic  system  of  manufacturing  and  the  substitution  67 
of  the  factory  system.     Under  the  domestic  system  each  of  the  fac- 
weaver  or  other  workman  set  up  his  own  tools,  in  his  tory  system 
own   house,  and  used  materials  which  he   himself  paid  for. 


560  THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

When  his  goods  were  finished,  he  sold  them  to  the  dealers, 
and  received  the  pay.  He  was  his  own  employer,  and  supplied 
his  own  capital.  He  worked  when  he  pleased  and  how  he 
pleased;  and  his  wife  and  children  assisted  him.  Ordinarily, 
as  we  have  seen,  he  had  a  garden  or  little  farm  which  he  cul- 
tivated, and  so  was  not  wholly  dependent  on  his  handicraft. 

The  new  inventions  in  spinning  and  weaving  caused  the  fac- 
tory system  to  take  the  place  of  the  domestic  system.  Machines 
in  large  numbers  were  now  brought  together  under  the  roof  of 
a  single  " factory,"  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  steam  or  water 
power.  These  machines,  together  with  the  factory  itself,  were 
the  property  of  a  capitalist  employer,  who  paid  his  workmen 
"wages"  for  operating  them.  The  employer  supplied  the  ma- 
terials and  received  the  manufactured  goods,  which  he  sold  as 
he  pleased.  The  work  people  had  to  move  to  crowded  towns, 
where  the  factories  usually  were  situated,  and  so  could  no  longer 
depend  upon  gardens  and  small  farms  for  part  of  their  subsist- 
ence. Thenceforth,  they  could  count  upon  their  wages  alone. 
Thus  the  working  classes  became  more  dependent  on  their  em- 
ployers, and  the  problems  of  " labor"  and  "lack  of  employment" 
arose.  The  fact  that  in  the  factories  women  and  little  children 
(often  only  six  years  old)  were  hired  for  a  great  deal  of  the  work, 
and  that  they  were  forced  to  labor  for  long  hours,  often  fourteen 
and  sixteen  a  day,  in  dark,  close,  and  unhealthful  rooms,  gave 
rise  to  problems  which  soon  demanded  solution.  The  first 
application  of  the  factory  system  was  to  the  "textile  industry" 
(cloth-making).  But  in  course  of  time  hundreds  of  other  in- 
dustries also  arose,  or  were  reorganized,  on  the  basis  of  the  fac- 
tory system. 

The  rapid  development  of  manufactures,  which  followed  the 

introduction  of   machinery,  produced  further  changes   in  the 

676.  Canal     means  of  transportation.     To  the  improvements  in  road- 

buUding         making,  already  going  on,  there  were  added  (i)  a  great 

development  of  canal  building,  and  (2)  the  invention  of  the 

locomotive   and  the  beginning  of  railroad  building.      France 

(§448)  and  Prussia  (§519)   had  developed  systems  of  canal 


FACTORY  SYSTEM,    CANALS,   AND   RAILWAYS          561 

transportation  earlier  than  this;  but  it  was  not  until  the  sec- 
ond half  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  canals  were  introduced 
into  Great  Britain.  In  1761  the  first  canal,  with  locks  and 
aqueducts  for  surmounting  the  difficulties  presented  by  inequal- 
ities of  the  country,  was  opened  between  the  rising  manufac- 
turing city  of  Manchester  and  a  coal  mine  seven  miles  distant. 
This  began  an  era  of  canal  building  which  involved  "a  com- 
plete revolution  in  the  method  of  transport  existing  at  that  time, 
for 'by  the  close  of  the  century  the  country  was  much  better 
provided  with  canals  than  it  had  been  with  roads  at  the  begin- 
ning." The  transporta- 
tion of  bulky  goods  was 
thereby  much  cheap- 
ened. 

Even  more  important 
than   the   construction 
of  canals  was  the  677.  Loco- 
construction    of   motive  en- 
EARLV  LOCOMOTIVE     (Stephenson,  l82S)  steam       railwaySj    J^JJJ4 

which  came  in  the  Building 

nineteenth  century.  Horse  "  tramways  "  to  transport  coal  for 
short  distances  had  been  built  in  England  as  early  as  the 
seventeenth  century.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  Richard  Trevithick  devised  a  steam  locomotive  engine 
of  a  rude -sort  for  this  work.  But  the  invention  of  a  really 
practicable  " traveling  engine"  was  the  work  of  George 
Stephenson,  the  self-taught  son  of  a  poor  English  collier.  In 
1814  he  produced  his  first  locomotive.  In  the  beginning  en- 
gines were  employed  only  on  short  lines,  to  haul  coal  from 
mines  to  the  river  docks,  there  to  be  loaded  on  boats  and  barges. 
The  first  railway  for  both  passengers  and  freight  was  opened 
in  1825  between  Stockton  and  Darlington,  a  distance  of  twelve 
miles.  The  passenger  cars  were  like  stagecoaches  linked 
together  and  running  on  rails ;  and  for  some  time  this  model 
was  followed.  In  183.0  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  railway 
(thirty-seven  miles)  was  opened.  For  this,  Stephenson  sub- 


562 


THE  INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 


mitted,  in  successful  competition  with  three  other  contestants, 
an  engine  called  the  "Rocket,"  which  attained  a  speed  of  thirty- 
five  miles  an  hour.  Eight  years  later  this  railway  was  opened 
clear  through  from  London  to  Liverpool.  It  then  became  pos- 
sible to  cover  in  ten  hours  a  distance  which  formerly  by  the 
fastest  mail  coach  had  taken  sixty  hours.  With  these  events 
began  the  modern  railway  era. 


RAILWAYS  OF  EUROPE  IN  1900 

In  America,  railway  construction  began  almost  immediately 
after  1825.  On  the  Continent  of  Europe  it  began  later.  By 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  basis  of  the  existing 
network  of  roads  had  been  laid.  By  the  end  of  it,  railroads 
linked  together  all  parts  of  Europe,  leaving  few  of  those  centers 
of  barbarism  which  survived  the  Middle  Ages  in  the  heart  of 
the  most  civilized  countries.  The  chief  economic  result  of  the 
railway  is  the  great  cheapening  in  price  of  bulky  commodities, 
permitting  to  all  classes  a  higher  standard  of  comfort. 


EFFECTS   OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION          563 

Equally  important  with  the  economic  effects  of  the  railway  is 
its  work  in  facilitating  communication.  The  railroad  made  pos- 
sible the  cheap  and  regular  postal  services,  which  now  link  678.  steam 
together  the  whole  world  in  a  close  and  constant  union  of  navigation 
thought  and  interest.  Other  agencies,  of  course,  have  contrib- 
uted to  this  same  end.  Among  these  was  the  envelopment  of 
steam  navigation,  which  preceded  the  invention  of  the  loco- 
motive. Several  Englishmen  and  Americans  shared  the  attempt 
to  solve  this  problem.  The  most  famous  of  these  was  Robert 
Fulton,  an  American,  who  in  1807  launched  theClermont,  to  run 
on  the  Hudson  River  from  New  York  to  Albany.  But  it  was 
not  until  1837  that  steam  vessels  began  to  cross  the  Atlantic. 
The  development  of  the  submarine  cable,  the  electric  telegraph, 
and  the  telephone,  will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter. 

This  Industrial  Revolution,  which  began  in  the  second  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  went  steadily  on  in  the  nineteenth. 
We  are  still  in  the  full  tide  of  its  ever  widening  sweep.   679.  Spread 
Great  Britain's  priority  in  the  movement,  joined  to  her  austriai"" 
commercial   and   naval   supremacy,  brought  her   an  in-  Revolution 
dustrial    and  financial    ascendancy  which    has  not   yet  been 
overthrown.     On  the  Continent  of  Europe  the  Industrial  Revo- 
lution did  not  begin  until  after   1815,  and  it  came  then   as 
a  result  of  the  example  of    England.     In  the  United  States 
it  began  somewhat  earlier,  though  equally  from  British  sources. 

D.   EFFECTS  OF  THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

Among  the  far-reaching  effects  of  the  Industrial  Revolution 
we  may  note  the  following :  - 

(i)  Production  has  been  enormously  increased.     The  auto- 
.matic  machines  which  invention  has  created  may  be  regarded 
as   gigantic   slaves    whose    labor    we    may    use    without  68o  In_ 
scruple.     "It  is  no  figure  of  speech,  but  sober  truth,"  says  creased 
a  recent  writer,  "to  say  that  in  the  mills  of  the  textile  Production 
industries  there  has  come  into  existence,  as  a  result  of  the  In- 
dustrial Revolution,  a  non-human  working  population  far  sur- 


564  THE  INDUSTRIAL  REVOLUTION 

passing  the  total  human  population  of  the  whole  earth.  No  one 
knows  how  great  it  is ;  but  some  preliminary  calculations  con- 
vince me  that  it  is  considerably  over  50,000,000,000.  That  is, 
had  there  been  no  introduction  of  machinery,  it  would  take  that 
many  men  and  women  to  do  the  work  now  done  by  it."  As  a 
result,  prices  of  all  manufactured  articles  have  been  lowered, 
and  the  people  have  been  benefited  through  better  food,  better 
clothing,  and  larger  opportunities  for  life. 

(2)  The  whole  world  has  become  a  single  industrial  state, 
delicately  responsive  to  the  fluctuations  of  demand  and  supply. 

681   World-  -^  ^as  we^  been  said  that  a  failure  of  the  cotton  crop  in 
wide  com-      Egypt  or  America  produces  a  closure  of  the  mills  in  Eng- 
land, while  an  increased  demand  for  their  products  in 
India  or  China  causes  them  to  work  overtime.     The  lands  of 
the  whole  earth  are  put  under  contribution  as  never  before  for 
the  food,  clothing,  and  habitations  of  our  daily  life. 

(3)  Cities  have  grown  enormously  in  size,  while  the  country 
population  has  relatively  declined.     Too  often  the  growth  in 

682.  Growth   the  cities  has  taken  the  form  of  rows  of  ugly  cottages  or 
of  city  life      tenements,  blackened  and  smoke-begrimed,  with  a  total 

absence  of  gardens  or  even  grass  plots. 

(4)  The  rich  have  grown  vastly  richer,  and  the  poor  have 
grown  relatively  poorer.     The   distance  which  separates   the 

683.  Rich       extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty  is  now  much  greater  than 
more* widely  bef°re-     Tremendous  possibilities,  both  for  good  and  for 
separated       evil,  lie  in  the  enormous  accumulations  of  wealth  in  the 

hands  of  favored  individuals  and  of  giant  corporations. 

(5)  The  position  of  the  working  classes,  through  their  separa- 

684.  Work-    ti°n  fr°m  ti*6  so^  an^ tne  ri§e  °f the  wage  system  of  employ- 
ing classes     ment,  has  become  more  dependent  and  less  stable.     New 

problems  of  unemployment  have  arisen.  The  rela- 
tions of  capital  and  labor  have  become  more  hostile.  This  in 
turn  tends  to  produce  strikes,  boycotts,  and  lockouts,  the  weap- 
ons of  industrial  warfare. 

1  Professor  James  T.  Shotwell,  in  Ninth  Annual  Convention  of  the  Association  of 
History  Teachers  of  the  Middle  States  and  Maryland,  14. 


EFFECTS   OF  THE   INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION          565 

(6)  A  host  of  new  social  ills  have  arisen  from  the  unhealthy 
conditions  of  factory  employment  (§  794).     These  in  turn  have 
led  to  humanitarian  movements  for  their  removal,  through  685.  Fac- 
limiting  the  employment  of  women  and  children  in  fac-  J^  their 
tories  and  mines,  improving  the  sanitary  conditions  of  remedy 
employment,  and  reducing  the  hours  of  labor  —  first  from  four- 
teen to  twelve  hours,  then  from  twelve  to  ten  hours,  and  now 
from  ten  to  eight  hours. 

(7)  An  increase  in  intelligence  and  in  democracy  has  accom- 
panied the  Industrial  Revolution.     This  is  partly  a  result  of 
that  movement ;    in  part  also  it  is  due  to  the  social  in-  686.  in- 
fluences arising  from  the  French  Revolution.      Improved  crease  ** 

intelligence 
communications   made  possible   a  wider   circulation  for   an(j  democ- 

books,  pamphlets,  and  newspapers;  and  about  1814  racy 
the  steam  printing  press  made  printing  quicker  and  cheaper. 
European  •  governments  long  attempted,  by  stamp  taxes  and 
other  restrictions,  to  keep  newspapers  and  political  publications 
from  reaching  the  multitude,  but  the  attempt  was  in  vain.  As 
the  people  increased  in  numbers  and  wealth,  political  agitation 
was  carried  to  them  by  the  press,  and  the  demand  began  to  be 
heard  that  they  should  be  admitted  to  a  share  in  the  government. 
Everything  made  for  a  growth  of  democracy  in  the  new  era. 
But  for  a  generation  the  rulers  of  the  allied  nations  of  Europe 
shut  their  eyes  and  ears  to  the  signs  of  the  new  time,  and  sought 
to  bring  the  people  back  to  their  former  bondage. 

As  a  result,  the  history  of  the  quarter  of  a  century  which 
followed  the  downfall  of  the  Napoleonic  empire  was  largely  made 
up  of  a  conflict  between  the  forces  of  Progress  and  those  of  Re- 
action. It  is  to  this  conflict  that  we  must  now  turn. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1764.  Hargreaves  invents  the  spinning  jenny. 

1769.  Watt  patents  his  first  improved  engine. 

1785.  Cartwright  invents  the  power  loom. 

1807.  Fulton's  steamboat  runs  on  the  Hudson  River. 

1814.  Stephenson  produces  his  first  locomotive. 

1825.  First  railway  opened. 


566  THE  INDUSTRIAL   REVOLUTION 

TOPICS    AND    REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  What  connection  is  there  between  the  Indus- 
trial Revolution  and  the  "  application  of  reason  to  the  affairs  of  life  "  de- 
scribed in  chapter  xxiv?  (2)  Which  were  of  more  immediate  importance, 
the  changes  in  agriculture  or  the  new  inventions  applied  to  manufacturing  ? 
Which  was  ultimately  more  important  ?  (3)  What  is  the  difference  between 
a  machine  and  a  tool?  (4)  Which  class  contributed  most  to  advance 
human  welfare  —  statesmen  and  generals,  such  as  Pitt  and  Wellington,  or 
inventors,  such  as  Hargreaves,  Watt,  and  Stephenson?  (5)  What  did  the 
working  people  gain  by  the  substitution  of  the. factory  system  for  the  do- 
mestic system?  (6)  What  did  they  lose?  (7)  How  did  -the  locomotive 
and  steamship  help  on  the  Industrial  Revolution?  (8)  How  did  the 
Industrial  Revolution  aid  the  growth  of  political  democracy? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  AN  ENGLISH  VILLAGE  BEFORE  THE  INDUSTRIAL 
REVOLUTION.  George  Eliot,  Silas  Marner  (description  of  Raveloe). 
—  (2)  THE  DOMESTIC  SYSTEM  OF  MANUFACTURE.  Cheyney,  Industrial 
and  Social  History  of  England,  185-189 ;  Hobson,  Evolution  of  Modern  Cap- 
italism ,  ch.  ii.  —  (3)  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  AGRICULTURE.  Cheyney,  216- 
220;  Ogg,  Social  Progress  in  Contemporary  Europe,  ch.  vi.  —  (4)  INVEN- 
TIONS IN  SPINNING  AND  WEAVING.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of 
Modern  Europe,  II,  30-38;  Cheyney,  203-212;  Weeden,  in  Report  Am. 
Hist.  Assoc.,  1902,  I,  193-210  ("The  Art  of  Weaving");  Baines,  History 
of  Cotton  Manufacture,  ch.  ix;  Traill,  Social  England,  V,  305-317.— 
(5)  JAMES  WATT  AND  THE  STEAM  ENGINE.  Robinson  and  Beard,  Devel- 
opment, II,  39-44;  Thurston,  Growth  of  the  Steam  Engine,  78-143.  —  (6) 
SIR  HUMPHRY  DAVY'S  SAFETY  LAMP  AND  THE  MINING  OF  COAL.  Rand, 
Selections  Illustrating  Economic  History,  51-54.  —  (7)  STEPHENSON  AND 
THE  LOCOMOTIVE.  Smiles,  Life  of  George  Stephenson,  chs.  viii-ix,  xxii; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXII,  819-822. —  (8)  EARLY  ATTEMPTS  AT  A 
STEAMBOAT.  McMaster,  History  of  the  American  People,  I,  50;  II, 
77-79;  III,  486-494;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXV,  823.  —  (9)  THE 
FACTORY  SYSTEM  OF  MANUFACTURE.  Cheyney,  212-213,  232-239;  Cooke 
Taylor,  The  Modern  Factory  System;  Hobson,  Modern  Capitalism,  ch. 
iv.  —  (10)  THE  INDUSTRIAL  TOWN.  Hobson,  ch.  xiii.  —  (n)  SOCIAL 
CHANGES  PRODUCED  BY  THR  FACTORY  SYSTEM.  Cheyney,  235-239; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Development,  II,  45-49 ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Read- 
ings, II,  §  56. 

General  Reading.  —  See  in  addition  to  the  above  Walpole's  History  of 
England  since  1815,  vol  I;  Cunningham's  Growth  of  English  Industry  and 
Commerce,  vol.  II;  Warner's  Landmarks  in  English  Industrial  History; 
Gibbins's  Economic  and  Industrial  Progress  of  the  Century;  Cambridge 
Modern  History,  vol.  X. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


POLITICAL  REACTION  AND   THE  REVOLUTIONS  OF   1830 
A.   EUROPE  UNDER  METTERNICH'S  SYSTEM 

FORTY  years  of  peace  followed  the  treaties  of  Vienna.  During 
that  time  the  Industrial  Revolution  was  introduced  on  the 
Continent,  and  the  peoples  of  western  Europe  advanced  6g  porty 

rapidly  in  numbers,  in  years  of 
wealth,  and  in  political  pea 
importance.  The  absence  of 
wars  between  the  great  states 
was  largely  due  to  the  influ- 
ence of  what  was  called  the 
Grand  Alliance.  Originally 
this  league  was  composed  of 
the  four  Powers  which  had 
overthrown  Napoleon  (Aus- 
tria, Prussia,  Russia,  and 
Great  Britain).  After  1818 
France  also  was  admitted  to 
its  councils.  Its  purpose  was 
to  maintain  peace  by  enforcing 
the  treaties  of  Vienna;  but 
it  developed  into  a  league  for 
suppressing  Liberal  ideas  and 
upholding  absolute  govern- 
ment all  over  the  Continent. 
The  chief  statesman  of  the  Grand  Alliance  was  Prince  6gg  Met_ 
Metternich  (met'ter-niK)  of  Austria.  He  was  a  polished  ternich's 
but  cynical  diplomatist  who,  until  the  middle  of  the  nine-  po  lcy 
teenth  century,  exercised  a  powerful  influence  in  European  poli- 

567 


METTERNICH 
From  the  painting  by  T.  Lawrence 


568  POLITICAL   REACTION   AND   REVOLUTION 

tics.    His  ideas  and  policy  were  summed  up,  in  his  own  words,  as 
follows  :  "The  first  need  of  society  is  to  be  maintained  by  strong 
authority,  and  not  to  govern  itself.     Therefore,  let  the  govern- 
ments govern,  let  them  maintain  the  foundations  of  their  in- 
Robinson        stitutions,  both  ancient  and  modern  ;  for  it  is  at  all  times 
Readings  in     dangerous  to  touch  them.     It  certainly  would  not  now, 
-     in  ^e  general  confusion,  be  wise  to  do  so."     More  briefly, 


tory,  II,  386  the  essence  of  his  policy  has  been  declared  to  be,  "Do 
(condensed)  nothingj  and  let  nothing  be  done,"  in  the  way  of  demo- 
cratic reforms  or  the  disturbance  of  existing  territorial  arrange- 
ments. This  was  the  policy  which  the  five  great  Powers  sought 
to  enforce  upon  Europe.  The  means  which  they  used  were: 
(i)  A  series  of  congresses,  held  from  time  to  time,  in  which  the 
rulers  or  their  representatives  met  to  talk  over  the  affairs  of 
Europe.  (2)  When  necessary,  armed  intervention  was  used  ; 
that  is,  one  or  more  of  the  Powers  were  commissioned  to  inter- 
fere in  the  internal  affairs  of  any  state  in  which  democratic 
movements  threatened  to  disturb  the  peace  of  Europe,  or  to 
overthrow  the  sacred  rights  of  legitimate  sovereigns.1 

The  national  uprisings  which  caused  the  downfall  of  Napoleon 

had  been  directed  against  the  rule  of  a  foreign  power,  not  against 

680  Secret    ^he  Liberal  ideas  of  the  French  Revolution.     When,  there- 

Liberal          fore,  the  allied  Powers  ignored  national  sentiments,  and 

insisted  upon  absolute  governments,  they  came  into  col- 

lision with  the  very  force  which  had  enabled  them  to  triumph 

1  The  Grand  Alliance,  which  held  these  congresses  and  intervened  to  put  down 
Liberalism  in  different  countries,  is  often  confused  with  an  organization  called  the 
"Holy  Alliance."  The  latter  was  a  visionary  and  impractical  Christian  brotherhood 
of  European  rulers,  formed  by  Tsar  Alexander  I  of  Russia.  In  this  "  Holy  Alliance  '  ' 
the  sovereigns  declared  their  "fixed  resolution  to  take  for  their  sole  guide  the  pre- 
cepts of  that  Holy  Religion  [Christianity]";  to  "remain  united  by  the  bonds  of  a 
true  and  indissoluble  fraternity  "  ;  and  "on  all  occasions  and  in  all  places  to  lend  each 
other  aid  and  assistance."  This  compact  was  signed  by  most  of  the  European 
Powers.  The  exceptions  were  England,  whose  ministers  excused  themselves  on 
constitutional  grounds  ;  the  Pope,  who  felt  that  the  Alliance  interfered  with  his  pre- 
rogatives ;  and  the  Sultan  of  Turkey,  who  was  excluded  because  he  was  not  a  Chris- 
tian. Few  of  the  sovereigns  took  the  "Holy  Alliance"  seriously;  even  Metternich 
called  it  "mere  pious  verbiage."  The  real  governing  body  of  Europe  in  this  period 
was  the  Grand  Alliance,  which  is  described  above. 


EUROPE  UNDER  METTERNICH'S   SYSTEM  569 

over  the  French  Empire.  In  the  ten  years  following  the  treaties 
of  Vienna,  Liberal  principles  spread  all  over  western  Europe,  — 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  secret  societies.  The  chief  of 
these  was  the  Carbonari  (car-bo-na're ;  "charcoal  burners"). 
This  society  had  first  been  organized  in  Italy  to  expel  the 
French,  but  later  worked  for  the  freedom  of  that  land  from 
Austrian  rule,  and  for  a  united  Italy  under  a  constitutional 
government.  Its  members  were  drawn  from  all  ranks  of 
society.  After  1816  it  is  estimated  that  they  numbered  sixty 
thousand,  scattered  throughout  Italy. 

Metternich's  policy  was  most  successful,  perhaps,  in  Germany. 
That  land,  by  the  treaties  of  Vienna,  was  organized  into  a  loose 
confederation,  with  a  federal  Diet  so  weak  and  dilatory  ^  Slight 
as  to  be  the  laughing-stock  of  Europe.  Austria  maintained  progress  in 
her  traditional  leadership  in  German  affairs,  but  her  c 
ascendancy  was  weakened  by  the  growth  of  Prussia.  Some  of 
the  German  states  were  absolute  governments ;  others  were 
monarchies  tempered  by  traditional  assemblies ;  in  others  the 
princes  had  granted  written  constitutions  with  elected  assem- 
blies. The  king  of  Saxony  held  so  high  an  idea  of  the  royal 
office  that  he  never  went  out  on  foot,  or  spoke  to  any  one  be- 
neath the  rank  of  colonel.  A  few  enlightened  journalists  and 
university  professors  conducted  an  agitation  for  a  Liberal  and 
united  Fatherland,  expressing  their  views  in  the  press,  in  uni- 
versity lectures,  and  in  the  gymnastic  and  students'  societies 
which  sprang  up  all  over  Germany.  But  the  Diet  demanded 
that  university  professors  who  taught  " harmful  doctrines" 
be  removed ;  the  student  societies  were  ordered  suppressed ; 
and  a  strict  censorship  of  the  press  was  established.  The 
system  of  Metternich  was  thus  established  in  full  force,  and 
for  half  a  century  there  was  little  progress  in  Germany  toward 
national  unity  or  political  liberty. 

In  Spain  the  reaction  against  Liberal  ideas  was  blindest,  and 
it  was  there  that  revolution  first  broke  out.  When  the  Bourbon 
Spanish  king,  Ferdinand  VII,  was  restored  to-his  throne,  in  1814, 
he  refused  to  sanction  the  constitution  which  had  been  adopted 


570  POLITICAL  REACTION  AND   REVOLUTION 

(1812)  by  those  who  had  driven  out  the  French.  Instead,  he 
arbitrarily  imprisoned  the  leading  Liberals,  revived  the  Inquisi- 

691.  insur-    ti°n>  and  restored  the  worst  abuses  of  the  Old  Regime, 
rectionin       "Nothing    I    can    say,"    wrote    an    Englishman    from 
Spain  (1820)   Spain    in    lgl8^    «coul(i    convey    to    you    an   adequate 

idea  of ,  the  wretchedness,  misery,  want  of  credit,  confidence, 
and  trade  which  exist  from  one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other." 
As  a  result,  the  army  officers  conspired  and  produced  the  mili- 
tary revolt  of  1820.  For  a  time  the  movement  succeeded,  and 
the  king  was  forced  to  take  an  oath  to  observe  the  constitution. 
But  he  soon  fell  back  on  the  support  of  the  clerical  and  ab- 
solutist parties,  and,  for  two  years  Spain  was  torn  by  civil  war. 
These  troubles,  with  similar  movements  in  Italy,  led  the  allied 
Powers  to  hold  congresses  in  1820,  1821,  and  1822.  At  the  first 

692.  The        of  these,  the  principle  was  laid  down  that  any  changes  in 
allied  government  which  were  forced  upon  a  sovereign  gave  the 
tervene          allied  Powers  the  right  to  interfere.     Accordingly,  France 
(1823)            was  appointed  to  intervene  in  Spain,    and    in    1823    a 

French  army  restored  Ferdinand  to  absolute  power.  The 
Liberal  movements  in  Italy  (Naples  and  Piedmont)  were  also 
put  down,  Austria  being  the  Power  which  there  carried  out 
the  orders  of  the  Alliance. 

The  Spanish  colonies  in  America,  like  the  home  nation,  had 
refused  to  accept  the  rule  of  the  Bonapartes.     After  the  resto- 

693.  inter-     ration  of  Ferdinand  VII  in  1814,  however,  the  colonists 
vention  in      grew  discontented  at  the  refusal  to  grant  more  liberties 
America         than    they    had    formerly    possessed.      The    result   was 
abandoned     a    series    of    declarations    of    independence    (beginning 

with  that  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1816),  which  created  the  present 
republics  of  Mexico,  and  of  Central  and  South  America. 
The  Spanish  government  was  too  weak  to  put  down  these  re- 
volts unaided;  so  the  allied  Powers  of  Europe  proposed  to  inter- 
vene in  America  also.  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States 
opposed  this  policy.  Canning,  the  British  minister  of  foreign 
affairs,  gave  formal  warning  that  Great  Britain  would  not  per- 
mit such  intervention.  He  invited  the  United  States  to  join 


EUROPE   UNDER  METTERNICH'S   SYSTEM  571 

Great  Britain  in  declaring  against  it.  President  Monroe  there- 
upon issued  an  independent  declaration  (1823)  that  the  proposed 
interference  in  America  would  be  regarded  "as  the  manifesta- 
tion of  an  unfriendly  disposition  towards  the  United  States."1 
In  the  face  of  this  opposition  the  proposed  intervention  in  the 
former  Spanish  colonies  had  to  be  given  up.  "I  resolved 
that  if  France  had  Spain,"  said  Canning,  "it  should  not  be 
Spain  with  the  Indies.  I  called  the  New  World  into  existence 
in  order  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  Old." 

Great  Britain's  breaking  away  from  the  Grand  Alliance 
was  the  first  blow  to  the  policy  of  Metternich.  The  second 
came  in  the  refusal  of  Russia  to  accept  Metternich's  at-  694.  Greek 
titude  towards  a  Greek  revolt  from  Turkish  rule,  which  ^d°^^ 
broke  out  in  1821.  By  Greeks  and  Turks  alike  that  war  (1821-1829) 
was  waged  with  great  ferocity.  The  educated  classes  of  Eng- 
land and  France  strongly  favored  the  Greeks,  because  of  the 
noble  part  which  the  Greek  race  had  played  in  ancient  history. 
Many  Englishmen  (like  the  poet  Byron,  who  gave  up  his  life  in 
the  cause)  aided  the  Greeks  with  money  and  with  arms.  Rus- 
sians sympathized  with  the  Greeks  because  they  were  of  the 
same  religion  as  themselves.  Metternich,  however,  defeated 
the  Tsar's  endeavors  to  induce  the  Alliance  to  intervene  by 
force  of  arms  in  behalf  of  the  Greeks.  The  Tsar  then  resolved 
to  treat  the  troubles  in  Greece  as  "the  domestic  concerns  of 
Russia,"  and  intervened  on  his  own  account.  In  two  hard- 
fought  campaigns  the  Russian  forces,  operating  chiefly  in  the 
Danube  provinces,  forced  the  Sultan  to  submit.  The  treaty  of 

1  Out  of  this  declaration  has  grown  the  now  famous  Monroe  Doctrine,  which 
really  contains  two  principles :  (i)  It  demands  that  Europe  shall  keep  "hands  off" 
and  refrain  from  attempts  to  conquer  or  coerce  any  one  of  the  states  of  North, 
Central,  or  South  America.  (2)  It  declared  that  all  American  territory  was  then 
(1823)  owned  by  some  organized  government,  and  that  no  new  colonies  could  be 
established  by  European  Powers  in  the  New  World.  It  also  implied  the  tradi- 
tional policy  of  the  United  States  of  refraining  from  interference  in  European 
affairs.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  did  not  mean  that  the  European  colonies  which 
then  existed  should  be  abandoned;  nor  does  it  forbid  any  American  state  from 
setting  up  a  monarchy,  or  any  other  part  of  the  "European  system,"  if  it  wishes  to 
do  so  of  its  own  accord. 


572  POLITICAL  REACTION  AND   REVOLUTION 

Adrianople  (1829)  recognized  the  independence  of  Greece.  In 
1832  its  government  was  settled  by  the  choice  of  a  prince  of 
the  royal  house  of  Bavaria  as  its  first  king. 

Metternich's  system  of  governing  Europe  was  greatly  weak- 
ened by  these  events.  What  force  remained  to  it  was  practically 
destroyed  by  the  breaking  out,  in  1830,  of  a  new  French  revolu- 
tion, which  sent  a  second  wave  of  Liberalism  over  Europe.  But 
before  describing  this  we  must  turn  to  the  internal  history  of 
France  under  the  restored  rule  of  the  Bourbons. 

B.  THE  RESTORED  BOURBONS  IN  FRANCE 

Though  the  Bourbon  monarchy  was  reestablished  in  France, 
in  1815,  the  Old  Regime  was  not  restored.  Louis  XVIII  began 
695.  The  his  reign  by  granting  a  "Constitutional  Charter,"  which 
ti^naTch  set  UP  a  ^m*ted  monarchy  somewhat  after  the  English 
ter  of  Louis  type.  Its  chief  provisions  were  the  following :  — 
XVIII 

1.  It  retained   equality  before   the   law,  personal   liberty,  and  re- 

ligious freedom. 

2.  The  legislature  (or  Assembly)  was  to  be  of  two  houses,  —  a  House 

of  Peers  appointed  for  life  by  the  king,  and  a  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties elected  by  the  people. 

3.  The  right  to  vote  was  given  to  persons  over  thirty  years  of  age, 

who  paid  300  francs  ($60)  a  year  in  direct  taxes. 

4.  Only  the  king  could  propose  laws,  and  all  amendments  had  to  be 

approved  by  him  before  they  were  introduced. 

5.  The  ministers  were  made  legally  responsible  for  the  acts  of  the 

government,  but  there  was  no  provision  requiring  them  to  resign 
office  when  their  measures  were  defeated  in  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies. 

This  charter  was  represented  as  the  free  grant  of  the  king,  so 
it  did  not  violate  the  principles  of  Metternich's  system.  Its 
preamble,  indeed,  asserted  that  "all  authority  in  France  resides 
in  the  person  of  the  king."  Under  this  government  the  nation 
had  more  control  over  taxation  and  legislation  than  it  had  at 
any  time  under  Napoleon's  rule.  Nevertheless,  the  charter 


THE  RESTORED   BOURBONS   IN   FRANCE  575 

was  far  from  being  satisfactory  to  the  Liberals.  Only  about 
one  man  in  seventy  had  the  right  to  vote;  and  the^property 
qualification  for  serving  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  was  placed 
so  high  that  trouble  was  experienced  in  finding  enough  eligible 
men  to  fill  the  places.  So  long  as  Louis  XVIII  lived,  however, 
serious  trouble  was  avoided. 

When  Charles  X  succeeded  his  brother,  in  1824,  he  adopted  a 
more  reactionary  policy.     The  royalists  were  compensated  for 
the  confiscation  of   their  estates  during   the  revolution  696.  Re- 
by  a  grant  of  a  thousand  million  francs  ($200,000,000).   po{j°y"fy 
Other  laws  favored  the  Catholic  clergy  in  every  practi-  Charles  x 
cable  way.     "There  is  no  such  thing  as  political  experience," 
wrote  the  duke  of  Wellington.      "With  the  warning  of  James 
II  (of  England)  before  him,  Charles  X  was  setting  up  a  gov- 
ernment by  priests,  through  priests,  for  priests."     It  seemed  as 
if  the  French  king  was  determined  to  show  the  truth  of  the 
saying  that  the  Bourbons  "had  learned  nothing  and  forgotten 
nothing  "  in  the  course  of  their  long  exile  from  power. 

Charles  X  relied  for  success  on  an  active  foreign  policy,  to 
turn  his  people's  minds  from  domestic  politics.     An  op-  697.  Algeria 
portunity  for  action  abroad  appeared  in  Algiers  in  1830,  JJ|J^d  1 
when  the  half -piratical  Dey  (ruler  of  Algeria),  in  a  fit   (1830) 
of  passion,  struck  the  French  consul.    A  French  expedition  sent 
thither  met  with  speedy  success.     Within  two  months  Algiers 
opened  its  gates,  and  the  Dey  gave  up  his  city,  his  government, 
and  his  treasure.     In  spite  of  previous  pledges  to  the  contrary, 
the  French  then  announced  their  intention  to  annex  the  coun- 
try.    They  began  a  war  of  conquest,  which  was  not  completed 
until  1847. 

The  "glory"  which  the  army  was  winning  in  Algeria,  however, 
failed  to  reconcile  the  people  to  the  arbitrary  course  of  Charles 
X.     The  Tsar  and  Metternich  both  advised  him  to  make  ^g   Frenc-. 
a   virtue   of   necessity,  and  to  adopt   a    more   concilia-   crisis  of 
tory  course,  but  Charles  replied  that  "concessions  were  l8a° 
the    ruin   of   Louis   XVI."    A  clause   in   the    Constitutional 
Charter  gave  the  king  power  to  make  "such  ordinances  as 


574  POLITICAL  REACTION  AND   REVOLUTION 

are  necessary  for  the  execution  of  the  laws  and  the  safety  of 
the  state."  Relying  upon  this,  Charles  X  (on  July  26,  1830) 
published  four  ordinances  which  practically  suspended  the  char- 
ter.1 The  government  had  so  little  expectation  of  resistance 
that  only  a  few  troops  were  at  hand.  These  ordinances,  how- 
ever, proved  the  signal  for  a  new  revolution,  which  overturned 
the  Bourbon  monarchy  in  France,  separated  Belgium  from 
Holland,  and  spread  its  waves  over  Germany,  Italy,  and  Poland. 

C.  THE  REVOLUTIONS  OF  1830 

The  French  Revolution  of  1830  began  with  a  protest  from  the 
journalists  of  Paris.  They  declared  that  they  would  treat  the 
699.  Revo-  ordinances  as  illegal,  and  they  called  upon  the  nation  to 
July^iSao  Jom  m  resisting  them.  As  a  result  of  this  appeal,  there 
in  France  was  some  rioting  and  street  righting  in  Paris  on  July  27. 
.But  it  was  not  from  the  journalists  and  politicians  that  the  revo- 
lution was  to  receive  its  force.  There  was  still  in  France,  es- 
pecially in  Paris,  a  remnant  of  the  old  republican  party,  which 
cherished  in  secret  the  ideas  of  1792.  It  was  this  party  —  made 
up  of  old  soldiers,  Carbonari,  laborers,  and  students  —  which 
organized  the  insurrection  in  the  night  of  July  27.  Three  things 
especially  favored  their  rising :  (i)  The  flintlock  muskets  of  the 
soldiers  were  no  better  than  the  arms  of  the  rebels.  (2)  In  the 
narrow,  crooked  streets  which  then  existed,  it  was  easy  to  erect 
"barricades"  of  paving  stones  behind  which  to  fight.  (3)  The 
soldiers  were  loath  to  fire  upon  the  people,  because  the  insur- 
gents hoisted  the  tricolor  flag  (red,  white,  and  blue)  of  1789, 
which  many  even  of  the  army  regarded  as  the  national  colors. 
On  July  28th  the  fighting  became  more  serious.  On  the  29th 
Lafayette  (now  an  old  man)  took  command  of  the  revolutionists. 
The  king  sought  to  retrieve  his  mistake  by  withdrawing  the 

1  These  July  ordinances  (i)  suspended  the  liberty  of  the  press;  (2)  dissolved  the 
recently  elected  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  which  there  was  a  Liberal  majority,  before 
it  had  a  chance  to  meet ;  (3)  arbitrarily  changed  the  law  governing  elections  so  as 
to  limit  the  rights  of  the  people  still  further;  and  (4)  ordered  a  new  election. 


THE  REVOLUTIONS  OF   1830 


575 


hated  ordinances,  but  it  was  too  late.     The  riot  had  become  a 
revolution.    The  palace  of  the  Tuileries  and  the  city  hall  fell  into 

the  hands  of  the  insurgents,  and 
resistance  came  practically  to  an 
end.  Mindful  of  the  fate  of 
Louis  XVI,  Charles  X  abdicated 
the  throne  in  favor  of  his  young 
grandson,  and  fled  to  England. 
Outside  of  Paris  there  was  no 
fighting,  though  France  as  a 
whole  welcomed  the  downfall  of 
the  Bourbons. 

The  revolution  was  chiefly  the 
work  of  the  republicans,  who 
were  largely  uneducated  700.  Louis 
workingmen  without  a  vote.  ^jj^ed 
The  profit  of  the  rising,  (1830) 
however,  went  to  the  Liberal 
royalists,  who  made  up  the  bour- 
geois, or  well-to-do  citizens.  For 
some  time  their  minds  had  been 
turning  toward  Louis  Philippe 
(fe-lep'),  Duke  of  Orleans,  a  col- 
lateral descendant  of  the  Bourbon  house.  He  had  fought  for 
the  French  cause  in  the  early  campaigns  of  the  Revolution  of 
1789,  and  had  then  led  the  life  of  an  exile  in  Switzerland, 
America,  and  England.  -  Since  the  Restoration  he  had  favored 
the  Liberal  cause,  and  Lafayette's  support  now  enabled  him 
to  secure  the  crown.  Accordingly,  on  August  9,  Louis  Philippe 
was  enthroned  as  "  King  of  the  French." 

Every  great  political  movement  in  France  had  a  reflex  in  the 
other  states  of  continental  Europe,  and  the  Revolution  of  1830 
proved  no  exception  to  this  rule.     The  first  land  in  which   701.  Revo- 
its  effects  were  felt  was  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands-   Bei^^ 
The  Belgians  disliked  their  union  with  Holland,  for  although   (1830) 
they  were  three  fifths  of  the  population,  the  king,  most  of  the 


Louis  PHILIPPE 


576  POLITICAL   REACTION   AND   REVOLUTION 

officials,  the  official  language,  and  the  seat  of  the  government 
were  Dutch.  The  revolution  in  France  gave  practical  direction 
to  this  discontent,  and  in  August,  1830,  the  Belgians  revolted. 
When  Brussels  was  bombarded  by  Dutch  troops,  the  Belgians 
declared  that  the  blood  which  was  shed  dissolved  every  tie 
with  Holland.  They  thereupon  set  up  a  government  of  their  own. 
The  efforts  of  Holland  to  put  down  the  revolt  proved  in  vain. 
In  1831  the  Belgians  chose  a  king  from  one  of  the  lesser  princely 
houses  of  Germany,  and  next  year  the  Great  Powers  recognized 
his  rule.  In  1839  the  Dutch  king  at  last  gave  up  hopes  of  re- 
conquering his  former  subjects,  and  recognized  their  independ- 
ence. Since  then  Belgium  has  remained  an  independent  king- 
dom, with  its  neutrality  guaranteed  by  the  European  Powers. 

In  the  German  states  the  movement  started  by  the  revolution 
in  France  produced  only  slight  results.  In  Italy  there  were 
702.  Revo-  risings  which  once  more  called  for  the  intervention  of 
movements  Austrian  troops.  In  the  kingdom  of  Poland  (§  659)  a 
elsewhere  formidable  insurrection  broke  out  (in  Nbvember,  1830), 
with  the  object  of  recovering  Poland's  independence.  The 
movement,  however,  was  in  the  interest  of  the  nobles  only,  who 
refused  to  make  concessions  which  might  have  won  the 
peasants  to  their  support.  The  rising  was  hampered  also  by 
weakness,  disunion,  and  treachery;  and  the  foreign  aid  on  which 
the  leaders  rashly  counted  was  not  forthcoming.  Though  out- 
numbered three  to  one,  the  Poles  made  a  heroic  resistance.  It 
was  only  after  they  were  defeated  in  five  battles,  and  Warsaw 
was  bombarded,  that  the  rebellion  came  to  an  end  (September, 
1831).  The  constitution  which  had  been  granted  by  Alexander 
I  was  then  abolished,  and  the  kingdom  of  Poland  was  absorbed 
into  the  Russian  Empire.  Thereafter  an  iron  rule  kept  in 
check  Polish  disaffection. 

In  spite  of  these  failures,  the  revolutions  of  1830  broke  the 
strength  of  absolute  government  in  Europe.  Further  triumphs 
of  personal  Liberty,  of  Nationality,  and  of  Popular  Sovereignty 
only  awaited  the  larger  growth  of  the  people  in  wealth  and 
in  intelligence. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  577 


IMPORTANT    DATES 

1823.   Revolts  in  Italy  and  Spain  put  down  by  the  allied  Powers. 

1829.  The  Greeks  win  their  independence  from  Turkey. 

1830.  Successful  revolutions  in  France  and  in  Belgium. 

TOPICS  AND    REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics. —  (i)  What  good  did  the  Grand  Alliance  do? 
What  harm?  (2)  Why  was  Metternich's  system  foredoomed  to 
failure?  (3)  Was  the  intervention  of  the  allies  in  Spain  and  in  Italy 
justifiable?  (4)  Why  did  Great  Britain  oppose  intervention  in  Spanish 
America?  (5)  What  interest  had  the  United  States  in  the  ques- 
tion? (6)  What  effect  did  the  Greek  revolt  have  on  European  politics? 
(7)  Compare  the  French  Revolution  of  1830  with  the  English  revolution 
of  1688.  (8)  Why  did  the  Belgian  revolution  succeed?  (9)  Why  did  the 
Polish  revolt  fail? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  ALEXANDER  I  AND  THE  HOLY  ALLIANCE.  Hazen, 
Europe  Since  1814,  14-16,  19;  Henderson,  Short  History,  II,  325-326. 
—  (2)  METTERNICH.  Hazen,  20-22,  25-28;  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
XVIII,  301-307 ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  I,  384-387.  —  (3)  THE 
CARBONARI.  Johnston,  Napoleonic  Empire  in  Southern  Italy,  Pt.  II,  ch.  ii; 
Bolton  King,  History  of  Italian  Unity,  I,  ch.  ii ;  Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
V,  307-308.  —  (4)  REACTION  IN  GERMANY.  Hazen,  28-44;  Henderson, 
II,  328-338;  Andrews,  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  I,  229-241.  —  (5) 
SPANISH  REVOLT  OF  1820.  Hazen,  45-50,  57-64;  Fyffe,  Modern  Europe, 
505-517. —  (6)  ORIGIN  OF  THE  MONROE  DOCTRINE.  Hazen,  64-65; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Development,  II,  21-28;  Readings,  II,  38-44;  Fyffe, 
517-519.  —  (7)  GREEK  WAR  FOR  INDEPENDENCE.  Hazen,  604-611; 
Phillips,  Modern  Europe,  ch.  vii.  —  (8)  FRENCH  IN  ALGERIA.  Johnston, 
Colonization  of  Africa,  134-141 ;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  I,  650-653.  — 
(9)  REVOLUTION  OF  1830  IN  FRANCE.  Hazen,  ch.  iv;  Andrews,  1, 157-179; 
Phillips,  168-185;  Fyffe,  602-619.  —  (10)  REVOLUTION  OF  1830  IN  BEL- 
GIUM. Hazen,  100-106;  Fyffe,  620-625 ;  Miiller,  Political  History  of  Re- 
cent Times,  112-121.  —  (n)  POLISH  REVOLT  OF  1830.  Hazen,  106-109; 
Miiller,  133-143;  Skrine,  Expansion  of  Russia,  110-122. 

General  Reading.  —  The  best  general  accounts  for  this  period  are  in 
Hazen,  Andrews,  Fyffe,  and  Miiller.  The  Cambridge  Modern  History, 
volume  X,  treats  the  subjects  more  extensively,  but  dryly. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

FRANCE:  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848,  THE  SECOND  FRENCH 
EMPIRE,  AND  THE  THIRD  REPUBLIC 

FRANCE  in  the  nineteenth  century  was  the  land  of  revolutions. 
In    the   recovery   and   application   of    the    principles   of    the 

703.  France  Revolution  of  1789,  it  was  France  which  ever  took  the 
teenthc<m~    ^ea^-     ^he  Process  was  not  one  of    steady,  unvarying 
tury  progression.     Rather  was  it  accomplished  by  a  series  of 

upheavals,  which  in  turn  were  followed  by  reactions.  But 
each  revolution  advanced  progress  more  than  the  following  re- 
action retarded  it.  And  the  advance  has  always  been  in  the 
same  direction  —  against  monarchy,  against  the  rule  of  priests 
in  politics  and  in  the  world  of  thought,  and  towards  liberty  and 
ever  larger  democracy.  Every  revolution  in  France  spread  its 
waves  throughout  Europe.  After  the  decline  of  Metternich's 
system,  and  until  the  rise  of  a  united  Germany,  France  was  the 
most  influential  country  of  Europe.  This  was  true  alike  in 
politics,  in  literature,  in  art,  and  in  science.  In  this  chapter 
we  shall  consider  (i)  the  Orleans  Monarchy  and  the  Revolution 
of  1848  in  France ;  (2)  Louis  Napoleon  and  the  Second  French 
Empire ;  (3)  the  Third  French  Republic  to  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  effects  upon  other  countries  of  the  move- 
ments here  described  will  be  considered  in  later  chapters. 

A.  THE  FRENCH  REVOLUTION  OF  1848 

Louis  Philippe  loved  to  be  known  as  "the  Citizen  King." 

704.  Mon-     He  avoided  show  and  ceremony,  and  walked  the  streets  of 
archy  of         Paris  in  the  modest  frock  coat  and  stovepipe  hat  of  the 
PhUippe         ordinary  well-to-do  citizen,  with  a  green  umbrella  under 
(1830-1848)    his  arm.     He  sent  his  sons  to  the  public  schools,  and 

578 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION   OF    1848 


579 


enrolled  them  as  privates  in  the  national  guard.  He  began 
his  reign  with  a  promise  that  the  Constitutional  Charter 
should  "henceforth  be  a  reality,"  and  he  modified  it  so  as  to 
make  it  more  acceptable  to  the  nation.  But  the  lower  classes 
were  little  better  off  than  they  had  been  before.  The  number 
of  voters  was  still  small,  being  only  about  200,000  in  a  popu- 
lation of  30,000,000.  Only  the  larger  property  owners  —  the 
rich  bankers,  merchants,  and  manufacturers  —  really  profited 
by  the  change. 

The  republicans  were  naturally  aggrieved  that  they  gained 
so  little  from  the  revolution.     They  demanded  a  more  liberal 
voting  franchise,  which  should  give  poor  men  the  ballot ;  70g  Ac_ 
but  their  demand  was  refused.     "  France  has  made  a  revo-  tivity  of  the 
lution,"  said  Guizot  (ge-zo'),  who  was  one  of  the  ministers,  repu 
"but  she  has  no  intention  of  placing  herself  in  a  permanently 


CARICATURE  OF  Louis  PHILIPPE 

revolutionary  state."  The  republicans  thereupon  plotted 
against  the  new  government.  They  had  little  money  ;  but  they 
had  young,  resolute,  and  intrepid  leaders,  who  possessed  the 
confidence  of  the  working  classes.  They  formed  powerful  secret 
societies,  modeled  on  that  of  the  Carbonari.  The  government 
prosecuted  these  societies,  but  as  fast  as  one  was  destroyed 
another  arose  to  take  its  place.  Through  the  press,  too,  the 
republicans  sought  to  arouse  the  people  to  a  consciousness  of 
their  wrongs.  They  attacked  the  king  in  caricatures,  one  of  the 
most  famous  of  which  represented  him  with  a  stupid  face  shaped 
like  a  pear.  In  four  years  one  paper  was  prosecuted  more  than 
a  hundred  times  for  political  libel. 


580  FRANCE   AFTER    1830 

The  growth  of  industry  in  France,  in  this  period,  was  a  power- 
ful factor  in  increasing  the  importance  of  the  common  people. 

706.  Influ-     Railroads  were  beginning  to  be  introduced  into  France. 
Industrial6     *ron  wofks  sprang  up,  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  king- 
Revolution     dom  factories  flourished  for  the  manufacture  of  thread 

and  cloth.  By  1847  there  were  five  thousand  steam  engines 
and  three  and  a  half  million  spindles  at  work.  The  number  of 
patents  for  new  inventions,  which  under  the  Napoleonic  empire 
was  not  more  than  one  hundred  a  year,  rose  about  1844  to  two 
thousand  a  year.  The  change  in  the  methods  of  production, 
in  France-  as  elsewhere,  increased  the  population  of  the  towns, 
and  led  to  the  growth  of  an  industrial  class  as  distinguished  from 
the  peasantry.  Soon  the  workingmen  began  to  form  labor 
unions,  in  defiance  of  the  law,  to  enforce  their  demands  for 
higher  wages  and  better  working  conditions.  Disputes  between 
employers  and  workmen  then  arose,  which  took  on  a  political 
color.  Strikes  against  long  hours  and  low  pay  were  transformed 
into  risings  against  the  government,  which  was  controlled  by 
the  capitalist  class.  In  1832,  and  again  in  1834,  insurrections 
broke  out  at  Paris  and  at  Lyons.  Six  attempts  were  made  to 
assassinate  the  king.  In  spite  of  severe  repressive  laws,  the 
importance  of  the  working  classes  steadily  increased. 

After  frequent  changes  of  ministry,  two  statesmen  —  each 
noted  also  for  his  historical  writings  —  became  rivals  for  political 

707.  Guizot    leadership.     Guizot    upheld    a    system,  similar   to    that 
ister^is1^-    mamtained  by  the  Tories  in  Great  Britain,  under  which 
1848)  the  king,  subject  to  the  limitations  of  the  constitution, 

should  actually  rule.  Thiers  (tyar),  his  opponent,  summed  up 
his  views  in  the  maxim,  "The  king  reigns,  but  does  not  govern." 
In  1846  Guizot  secured  an  ascendancy  over  his  rival  which  for 
seven  years  he  preserved  unshaken.  A  steady  majority  upheld 
his  measures  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  it  was  a  majority 
secured  (as  were  those  in  the  British  House  of  Commons  under 
George  III)  by  grants  of  offices  and  corrupt  means.  The  coun- 
try prospered,  however,  and  the  monarchy  of  Louis  Philippe 
seemed  secure. 


THE   FRENCH   REVOLUTION   OF    1848  581 

As  events  proved,  this  security  rested  on  no  solid  basis.  The 
nation  as  a  whole  chafed  at  what  was  called  spiritless  yielding 
to  England  on  questions  of  foreign  policy.  The  Catholic  party 
resented  the  control  of  the  state  over  education.  The  moderate 
Liberals  were  angered  by  the  refusal  of  any  electoral  reform. 
The  working  classes  were  exasperated  by  the  leanings  of  the 
government  to  the  capitalist  classes.  In  this  condition  of  dis- 
content, a  slight  conflict  between  the  people  and  the  government 
sufficed  to  bring  on  the  Revolution  of  February,  1848. 

The  Liberals  planned,  by  holding  a  series  of  "  reform  ban- 
quets" throughout  the  country,  to  arouse  public  opinion  in 
favor  of  enlarging  the  voting  franchise.  At  these  banquets 
the  toast  "to  the  king!"  was  sometimes  omitted.  708.  Out- 
Louis  Philippe  declared  that  he  would  never  yield  to  ^vo\^o 
the  demands  that  were  made,  and  the  Chamber  of  of  1848 
Deputies  passed  resolutions  to  the  same  effect.  Finally  a  great 
banquet  was  planned  to  be  held  at  Paris  on  February  22.  The 
government  forbade  this  banquet,  together  with  the  procession 
through  the  streets  by  which  it  was  to  be  preceded.  The  Lib- 
erals then  gave  up  their  plans,  but  a  crowd  of  workingmen  and 
students  gathered  in  the  streets  and  shouted  for  "  Reform." 
Riots  broke  out,  with  singing  of  the  Marseillaise  and  plundering 
of  gun  shops.  The  national  guard  of  Paris,  composed  chiefly  of 
small  shopkeepers,  refused  to  march  on  the  insurgents.  "The 
first  day's  outbreak  was  a  riot  by  the  reform  party  against 
Guizot  ;  the  second  was  a  revolt  of  the  republican  parties  against 
the  monarchy."  Some  twenty  of  the  rioters  were  killed  on  the 
evening  of  the  second  day.  The  bodies  of  the  slain  were  there- 
upon mounted  on  carts  and  exhibited  to  the  people  with  demands 
for  vengeance. 

Louis  Philippe  finally  dismissed  Guizot.  When  this  step  failed 
to  pacify  the  people,  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  infant  grand- 
son. This  sacrifice  also  was  in  vain.  Under  pressure  of  709-  Abdi- 


the  Parisian  mob,  a  republic  was  proclaimed,  on  February          1  ° 


24  ;  and  a  National  Assembly,  to  be  elected  by  manhood  Philippe 
suffrage,  was  called  to  draw  up  a  constitution.     Louis  Philippe 


582  FRANCE   AFTER    1830 

retired  ingloriously  to  England,  where  he  died  two  years  later. 
The  Revolution  of  1848,  in  the  words  of  a  Frenchman  of  that 
day,  ''was  of  all  our  revolutions  the  shortest  and  the  least 
bloody  ;  yet,  far  more  than  any  other,  it  filled  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  men  with  the  idea  and  feeling  of  its  omnipotence." 
Again,  as  in  1830,  the  movement  was  confined  almost  entirely 
to  Paris,  the  provinces  merely  accepting  the  result  when  it  was 
accomplished. 

It  was  the  republicans  who  had  overturned  Louis  Philippe,  as 
they  formerly  had  overthrown  Charles  X.  But  they  were  far 
from  constituting  a  majority  of  France,  and  moreover  were 
divided  into  two  opposing  camps.  The  Moderate  Republicans 
were  satisfied  with  a  political  revolution,  which  should  establish 
a  democratic  republic  based  on  universal  suffrage.  The  Social- 
ists, on  the  other  hand,  demanded  a  social  revolution  also,  which 
should  better  the  condition  of  the  working  classes. 

Socialism  was  the  outgrowth,  in  part,  of  the  new  industrial 
world,  with  its  factory  system,  produced  by  the  Industrial 
Growth  Revolution.  In  part  it  was  also  due  to  the  development 
of  socialism  of  those  ideas  of  liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity  which 
were  a  heritage  from  the  great  French  Revolution.  Socialists 
differ  among  themselves  on  many  questions;  but  they  unite 
in  demanding  that  the  means  of  production  (that  is,  the  land, 
mines,  factories,  etc.)  shall  belong  to  the  state  and  not  to  pri- 
vate capitalists.  The  Socialists  protested  against  the  hard  life 
of  the  working  classes,  and  held  the  capitalist  employers  re- 
sponsible for  their  long  hours  of  labor,  low  wages,  unhealthful 
lodgings,  and  unwholesome  food.  They  proposed  to  do  away 
with  the  capitalist  class,  and  to  establish  "national  work- 
shops "  in  which  the  state  should  employ  the  laborers,  under 
more  wholesome  conditions. 

The  workingmen  now  had  arms  in  their  hands,  and  for  a  time 
were  able  to  impose  their  will  upon  the  provisional  government. 
The  working  day  was  reduced  by  law  from  eleven  hours  to  ten 
hours  in  Paris,  and  from  twelve  hours  to  eleven  hours  in  the 
country.  A  decree  was  passed  which  recognized  the  obligation 


.  / 


THE   FRENCH  REVOLUTION   OF   1848  583 

of  the  state  to  provide  work  for  its  citizens.     Another  decree 
provided  for  the  establishing  of  "national  workshops,"  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Socialists'  demands.    But  instead  of  set-   ?II   The 
ting  the  unemployed  to  working  each  at  his  trade,  all  were  national 
employed  with  pick  and  shovel  in  railroad  work  and  in  worksh°Ps 
making  fortifications.     Thousands  of  persons  who  were  out  of 
employment  flocked  to  Paris,  and  the  number  employed  at  the 
public  works  increased  in  two  months  from  6000  to  100,000.     To 
meet  the  increased  expenditure,  new  and  unpopular  taxes  were 
imposed.     The  work,  moreover,  was  soon  cut  down  to  two  days 
a  week.     The  "workshops"  as  thus  established  were  not  in  any 
sense  a  fair  trial  of  socialistic  principles,  but  were  "intended 
expressly  to  discredit  them." 

The  Socialists  had  few  adherents  outside  of  Paris.     When  the 
National  Assembly  met,  in  April,  it  set  about  putting  down  these 
radicals.     It  ordered  the  "workshops  "  to  be  closed  and  the   712-  Social- 
workmen  sent  back  to  the  provinces.     The  Socialists  there-  Oppressed 
upon  erected  barricades  and  revolted.     There  followed  the  (June,  1848) 
bloodiest  street  battle  that  even  turbulent  Paris  had  ever  known. 
Only  after  four  days'  fighting  was  the  government  victorious. 
About  1 1,000  captured  insurgents  were  shot  or  were  transported  to 
the  French  colonies.     As  an  organization  the  Socialist  party  came 
temporarily  to  an  end.    The  result  of  these  conflicts  was  a  legacy 
of  bitter  hatred  (existing  to  the  present  day  in  France)  between 
the  working  class,  who  lean  to  socialism,  and  the  bourgeoisie 
(boor-zhwa-ze'),  or  middle  class.     The  latter  class  is  composed 
largely  of  shopkeepers  and  small  capitalists,  who  are  very  con- 
servative and  bigoted. 

On  November  4,  1848,  the  National  Assembly  proclaimed  its 
new  constitution,  —  that  of  the  Second  French  Republic.    It  pro- 
vided for  a  president,  elected  for  four  years  by  manhood  7i3.  The 
suffrage,  and  a  single  legislative  chamber.      In  the  new  jj60011?^ 
government  a  great  deal  would  depend  upon  the  character  public  pro- 
of the  first  president.     The  Assembly,  however,  did  not  claimed 
take  the  simple  precaution  of  declaring  ineligible  members  of 
the  families  which  formerly  had  reigned  over  France. 


FRANCE   AFTER    1830 

Since  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  exile  and  death,  a  "Napoleonic 
legend"  had  grown  up  which  cast  a  halo  about  his  memory. 
714.  Louis  Bonaparte's  crimes  and  tyranny  were  forgotten,  and  he 
Napoleon  came  to  be  regarded  by  the  masses  as  a-  patriotic  ruler 
president  who  was  pursued  by  the  allies  because  he  loved  France 
(1848)  too  well.  His  portrait  as  Emperor  was  to  be  found  in  half 

the  peasants'  cottages  from  Flanders  to  the  Pyrenees.  In  count- 
less village  taverns  his  old  soldiers  told  tales,  over  their  wine, 
of  his  victorious  campaigns.  In  1840  Napoleon's  remains  were 
brought  back  from  St.  Helena  by  the  French  government,  and 
were  buried  in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides,  in  Paris,  with  the  high- 
est honor.  Louis  Napoleon,  the  Emperor's  nephew,  was  now 
heir  to  the  Bonapartist  cause.  He  had  already  made  two  ad- 
venturous attempts  to  seize  power  in  France,  but  these  had  only 
brought  ridicule  upon  himself.  After  years  of  exile  in  America, 
in  Switzerland,  and  in  England,  the  Revolution  of  1848  enabled 
him  to  return  to  France ;  and  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Assembly  which  framed  the  new  constitution.  Throughout  his 
checkered  career  Louis  Napoleon  had  never  lost  faith  in  his 
"star  of  destiny,"  and  his  faith  was  now  to  be  justified.  A 
newly  formed  Bonapartist  party  nominated  him  for  the  presi- 
dency of  the  republic,  and  his  was  the  only  name  which  was 
known  to  thousands  of  those  who  were  suddenly ,&iven  the  fran- 
chise. When  the  election  was  held  (December  10,  1848),  Louis 
Napoleon  received  5,500,000  votes,  while  his  nearest  competitor 
received  only  1,500,000.  What  this  new  triumph  of  the  Bona- 
parte family  meant,  time  was  soon  to  reveal. 

B.   Louis  NAPOLEON  AND  THE  SECOND  FRENCH  EMPIRE 

The  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  as  president  excited  fears  in 

the  breasts  of  sincere  republicans,  and  his  course  in  office  did 

715   Course  no^  a^aY  these.     "The  name  of  Napoleon,"  he  declared  in 

of  Louis         October,  1849,  "is  of  itself  a  program  signifying  order, 

authority,  religion,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  people  at 

home,  with  national  dignity  abroad.     This  is  the  policy  —  in- 


LOUIS  NAPOLEON 


585 


augurated  by  my  election  —  which  I  wish  to  see  triumph."  In 
the  tours  which  the  prince-president  took  into  the  French  prov- 
inces, he  was  occasionally  greeted  with  the  cry,  "Long  live  the 
Emperor!"  The  legislative  Assembly  meanwhile  lost  popu- 
larity by  so  regulating  the  right  of  voting  that  sixty-four  per 
cent  of  the  voters  in  Paris  were  disfranchised. 

The  decisive  struggle  between  Napoleon  and  the  Assembly 
came  on  a  proposal  to  revise  the  constitution  so  as  to  make 
the  president  eligible  for  a  second  term.     The  required   ?l6   Napo_ 
three   fourths  majority  of   the   Assembly  could   not   be  Icon's  coup 
obtained  for  this  change.     The  friends  of  the  president  d'*tat  (l8sl) 
then  planned  a  coup  d'etat  (coo  da-ta').1     The  command  of  the 
army  at  Paris  was  put  in  the 
hands   of   officers   devoted   to 
Napoleon ;    and  on  the  night 
preceding  December  2,   1851, 
the     leading    republican    and 
royalist  members  of    the  As- 
sembly were  arrested  in  their 
beds.     The    people  awoke   to 
find    decrees    posted    on    the 
walls  which  declared  the  As- 
sembly dissolved  and  universal 
suffrage    restored,   and   called 
upon  the  voters  to  ratify  the 

action  of  the  president.  Those  who  resisted  this  high-handed 
act  were  shot  down,  transported,  or  exiled. 

By  a  vote  of  7,400,000  to  647,000  the  coup  d'etat  was  ratified 
by  the  people.     Napoleon  formed  a  new  constitution,  modeled 
on  that  of  the  Consulate  of  1799,  which  gave  a  ten  years'   717.  He 
term  to  the  president,  with  practically  all  power.     The  ^neror 
legislature  was  composed  of  (i)  a  lower  house,  elected  by   (1852) 
manhood  suffrage  "to  discuss  and  vote  the  laws";   and  (2)  a 
Senate,  appointed  by  the  president  for  life,  which  had  "predomi- 

1  Literally,  a  "stroke  of  state."    The  term  is  used  to  describe  any  sudden  and 
violent  seizure  of  power. 


NAPOLEON  III 


586 


FRANCE   AFTER    1830 


nant  authority."  Exactly  one  year  after  the  coup  d'etat  a  further 
step  was  taken.  By  a  popular  vote  of  7,800,000  to  253,000  the 
prince-president  then  assumed  the  title  "  Napoleon  III,  Emperor 
of  the  French."  l  Again  the  wheel  of  revolution  had  swung 
around,  and  once  more  a  democratic  and 
military  despotism  ruled  over  France. 

The    Second    French   Empire    lasted   for 
eighteen  years  (1852-1870).     Napoleon  III 

718  Polic      lacked  the  great  Napoleon's  genius ;  in- 

of  Napoleon    deed,  the  French  author,  Victor  Hugo, 

111  nicknamed  him  " Napoleon  the  Little." 

Failing  to  secure  a  bride  from  any  of  the 
princely  houses  of  Europe,  Napoleon  in  1853 
married  a  beautiful  Spaniard  of  noble  but 
not  exalted  birth,  the  Empress  Eugenie 
(u-zha-ne')-  She  gave  charm  to  the  im- 
perial court,  but  exercised  a  harmful  influ- 
ence in  politics.  The  whole  administration 
was  honeycombed  with  corruption.  In  the 
final  crisis  this  greatly  weakened  the  empire. 
The  policy  of  the  Emperor,  as  well  as  the 
economic  tendency  of  the  time,  combined  to 

719.  Great     Pr°duce     great     material     prosperity. 

material         Between    1850   and    1870   nearly   ten 

prosperity  thousand  miles  of  railways  were  built 
in  France.  Manufactures  increased  rapidly. 
Foreign  commerce  grew,  largely  because  of  SUEZ  CANAL 

liberal  commercial  treaties  with  Great  Britain 
and  other  countries.     The  Suez  Canal,  completed  in  1869  by 
De  Lesseps',  a  French  engineer,  revolutionized  the  commerce  of 
the  world.    By  connecting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea, 
it  shortened  the  ocean  route  from  Europe  to  India  by  about 

1  The  elections  were  unfair,  and  the  issue  presented  was  clouded ;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  that  a  large  majority  of  the  French  people  were  willing  to  try  again  the 
experiment  of  rule  by  a  Bonapartist  Emperor.  The  son  of  Napoleon  I,  who  had  been 
brought  up  in  Austria  and  died  in  1832,  was  regarded  as  "Napoleon  II," 


THE   SECOND   FRENCH    EMPIRE  587 

4000  miles.1  Joint-stock  companies  were  formed  to  use  the 
savings  of  small  investors  in  carrying  on  industrial  enterprises, 
and  these  further  increased  wealth.  The  streets  of  Paris  were 
widened  and  improved  so  that  broad  boulevards,  spacious 
squares,  and  imposing  buildings  took  the  place  of  wrenched 
houses.  Thus  the  city  was  made  more  healthful  and  beautiful, 
the  working  classes  had  employment,  and  insurrection  was 
made  more  difficult  through  the  widening  of  the  narrow  streets 
in  which  barricades  had  so  easily  been  erected.  The  industrial 
progress  of  the  world  at  large  was  revealed  at  the  first  "  universal 
exhibition,"  or  World's  Fair,  held  at  London  in  1851.  Similar 
exhibitions,  held  at  Paris  a  few  years  later,  gave  France  an 
opportunity  to  show  her  material  growth  and  artistic  excellence. 

Napoleon  III  declared  that  "the  empire  is  peace";   but  the 
times  and  his  own  policies  made  his  reign  a  period  of  European 
war.     For  forty  years  there  had  been  no  armed  conflict   720  Euro_ 
between  great  European  Powers.     Now  Europe  saw,  in  pean  wars 
rapid  succession,  five  important  wars.     These  were  the   ( 
Crime'an  War  (1854-1856) ;   the  Franco- Austrian  War  in  Italy 
(1859) ;   the  war  of  Austria  and  Prussia  with  Denmark  (1864) ; 
the  Austro-Prussian   War    (1866) ;    and   the   Franco-Prussian 
War  (1870-1871).     In  the  first,  second,  and  fifth  of  these  wars, 
France  played  a  leading  part ;  and  in  the  other  two  her  interests 
were  vitally  concerned. 

The  Crimean  War  arose  out  of  the  Eastern  Question,  —  that  is, 
the  question  of  the  political  status  and  future  of  the  lands  in- 
cluded in  the  Turkish  <  Empire.     Since  the  close  of  the   72I   The 
seventeenth  century,  the  power  of  Turkey  had  steadily  Eastern 
declined.     Austria  and  Russia  had  absorbed  large  portions  ,^ue 
of  its  territories,  while  other  districts  had  become  independent 
or  semi-independent  countries  through  revolt.     The  Tsar  Nicho- 
las I  (1825-1855)  believed  that  Turkey  was  "the  Sick  Man"  of 

:In  1879  De  Lesseps  undertook  to  construct  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  but  his  enterprise  proved  unfortunate,  and  the  Panama  company  became 
bankrupt.  In  1902  its  rights  were  sold  for  $40,000,000  to  the  United  States,  which 
pushed  the  work  to  completion. 


588  FRANCE  AFTER    1830 

Europe,1  and  that  arrangements  should  be  made  by  Great  Brit- 
ain, Russia,  and  the  other  Powers  for  a  final  division  of  the  in- 
heritance. But  the  British  saw  in  this  only  a  scheme  of  the 
Tsar  to  secure  Constantinople,  and  refused  to  cooperate.  Ill 
feeling  arose  between  Napoleon  III  and  the  Tsar,  because 
Nicholas  addressed  the  French  Emperor  in  letters  as  "My  good 
friend"  instead  of  "My  brother,"  as  was  customary  between 
sovereigns.  There  was  also  a  quarrel  concerning  the  custody  of 
the  "holy  places"  in  Jerusalem,  in  which  the  French,  as  the 
official  protectors  of  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy,  opposed  the 
Russians,  the  protectors  of  the  Greek  clergy.  The  dispute  over 
the  holy  places  was  soon  adjusted.  A  further  claim  of  Russia 
to  a  protectorate  over  all  Greek  Christians  living  under  the  Sul- 
tan's rule,  could  not  be  admitted  by  the  Great  Powers,  for  fear 
of  its  being  used  as  a  pretext  for  seizing  Constantinople. 

In  June,  1853,  war  began  between  Russia  and  Turkey  on  this 
issue.  Because  of  ill  will  for  Russia,  and  to  gain  strength  at 
home,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  (in  1854)  took  up  arms  in  aid  of 
Turkey.  Great  Britain  did  the  same,  because  a  Russian  triumph 
would  endanger  her  interests  in  Asia.  With  the  hope  of  gaining 
prestige,  Sardinia-Piedmont  sent  her  troops  to  fight  side  by 
side  with  those  of  Great  Britain  and  France.  Thus  Russia 
found  arrayed  against  her  not  only  the  troops  of  Turkey,  which 
defended  the  Danube  lands,  but  also  the  fleets  and  armies  of 
France,  Great  Britain,  and  Piedmont. 

The  chief  seat  of  war  proved  to  be  the  peninsula  of  theCrime'a. 

There,  in  the  strongly  fortified  harbor  of  Sebas'topol,  where 

722.  The       enormous  war  supplies  were  stored,  the  Russian  Black 

War^iSk  -    ^ea  ^ee^  took  refuge.     To  reduce  this  fortress,  France  and 

1856)  Great  Britain  landed  a  force  of  60,000  men  (September, 

1854).     For  nearly  a  year  Sebastopol  held  out,  while  cholera, 

famine,    and   the   winter   weather  — "  Generals   January   and 

1  This  famous  phrase  was  used  by  the  Tsar  in  1853,  in  conversation  with  the  Brit- 
ish ambassador  to  Russia.  "  We  have  on  our  hands,"  said  he,  in  speaking  of  Turkey, 
"  a  sick  man  —  a  very  sick  man.  It  will  be  a  great  misfortune  if  one  of  these  days 
he  should  slip  away  from  us  before  the  necessary  arrangements  have  been  made."  — 
McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I,  430. 


THE  SECOND  FRENCH   EMPIRE 


589 


SEA    OF 


THE  CRIMEA 


February"  —terribly  thinned  the  besiegers'   ranks.     For  the 
first  time  in  history,  war  correspondents  kept  the  people  at  home 
informed  of  events,  and  profoundly  moved  the  English  nation 
by  describing  the  sufferings  of  the  army,  —  much  of  which  was 
chargeable  to  mismanagement  on  the  part  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment.    On  the  other  hand,  Miss  Florence  Nightingale,  an 
Englishwoman,  gained  un- 
dying fame  by  the  zeal  and 
devotion    she    showed    in 
organizing  the  nursing   of 
the    sick    and    wounded.1 
In  a  battle  at  Balaklava 
(ba-la-kla'va),  in  the  neigh- 
borhood    of      Sebastopol, 
occurred    the    "charge    of 
the  Light  Brigade,"  cele- 
brated in  Tennyson's  poem. 
In  this  encounter,  owing  to  a  misunderstanding  of  orders,  673 
men  courageously  charged  the  whole  Russian  army. 

In  1855,  Tsar  Nicholas  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Alexander   II.     In   September,    after    a    long    bombardment, 
Sebastopol  was  taken  by  assault.     The  following  terms  of   723-  Peace 
peace  were  finally  agreed  to  in  a  congress  held  at  Paris   (1856) 
in  March,  1856:  — 

1 .  The  territory  of  the  Turkish  Empire  remained  as  before. 

2.  Russia's  claim  to  a  protectorate  over  the  Christian  populations 

was  disallowed. 

3.  The  Danube  was  declared  open  to  the  navigation  of  all  nations. 

4.  The  Black  Sea  was  closed  to  the  war  vessels  of  all  powers,  and 

Russia  and  Turkey  agreed  not  to  maintain  arsenals  on  its  shores. 

5.  The  Sultan  promised  reforms  in  the  treatment  of  his  Christian 

subjects  —  promises  which  he  did  not  keep.2 

1  An  indirect  result  of  Miss  Nightingale's  work  was  the  adoption  of  the  interna- 
tional Geneva  Convention  of  1864,  providing  for  the  protection  of  hospitals  and 
ambulances  under  the  red-cross  flag  in  time  of  war. 

2  After  peace  was  signed,  the  congress  drew  up  a  separate  Declaration  of  Paris 
containing  four  new  rules  of  maritime  law.     (i)  Privateering  was  declared  abolished  ; 


5QO  FRANCE  AFTER   1830 

In  1859  Napoleon  III  fought  a  short  but  decisive  war  with 
Austria.     The  purpose  of  the  war  was  to  expel  the  Austrians 

724.  French  from  Italy  and  to  aid  the  cause  of  Italian  union.     Its 

Austria11        Part   in   tlie   unmcation   of    ItalY   wil1   be   described   in 
(1859)  another  chapter.     Here  we  need  only  note  that  by  the 

war    France   gained   two   provinces    (Nice   and   Savoy),   and 

that  Napoleon's  victories  strengthened  his  position  at  home 

and  abroad. 

At  the  end  of  1859,  the  reputation  of  Napoleon  III  was  at  its 

highest  point.     The  world  for  a  time  "  learned  to  look  to  Paris, 

725.  De-        as  it  had  once  looked  to  Vienna,  as  to  the  political  oracle 
NiToieon's     which  should  pronounce  its  fate."     This  proud  position, 
prestige         however,  Napoleon  did  not  long  occupy.     A  number  of 

causes  contributed  to  his  decline. 

One  of  the  earliest  of  these  was  his  interference  in  the  affairs 
of  Mexico.     Great  Britain,  Spain,  and  France  all  had  financial 

726.  The        claims   against   that   country;    and  when   the   Mexican 
^Mexico      Congress  voted  to  suspend  for  three  years  the  payments 
(1861)  due  to  its  foreign  creditors,  these  three  Powers  (in  1861) 

joined  in  an  expedition  to  compel  the  payment  of  their  claims. 
Napoleon  III  went  far  beyond  his  allies  in  this  matter.  To 
please  the  Catholic  party  at  home,  he  took  up  the  cause  of  the 
Mexican  president's  "clerical"  enemies,  and  planned  to  make 
the  Archduke  Maximilian  (brother  of  Francis  Joseph  of  Austria) 
Emperor  of  Mexico.  Thereupon  Great  Britain  and  Spain  with- 
drew their  forces.  French  troops  for  several  years  maintained 
Maximilian  upon  his  throne ;  but  when  the  Civil  War  in  Amer- 
ica came  to  an  end,  the  United  States,  acting  on  the  policy 
of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  demanded  that  the  French  army  should 
leave  Mexico.  Accordingly,  in  1867,  the  French  troops  were 
withdrawn.  Maximilian  was  then  overcome  and  shot  by  the 

(2)  blockades  were  required  to  be  effective  in  order  to  be  valid;  (3  and  4)  greater 
,  protection  was  given  to  private  property  on  the  high  seas  (other  than  contraband) 
in  time  of  war.  These  rules  were  accepted  by  the  European  states  and  became  part 
of  international  law.  The  United  States,  remembering  the  excellent  service  ren- 
dered by  privateers  in  her  wars,  refused  to  agree,  though  in  practice  this  country  also 
has  observed  them. 


THE   SECOND   FRENCH   EMPIRE 


591 


Mexicans,  and  public  opinion  rightly  held  Napoleon  III  respon- 
sible for  his  tragic  fate. 

In  France  itself,  meanwhile,  important  changes  were  taking 
place.     After  1859  Napoleon  sought  to  please  the  Liberals  by  a 
series  of  changes  in  the  French  constitution.     The  lower  727.  The 
house  of  the  legislature  received  the  privilege  (as  was  the  jn^j^Lib- 
practice  in  Great  Britain)  of  drawing  up  an  "  address"  in   eral  (1869) 
answer  to  the  "  speech   from   the  throne,"   thus   giving   the 
deputies    an    annual    opportunity 
to   express    their   opinions   of    the 
government's    policy.      Next    was 
granted  the  right  of  discussion  at 
any  time.     Publication  of  the  de- 
bates  in  the   legislature,  formerly 
prohibited,  was  allowed  soon  after 
this.      The    government    also    re- 
pealed   the    laws    forbidding    the 
organization    of    trade-unions   and 
the  holding  of  political  meetings. 
Finally   (in   1869)    it  was   decreed 
that  the  ministers,  who  carried  on 
the  government  in  the  Emperor's 
name,  should  be  responsible  to  the 
lower   house.      By   these   measures 
the  government  of  the  empire,  which  at  first  was  practically 
absolute,  was  changed  into  a  parliamentary  monarchy. 

In  spite  of  these  concessions,  Napoleon  III  steadily  lost  favor 
with  the  French  nation^  In  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature 
the  opposition  party  increased  its  numbers  until,  in  1869,  728.  War 

it  almost  equaled  the  government  party.     The  fact,  how-  with 

,../.,  ..  overthrows 

ever,  which  contributed   most   to  Napoleon  s  decline  in  Napoleon 

prestige  was  the  growth  of  the  power  of  Prussia.  Here  we  (l87°) 
can  only  note  the  bare  facts  of  the  history,  reserving  the  full 
account  for  a  later  chapter.  In  1866  Prussia  fought  a  brilliantly 
successful  war  with  Austria,  by  which  she  gained  new  territory 
in  Germany,  expelled  Austria  from  the  German  headship,  and 


CARICATURE  OF  NAPOLEON  III 


592  FRANCE  AFTER   1830 

secured  that  position  for  herself  (§  767).  During  this  war 
Napoleon  adhered  to  a  policy  of  friendly  agreement  with  Prussia. 
He  failed,  however,  to  gain  any  territorial  "compensation"  for 
France  to  balance  these  gains,  and  this  discredited  him  with 
his  subjects.  Smarting  under  his  ill  success,  Napoleon  in 
1870  allowed  himself  to  be  tricked  into  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  (§  771).  The  result  was  the  decisive  defeat  of  his  armies, 
and  his  own  surrender  to  the  Prussians.  The  victorious  Germans 
then  invaded  France  in  overwhelming  numbers.  Paris  was 
heroically  defended,  but  after  a  four  months'  siege  it  was  starved 
into  surrender  (January  28,  1871). 

In  the  face  of  these  reverses  the  Second  French  Empire  simply 
disappeared.  A  republic  was  proclaimed  by  the  people,  the  Sen- 
ate was  abolished,  and  the  lower  house  of  the  legislature  dissolved 
(September  4,  1870).  The  Empress  Eugenie,  who  had  acted 
as  regent  at  Paris  since  the  beginning  of  the  war,  fled  to  England. 
A  temporary  "Government  of  National  Defense,"  of  which  the 
chief  members  were  Jules  Favre  (zhul  fa/vr')  and  Leon  Gam- 
betta,  carried  on  the  government  until  the  end  of  the  war  (Feb- 
ruary 26,  1871).  Napoleon  III  remained  a  captive  in  Germany 
until  peace  was  signed.  He  then  joined  Eugenie  in  England, 
where  he  died  in  1873.  The  ex-Empress  survived  him,  a  lonely 
and  pathetic  figure,  for  more  than  forty  years.  By  these  events 
the  Bonapartist  cause  was  forever  destroyed. 


C.  THE  THIRD  FRENCH  REPUBLIC 

Amid  these  circumstances  —  with  France  smarting  under 
the  most  crushing  defeat  ever  inflicted  upon  a  great  nation,  and 
729.  Pro-  its  capital  in  the  hands  of  the  victorious  Germans  —  the 
visional  Third  French  Republic  was  born.  A  National  Assembly, 
formed  elected  by  manhood  suffrage,  met  at  Bordeaux  (March  12, 
(1871)  1871)  to  form  a  provisional  government  and  to  negotiate 

terms  of  peace.  Thiers,  the  one  man  of  prominence  who  had 
opposed  the  declaration  of  war,  was  chosen  "  Chief  of  the  Ex- 
ecutive Power,"  in  spite  of  his  seventy  years  of  age.  The  Govern- 


THE  THIRD   FRENCH  REPUBLIC  593 

ment  of  National  Defense  was  dissolved.  The  new  government 
under  Thiers  was  established  temporarily  at  Versailles.  The 
harsh  terms  of  peace  exacted  by  the  Germans  included  the  ces- 
sion of  the  provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  and  the  payment  of 
a  war  indemnity  of  $1,000,000,000.  Until  this  sum  was  paid, 
German  troops  were  to;  remain  on  French  soil  (§  776). 

While  the   German  armies  were  still  encamped  about  the 
capital,  a  desperate  revolt  occurred  in  Paris  against  the  new 
French  government.     Its  causes  were  the  terrible  suffer-  730.  The 
ings  of  the  people  during  the  siege,  their  well-grounded  ^^^ 
fears  of  a  monarchist  reaction,  and  the  agitations  of  the   (1871) 
Socialists.     Its  chief  promoters  were  the  national  guard,  who 
had  been  allowed  to  retain  their  arms  together  with  a  number 
of  cannon  which  were  in  their  possession.     The  rebels  set  up  an 
independent  municipal  government  in  Paris  called  "the  Com- 
mune."    They  adopted  as  their  emblem  the  red  flag  of  the 
Socialists.     They  called  themselves  "Jacobins,"  and  returned 
to  the  traditions  of  1793.     The  revolt  broke  out  on  March  18 
(1871)  and  lasted  until  near  the  end  of  May.     Paris  now  en- 
dured a  second  siege,  by  the  troops  under  Thiers's  command, 
while  the  Germans  remained  neutral. 

Qn  May  21  the  government  troops  entered  the  city.  There 
followed  a  week  of  the  fiercest  civil  warfare  that  history  records. 
The  residence  districts  were  bombarded,  and  no  quarter  was 
given  in  the  desperate  street  fighting.  Insurgents  taken  with 
arms  in  their  hands  were  shot  down  without  ceremony.  Mate- 
rially and  politically  Paris  suffered  more  injury  from  the  Com- 
mune than  from  the  Germans.  The  Column  Vendome  (vaN- 
dom'),  erected  in  1814  to  commemorate  the  victories  of  Napoleon 
I,  was  wantonly  destroyed,  together  with  many  public  buildings. 
The  city  hall  (Hotel  de  Ville)  and  part  of  the  palace  of  the  Tuile- 
ries  were  among  the  buildings  which  perished.  When  resistance 
was  at  an  end,  France  was  in  no  mood  to  show  mercy.  The 
Communards  were  hunted  down  relentlessly.  More  than  seven 
thousand  were  sent  as  convicts  to  New  Caledonia,  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  and  thousands  more  were  condemned  to  impris- 


594 


FRANCE  AFTER   1830 


onment  at  hard  labor.  The  bitter  hatred  which  the  working 
classes  already  felt  for  the  bourgeoisie  was  further  increased  by 
this  savage  cruelty  of  the  capitalist  government. 


THE  LOUVRE  AND  TUILERIES 

A,  A,  Louvre;  B,  B,  B,  Palace  of  the  Tuileries  (including  parts  erected  by 
Napoleon  III),  now  occupied  by  public  offices;  C,  side  of  Tuileries  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1871,  and  not  since  rebuilt. 

With  the  Commune  crushed,  the  National  Assembly  turned 
to  the  business  of  constitution  making.     For  five  years  the 
731.  Wise      future  form  of  the  French  government  was  not  fixed.     A 
Thfers  majority  of  the  nation,  perhaps,  wished  to  maintain  the  re- 

(1871-1873)  public,  but  more  than  half  of  the  Assembly  were  monarch- 
ists. They  were  divided  among  themselves,  however,  into  three 
groups :  (i)  the  Imperialists,  who  wished  the  restoration  of  the 
Bonapartes ;  (2)  the  Orleanists,  who  wished  the  throne  restored 
to  the  line  of  Louis  Philippe ;  (3)  the  Legitimists,  who  wished 
a  restoration  of  the  Bourbon  line  that  had  been  dispossessed  in 
1830.  The  Assembly  had  been  elected  without  a  limit  as  to 
term  of  office,  and  so  there  was  no  method  short  of  revolt  by 
which  the  nation  could  compel  it  to  lay  down  its  power.  Thiers 
himself  had  been  a  constitutional  monarchist  of  the  Orleanist 


THE  THIRD   FRENCH  REPUBLIC  595 

party,  but  he  loyally  upheld  the  republic  as  "the  system  that 
divides  us  least."  He  persuaded  the  Assembly  to  postpone 
the  settlement  of  the  question  of  the  government  until  France 
was  strengthened  and  prosperity  restored.  Under  his  wise 
rule,  France  recovered  rapidly  from  her  disasters.  The  war 
indemnity  was  soon  paid;  and  in  September,  1873,  the  last 
German  soldiers  withdrew  from  French  soil. 

In  May,  1873,  Thiers  was  forced  to  resign  his  office  because 
of  the  opposition  of  the  monarchists.     He  was  succeeded  by 
Marshal    MacMahon    (mak-ma-oN'),   who    was    elected  732.  Failure 
president  with  the  express  purpose  of  restoring  the  king-  of  a  .mon" 
ship.     Of   the    three    monarchical   parties    (Imperialists,  movement 
Orleanists,  and  Legitimists),  the  Imperialists  were  so  weak   (l873) 
that  they  could  be  neglected.     The  two  others  now  came  to  an 
agreement.     The  National  Assembly  was  to  recognize  as  king 
the  head  of  the  "legitimate,"  or  elder  branch  of  the  Bourbons, 
—  the  count  of  Chambord  (sha'N-bor'),  known  as  "Henry  V." 
The  head  of  the  Orleans  branch  was  to  be  recognized  as  his 
successor.     At  the  last  moment,  however,  the  restoration  failed. 
The  count  of  Chambord  declared  that  he  would  restore  the 
white  flag  of  the  Bourbons,  while  the  Orleanists  insisted  on 
the  tricolor,  with  which  so  many  patriotic  memories  were  inter- 
twined.    This  disagreement  saved  the  republic. 

The  Assembly  then  (in  1875)  passed  a  group  of  "organic 
laws,"  which  (with  subsequent  changes)  are  the  basis  of  733   Con_ 

the  present  French  constitution :  —  stitution  of 

the  Republic 

i.  The  head  of  the  state  is  called  "the  President  of  the  Repub-   formed 

lie." !  He  is  elected  for  a  term  of  seven  years  by  the  two  (J 875-1884) 
houses  of  the  legislature,  voting  together.  His  position  is  similar 
to  that  of  a  constitutional  king.  He  can  perform  no  ex- 
ecutive act  except  through  ministers  who  are  responsible  to  the 
legislature.  The  president  has  the  power  (with  the  cooperation 
of  the  Senate)  to  dissolve  the  lower  house  and  appeal  to  the 
country  in  a  new  election. 

1  This  decision,  which  implied  a  continuance  of  the  republic,  was  reached  by  a 
majority  of  but  one  vote  —  353  to  352. 


596 


FRANCE   AFTER    1830 


2.  The  legislature  is  composed  of  two  houses  —  the  Senate,  and  the 

Chamber  of  Deputies. 

3.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  300  members,  who  are  elected  for  a  term 

of  nine  years  by  electoral  colleges.  The  electoral  colleges  are 
composed  in  part  of  officials;  and  in  part  of  members  elected 
by  the  people.  At  first  one  fourth  of  the  senators  were  life 
members,  but  these  are  now  being  replaced  by  ordinary  members 
as  vacancies  occur. 

.4.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elected  by  manhood  suffrage  for  four 
years.     The  French  colonies  are  represented  in  it  as  well  as  the 


1] 


FACADE  or  THE  CHAMBER  OF  DEPUTIES,  PARIS 
Erected  1804-1807 

hpme  departments.  In  practice  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  has 
become  the  more  powerful  of  the  two  legislative  bodies,  making 
and  unmaking  ministries  by  its  votes,  and  even  compelling  the 
president  to  resign. 

5.  The  constitution  can  be  amended  by  an  act  passed  by  the  two 

houses,  meeting  together. 

6.  The  acts  passed  by  the  two  houses  are  the  supreme  law  of  the  land. 

Unlike  the  United  States,  France  gives  her  courts  no  power  to  set 
aside  laws  because  they  are  "in  conflict  with  the  constitution." 

The  free  organization  of  society  created  by  the  first  revolution 
was   preserved,   together   with  the   administrative   system   of 


THE   THIRD    FRENCH   REPUBLIC  597 

the  first  Napoleon.  To  these  was  now  added  a  moderate  con- 
stitution, based  on  the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  manhood  suf- 
frage, and  liberty  of  the  press. 

For  a  score  of  years  after  1875,  the  monarchists  looked  upon 
the  republic   as    provisional,  and  worked    for  its   overthrow. 
The  Catholic   clergy  generally  favored   a   restoration  of  734-  Party 
monarchy;    but    in    1892  a    great    part   of    the    clergy  {^ j-jfj^g 
" rallied"  to  the  support  of   the    republic,  through  the   (after  1875) 
influence  of  Pope  Leo  XIII.     To  offset  this  gain,  the  Socialist 
party  again  became  a  political  factor,  after  those  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  Commune  were  pardoned  (in  1879). 

For  some  years  following  1894,  political  interest  in  France 
centered  about  a  Jewish  army  officer  named  Dreyfus  (dra-fiis'), 
,who  was  tried  and  condemned  on  the  charge  of  revealing  73g  The 
military  secrets  to  Germany.  Dreyfus's  friends  claimed  Dreyfus 
that  his  condemnation  was  the  result  of  a  plot  formed  by  a 
high  army  officers  who  were  hostile  to  the  Jews.  The  brilliant 
novelist  Zola  took  up  Dreyfus's  cause,  and  was  largely  the  means 
of  securing  a  new  trial  for  him.  In  the  retrial  it  was  shown  that 
much  of  the  evidence  against  Dreyfus  was  deliberately  forged ; 
nevertheless  he  was  again  condemned.  The  president  of  the  re- 
public then  granted  him  a  pardon.  Dreyfus's  friends  continued 
to  work  for  yet  another  trial,  and  in  1906  the  highest  court  of 
France  declared  him  innocent.  He  was  then  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  major,  and  decorated  with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
The  questions  involved  in  the  Dreyfus  case  came  to  be  far  greater 
than  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  Dreyfus  himself.  The  "affair" 
became  a  military,  religious,  and  political  question,  involving 
the  influence  in  state  affairs  of  the  army  and  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  It  created  a  sort  of  frenzy  in  France,  which  threatened 
the  very  life  of  the  republic.  Its  outcome  was  utterly  to  dis- 
credit the  anti- Jewish  party,  and  to  remove  from  the  army  the 
officers  who  were  favorable  to  a  royalist  restoration.'  The  sep- 
aration of  church  and  state,  which  was  in  part  brought  on  by 
the  activity  of  the  Catholic  clergy  against  Dreyfus,  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  a  later  chapter  (§  876). 


598  FRANCE   AFTER    1830 

At  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century  France  occupied  a 

place  of  less  political  importance  than  formerly.     This  was  due 

736.  France  to  the  more  rapid'  development  of  the  rest  of  Europe. 

ofthefen86    Under  Louis  XIV  the  Population  of  France  was  forty 
tury  per  cent  of  that  of  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe.     In  1789 

it  had  fallen  to  twenty-seven  per  cent ;  and  in  1900  it  was  barely 
ten  per  cent.  The  practically  stationary  population  of  France, 
due  to  its  low  birthrate,  is  the  great  cause  of  its  relative 
political  weakness. 

In  spite  of  its  political  decline,  France  maintains  a  leading 
place  among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Its  people  are  thrifty 
and  saving.  Its  agriculture  and  its  manufactures  —  especially 
those  which  call  for  artistic  taste  —  are  flourishing.  Its  eco- 
nomic wealth  is  great.  In  painting,  in  sculpture,  and  in  archi- 
tecture, there  is  no  nation  which  is  so  renowned  as  the  French. 
In  literature  the  French  lead  the  world  because  of  the  finished 
form  and  perfection  of  their  style.  In  science  and  in  education 
France  has  advanced  under  the  Third  Republic,  as  it  has  under 
every  preceding  form  of  government.  A  leading  French  his- 
Langlois,  torian  says:  "We  are  proud  —  and  why  should  we  not 
torlc  Rdie  of  ke  ?  — °f  a  verY  glorious  past.  We  rejoice  in  the  atten- 
France,  45  tion  which  this  past  secures  for  us  from  nations  whose 
future  seems  brighter  than  ours.  And  we  are  confident,  lastly, 
that  France  will  remain,  by  virtue  of  the  sincerity  of  her  efforts, 
one  of  the  forces,  one  of  the  lights,  and  one  of  the  graces  of 
humankind." 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1848.  The  "  February  Revolution "  establishes  a  republic  in  France. 

Spread  of  the  revolution  to  Austria,  Hungary,  Germany,  and 

Italy. 
1851-1852.   Louis  Napoleon  overthrows  the  French  republic  and  sets 

up  the  Second  Empire. 
1854-1856.   The  Crimean  War. 
1859.   French^War  with  Austria  in  aid  of  Italy. 
1867.   French  troops  forced  to  withdraw  from  Mexico. 
1870.   War  with  Prussia;    fall  of   Napoleon  III;    the   Third  French 

Republic  proclaimed. 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  599 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  Louis  Philippe  with  Charles  X. 
(2)  What  connection  was  there  between  the  advance  of  the  Industrial 
Revolution  in  France  and  the  Revolution  of  1848  ?  (3)  Was  the  justifi- 
cation for  revolution  in  France  in  1848  as  great  as  in  1830?  (4)  Why  do 
you  suppose  Charles  X  and  Louis  Philippe  left  France  so  quickly  upon  the 
outbreak  of  revolts  in  Paris  ?  (5)  Why  did  the  French  provinces  play  so 
little  part  in  the  Revolution  of  1848  ?  (6)  What  ideas  of  the  French  Social- 
ists seem  to  you  good  ?  (7)  Did  France  really  wish  a  republic  in  1848  ? 
(8)  Was  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851  justifiable?  (9)  Was  the  domestic  policy 
of  Napoleon  III  wise  or  unwise?  (10)  Was  his  foreign  policy  wise  or 
unwise?  (n)  Why  could  not  Great  Britain  and  France  permit  Russia  to 
exercise  a  protectorate  over  the  Sultan's  Christian  subjects?  (12)  Did  the 
Crimean  War  help  in  any  way  to  a  settlement  of  the  Eastern  Question? 
(13)  Why  did  the  United  States  demand  the  withdrawal  of  the  French  troops 
from  Mexico  ?  (14)  Do  you  think  the  Empire  could  have  continued  much 
longer  in  France,  if  there  had  been  no  war  with  Prussia?  (15)  Why  was 
the  populace  of  Paris  less  able  to  control  the  government  in  1871  than  in  1792 
and  1793?  (16)  Was  the  treatment  of  the  Communards  by  the  pro- 
visional government  wise  or  unwise  ?  Why  ?  (17)  To  what  did  the  republic 
owe  its  continuance  in  the  years  1873  to  1875  ?  C1^)  Compare  the  constitu- 
tion of  France  with  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  (19)  What  was 
the  real  importance  of  the  "Dreyfus  affair"?  (20)  Compare  the  position 
of  France  in  1800  with  its  position  in  1900. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  GOVERNMENT  OF  Louis  PHILIPPE.  Hazen, 
Europe  Since  1815,  114-119;  Seignobos,  Europe  Since  1814,  132-136; 
Andrews,  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  I,  276-314;  Fyffe,  Modern  Europe 
(popular  ed.),  699-703.  —  (2)  EARLY  FRENCH  SOCIALISTS.  Kirkup,  His- 
tory of  Socialism,  22-40;  Ely,  French  and  German  Socialism,- 66-71,  74,  108- 
123;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  75-78.  —  (3)  THE  FEBRUARY 
REVOLUTION  (1848)  IN  PARIS.  Hazen,  130-144,  187;  Seignobos,  155- 
159;  Andrews,  I,  336-345;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  78-80; 
Miiller,  Political  History  of  Recent  Times,  186-192.  —  (4)  THE  NATIONAL 
WORKSHOPS.  Hazen,  188-195;  Andrews,  I,  345-358;  Seignobos,  159- 
164;  Ely,  Socialism,  111-113  5  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  80-84.  — 
(5)  Louis  NAPOLEON  AND  THE  COUP  D'ETAT.  Hazen,  127-129,  198-205; 
Andrews,  II,  7-41 ;  Murdock,  Reconstruction  of  Europe,  ch.  ii ;  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (nth  ed.),  XIX,  211-216;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II, 
88-94.  —  (6)  DE  LESSEPS  AND  THE  SUEZ  CANAL.  Penfield,  Present-Day 
Egypt,  ch.  vi;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XVI,  494-496,  XXVI,  22-25.— 
(7)  THE  EMPRESS  EUGENIE.  McCarthy,  Modern  Leaders,  25-34;  Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  IX,  885.  —  (8)  THE  FACTS  CONCERNING  THE  CHARGE  or 


600  FRANCE  AFTER   1830 

THE  LIGHT  BRIGADE.  Mufdock,  ch.  vii;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  VII, 
452.  —  (9)  FLORENCE  NIGHTINGALE.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XIX,  684- 
685.  —  (10)  THE  FRENCH  IN  MEXICO.  Hazen,  277-279;  Fyffe,  969-971. 

—  (n)  THE  FALL  OF  THE  SECOND  EMPIRE.    Hazen,  296-300;    Phillips, 
471-475;    Fyffe,  1002-1006;    Anderson,  Constitutions  and  Documents,  595. 

—  (12)  THE  COMMUNE.     Hazen,  329-337;  Andrews,  II,  343-349;   Seigno- 
bos,  187-194;  Coubertin,  France  under  the  Third  Republic,  17-22;  Robin- 
son and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  211-212 ;  Anderson,  Constitutions  and  Documents, 
608-612.  —  (13)  PRESENT  GOVERNMENT  OF  FRANCE.     Ogg,  Governments  of 
Europe,  304-319;    Lowell,  Governments  and  Parties  in  Continental  Europe; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  X,'  789-791.  —  (14)  The  DREYFUS  CASE.     Hazen, 
358-364;    Encyclopedia  Britannica,   II,    142-144;     Robinson  and    Beard, 
Readings,  II,  218-223;   Dreyfus,  Five  Years  of  My  Life. 

General  Reading.  —  In  addition  to  the  general  histories  of  Europe  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  see  Lebon,  Modern  France,  1789-1895;  Coubertin, 
France  Since  1814;  Berry,  France  Since  Waterloo.  For  advanced  study, 
see  Cambridge  Modern  History,  vols.  X,  XI,  XII,  arid  Hanoteaux,  Contem- 
porary France,  4  vols.  (covering  the  years  1871-1882). 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

THE  AUSTRIAN  REVOLUTION   OF    1848,   AND   THE  UNIFICA- 
TION  OF   ITALY 

IN  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  (i)  the  Revolution  of  1848 
in  the  Austrian  lands  north  of  the  Alps ;  (2)  the  disunited  con- 
dition of  Italy,  and  the  objects  and  course  of  the  Revolution 
of  1848  there ;  (3)  the  attaining  of  Italian  unity,  and  the  history 
of  Italy  since  1870. 

A.  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE 

The  February  Revolution  of  1848  in  France  produced  a  rapid 
series  of  revolutionary  outbursts  throughout  Europe.  The 
progress  of  Liberal  ideas  in  recent  years  had  prepared  the  737-  Spread 
materials  for  these  explosions,  but  it  was  the  news  from  °UJ0®  ofevc 
Paris  which  supplied  the  spark.  Metternich  himself  had  1848 
seen  that  revolution  was  imminent.  "The  world  is  very  sick," 
he  wrote  to  a  friend  in  January,  1848;  "the  one  thing  certain 
is  that  there  will  be  tremendous  changes."  Within  a  few  months 
his  prediction  was  fulfilled.  The  kings  of  Holland,  Belgium, 
Denmark,  and  Sweden  were  forced  to  heed  the  demands  of 
their  peoples  for  constitutional  reforms.  Even  England  was 
threatened  with  serious  disturbances.  In  Germany  there  was  a 
widespread  revolution  to  further  the  cause  of  Liberal  reform  and 
national  union,  which  will  be  described  in  the  next  chapter. 
Most  important  of  all  wrere  the  revolutionary  movements  in 
the  Austrian  Empire.  Here  we  shall  consider  only  the  out- 
breaks in  the  Austrian  lands  north  of  the  Alps.  In  a  later 
section  we  will  take  up  the  revolt  against  Austrian  rule  in  Italy, 
and  its  bearing  on  the  movement  for  Italian  unity. 

In  the  Austrian  Empire  the  revolutionary  impulse  from  Paris 

601 


IDDDDDDDDD 


REVOLUTION   OF   1848   IN  THE   AUSTRIAN   EMPIRE      603 

combined  with  (i)  the  resistance  of  the  Liberals  to  the  iron  rule 
of  Metternich,  and  (2)  the  movements  of  the  different  peoples 
of  the  empire  for  separate  national  governments.     A  glance   738.  Condi- 
at  the  map  on  page  602  will  show  how  numerous  were  the  Austrian  ^ 
peoples  —  separated  by  differences  of  race,  of  language,   Empire 
of  religion,  and  of  culture  —  whom  the  accidents  of  history  had 
placed  under  the  rule  of  the  Hapsburgs.     Eleven  distinct  lan- 
guages were  spoken  among  them,  besides  numerous  dialects. 
The  Germans  were  the  ruling  element,  giving  to  the  empire  its 
capital  (Vienna),  the  royal  family,  and  the  official  language.     So- 
ciety was  still  feudal  and  medieval.     The  nobles  were  free  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  ordinary  courts ;  the  peasants  were  still 
in  a  state  of  serfdom.     An  absolute  but  inefficient  government 
was  kept  in  power  by  a  system  of  rigid  censorship,  passports, 
and  government  spies.1 

The  news  of  the  French  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  caused 
a  riot  of  students  and  citizens  in  Vienna.     They  demanded 
freedom  of  education,  of  religion,  of  speech,  and  of  the          The 
press,  together  with  a  representative  form  of  government,   revolution 
When   the  mob   gathered   about   the  Emperor's   palace,   inAustria 
shouting  "Down  with  Metternich,"  that  aged  minister  resigned. 
He  escaped  from  Vienna  in  a  laundry  cart,  and  took  refuge  in 
England.     After  Metternich/s  downfall  a  new  ministry    was 
formed,  which  began  to  draft  a  constitution  for  the  empire. 
The  movement  of  liberalism  triumphed  temporarily  in  the  capi- 
tal, but  there  remained  the  movements  for  national  governments 
on  the  part  of  the  subject  peoples. 

1  "The  censorship  was  exercised  with  grotesque  stupidity.  It  was  still  the  aim  of 
government  to  isolate  Austria  from  the  ideas  and  speculation  of  other  lands,  and  to 
shape  the  intellectual  world  of  the  Emperor's  subjects  into  that  precise  form  which 
tradition  prescribed  as  suitable  for  the  members  of  a  well-regulated  state.  In  poetry 
the  works  of  Byron  were  excluded  from  circulation,  where  customhouse  officers  and 
market  inspectors  chose  to  enforce  the  law;  in  history  and  political  literature  the 
leading  writers  of  modern  times  lay  under  the  same  ban.  Native  production  was 
much  more  effectively  controlled.  Whoever  wrote  in  a  newspaper,  or  lectured  at  a 
university,  or  published  a  work  of  imagination,  was  expected  to  deliver  himself  of 
something  agreeable  to  the  constituted  authorities  or  was  reduced  to  silence." 
—  Fyffe,  History  of  Modern  Europe  (popular  edition),  694. 


604 


THE  AUSTRIAN  REVOLUTION  OF   1848 


tion  in  Hun- 
gary, Bo- 
hemia, etc. 


In  Hungary  there  had  long  been  a  movement  for  a  separate 
administration  of  that  kingdom,  together  with  the  official  use 

740.  Revolu-  of  the  Magyar  tongue.     Under  the  lead  of  Louis  Kossuth, 

a  brilliant  journalist  and  orator,  the  Hungarians  now  in- 
sisted on  Liberal  reforms,  together  with  a  constitution 
which  should  make  Hungary  a  sovereign  state,  independent  of 
the  rest  of  the  Austrian  Empire.     A  desperate  struggle  in  the 

Italian  provinces,  Venetia 
and  Lombardy,  for  a  time 
engaged  all  the  military 
resources  of  the  imperial 
government.  Owing  to 
this  fact,  and  to  the  in- 
surrection in  Vienna,  the 
Emperor  was  obliged  to 
accede  to  the  Hungarian 
demands,  and  to  grant 
them  a  responsible  pinis- 
try,  together  with  free- 
dom of  the  press,  trial  by  ,  j 
jury,  and  the  abolition  of  (^ 
serfdom. 

The     revolutionary 
movement  spread  also  to  . 
Bohemia,    where    the 
Czechs  (cheks)  fought  the 

Germans  in  the  streets  of  Prague.  Among  the  Poles  of  Galicia, 
and  the  Croats  and  other  South  Slavs,  similar  national  move- 
ments broke  out.  Everywhere  appeared  a  frenzy  of  liberalism 
and  local  national  sentiment.  At  the  end  of  March,  1848,  the 
prospects  of  the  reform  movements  seemed  very  bright  indeed. 

741.  Sup-          Nevertheless,  the  revolutions  in  the  Austrian  Empire 

pression  of     faijeci  almost  completely.     In  large  part  this  was  due  to 
the  revolu- 
tions (1848-  class,    religious,   and  race   hatreds   among    the  different 

1849)  groups.      The    Magyars,    while    seeking    national   inde- 

pendence for  themselves,  tried  to  stifle  such  aspirations  on  the 


KOSSUTH 


REVOLUTION  OF   1848  IN   THE  AUSTRIAN   EMPIRE    605 

* 

part  of  the  South  Slavs.  The  Viennese,  for  their  part,  wished 
to  continue  German  rule  over  the  Czechs  of  Bohemia.  The 
result  was  an  alliance  between  the  imperial  government  and  the 
Slavs,  against  the  Magyars  and  the  German  Liberals.  In 
Bohemia  the  revolution  was  ended  in  June,  1848.  October 
saw  Vienna  reduced  to  submission,  after  a  cruel  bombardment. 

Hungary,  which  h.ad  gained  a  separate  army  and  adminis- 
tration, was  not  so  easily  dealt  with.  To  permit  of  a  new 
regime,  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  resigned  in  December,  1848, 
and  his  nephew,  Francis  Joseph,  ascended  the  throne.  In  April, 
1849,  the  Hungarians  issued  a  declaration  of  independence, 
and  formed  a  republican  government  with  Kossuth  at  its  head. 
For  a  time  they  almost  completely  freed  their  land  from  Aus- 
trian troops.  The  rebellion  was  ended  only  by  the  intervention 
of  the  Tsar  of  Russia,  who  in  June  sent  an  army  of  over  a  hun- 
dred thousand  men  to  aid  his  Austrian  brother  ruler.  By  the 
middle  of  August  the  revolution  in  Hungary  was  crushed.  Kos- 
suth and  other  leaders  escaped  to  Turkey,  where  the  Sultan, 
with  British  and  French  support,  gave  them  refuge.  Bloody 
punishments  awaited  the  leaders  who  fell  into  Austrian  hands ; 
and  a  rigid  repression  of  all  Liberal  and  national  aspirations 
followed. 

The  one  immediate  and  lasting  reform  brought  about  by  the 
revolutions  in  the  Austrian  Empire  was  the  sweeping  away  of 
the  remains  of  feudalism. 

In  subsequent  sections  an  account  will  be  given  of  the  two 
wars,  with  France  in  1859  and  with  Prussia  in  1866,  by  which 
Austria  lost  her  Italian  provinces,  and  was  thrust  out  of  all   742  Austri 
participation  in  German  affairs.     These  serious  reverses  Hungary 
accomplished  what  internal  revolution  had  not  been  able  to  a 
effect.     To  save  the  Austrian  Empire  from  complete  dissolution 
the  most  far-reaching  reforms  were  necessary.     The  absolutist 
system  of  Metternich  was  abandoned,  and  constitutional  gov- 
ernment took  its  place.     Equality  of  all  persons  before  the  law 
was  introduced,  with  fully  guaranteed  personal  and  political 
liberties.     Religious  liberty,  and  the  separation  of  church  and 


606  THE  AUSTRIAN  REVOLUTION   OF    1848 

state,  are  parts  of  the  new  system.  The  political  organization 
of  the  empire  long  remained  unsettled,  owing  to  the  existence  of 
so  many  differing  peoples,  with  conflicting  national  aspirations. 
In  1867,  however,  the  principle  of  dualism  was  established,  - 
that  is,  the  Austrian  Empire  was  converted  into  the  dual  mon- 
archy of  Austria-Hungary.  Since  then  Austria  and  Hungary 
have  each  a  separate  constitution,  separate  parliament,  and 
separate  administration ;  but  they  have  the  same  sovereign,  the 
same  ministersjor_war,  finance^  .and  foreign_affairs,  and  send 


PARLIAMENT  BUILDINGS  OF  HUNGARY,  AT  BUDAPEST 
Erected  in  1866 

the  same  number  of  persons  (sixty)  to  a  joint  council  for  the 
whole  realm  (the  "Delegations"). 

In  Austria,  German  is  the  official  language;  in  Hungary, 
Magyar.  But  in  each  kingdom  there  are  a  number  of  other 
peoples  with  separate  tongues  and  national  aspirations.  The 
" language  question"  still  threatens  each  with  disruption.  In 
Austria  the  oath  of  office  at  the  opening  of  the  Reichsrath 
(rlKs'rat,  Parliament)  is  administered  in  eight  different  tongues. 
Provincial  diets,  subordinate  either  to  Austria  or  to  Hungary, 
have  been  established  in  the  different  provinces  (Bohemia,  Tran- 
sylvania, Croatia,  etc.).  Taking  the  government  of  the  dual 


THE  DISUNION  OF  ITALY  607 

monarchy  as  a  whole,  we  may  say  that  it  is  now  one  of  the 
most  Liberal  on  the  Continent.1  Since  the  loss  of  the  Italian 
provinces,  and  the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  Germany,  Austria- 
Hungary  has  become  more  and  more  a  Slavic  and  Magyar  state. 
It  has  looked  for  territorial  gains  to  the  Balkan  peninsula,  and 
its  influence  has  become  increasingly  important  in  everything 
which  relates  to  the  Eastern  Question.  Whether  the  Dual 
Monarchy  will  continue  as  at  present  constituted,  or  whether 
in  course  of  time  race  hostilities  will  lead  to  a  new  political 
grouping  of  its  territories,  time  alone  can  tell.  The  test  will 
come  when  the  venerable  Francis  Joseph  I,  who  ascended  the 
throne  in  1848,  passes  from  the  scene. 

B.  THE  DISUNION  OF  ITALY,  AND  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848 

From  the  days  of  the  old  Roman  Empire  to  the  conquests  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Italy  was  never  effectively  united  under 
a  single  rule.     The  sword  of  Napoleon  for  a  time  broke  743-    Napo- 
down  the  barriers  of  local  jealousies  and  princely  interests,  p6^^*' 
and  established  his  rule  throughout  the  peninsula.     His  Italian  unity 
legislation  also  for  the  first  time  made  all  classes  equal  before 
the  law.     Napoleon's  work,  however,  was  overthrown  on  his 
downfall,  and  the  establishing  of  Italian  unity  and  independ- 
ence was  postponed  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

The  treaties  of  Vienna  left  Italy  (in  Metternich's  words)  "a 
mere  geographical  expression."     It  possessed  even  less  union 
than  was  given  to   Germany  under  the   German  Con-  ?44   Dig_ 
federation.     The  whole   land  was  parceled  out  among  union  after 
small  states,  each  with  an  absolute  government.     Venetia 
and  Lombardy  were  given  to  Austria,  and  the  neighboring 
duchies  of  Mo'dena  and  Parma  (map,  p.  612)  were  placed  under 
Hapsburg  dukes.     The  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies  was  restored 
to  the  rule  of  the  Bourbons.     The  Papal  States  again  came 
under  the  rule  of  the  Pope.     The  only  prince  in  Italy  (except  the 

1  An  interesting  feature  of  the  Austrian  constitution  is  a  provision  for  punishing 
by  fines  citizens  who  do  not  vote.    The  same  provision  exists  in  Belgium. 


6o8 


THE   UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 


zini  and 
Garibaldi 


Pope)  who  was  not  dependent  on  Austria  was  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia-Piedmont, who  steadfastly  refused  to  fall  in  with  Metter- 
nich's  schemes.  The  rest  of  Italy  seemed  "only  an  annex  and 
prolongation  of  the  empire  of  the  Hapsburgs."  "The  baton  of 
Metternich,"  wrote  the  Italian  patriot  Mazzini  (mat-se'ne), 
"governs  and  directs  all  the  petty  tyrants  of  Italy."  Reaction 
was  everywhere  supreme,  and  almost  medieval  conditions  were 
restored.  The  tasks  of  the  future  were:  (i)  the  establishing  of  a 
united  Italy  free  from  foreign  control ;  and  (2)  the  winning  of 
Liberal  constitutional  government. 

In  1820  and  1830  isolated  revolts  broke  out,  but  these  were 
easily  crushed   by  Austrian   troops.     The   final    attaining    of 
745.  Maz-      Italian  unity  was   the  work   especially  of    three  great 
men  —  Mazzini,    Garibaldi    (ga-re-bal'de),   and   Cavour 
(ca-voor').     Mazzini  has  been  described  as  "the  prophet 
of  Italian  unity,"  and  Garibaldi  as  its  "knight-errant,"  while 
Cavour  was  the  far-seeing  practical  statesman  who  crowned 
their  efforts  with  success.     Mazzini  (1805-1872)  was  a  lawyer, 

philosopher,  and  journalist  of 
Genoa ;  but  most  of  his  life  was 
spent  in  exile  in  Switzerland 
and  in  England.  While  under- 
going imprisonment  near  Genoa 
—  the  first  of  many  trials  which 
he  endured  for  Italy's  sake  — 
he  planned  a  new  revolutionary 
organization,  which  should  omit 
the  foolish  theatrical  features 
of  the  Carbonari  (§  689).  His 
new  society  was  called  "Young 
Italy."  Its  motto  was  "God 
and  the  People,"  and  its  banner 
MAZZINI  bore  on  one  side  "Unity  and 

Independence,"    and    on    the 

other  "Liberty,  Equality,  and  Humanity."  Mazzini's  program 
was  soon  enlarged  to  include  agitation  for  these  principles  in 


THE   DISUNION   OF   ITALY 


609 


every  land ;  and  soci- 
eties called  "Young 
Poland,"  "Young 
Germany, "  "  Young 
Switzerland,"  etc., 
were  formed  on  the 
model  of  the  one 
which  he  organized  in 
Italy.  Mazzini's  ar- 
dent patriotism,  he- 
roic self-sacrifice,  and 
unconquerable  faith 
in  the  ultimate  tri- 
umph of  his  ideas 
made  him  a  great 
leader  of  men.  He 
influenced  most 
strongly  the  educated 
classes,  —  lawyers, 
doctors,  professors, 

and  army  officers.  Garibaldi  (1807-1882)  early  joined  the 
Young  Italy  society.  He  was  forced  to  flee  from  Italy  after  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  at  revolution  in  Piedmont,  in  1834.  He 
then  spent  ten  years  in  South  America,  playing  a  romantic  and 
honorable  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  Brazil  and  Uruguay. 

Count  Cavour  (1810-1861)  was  a  nobleman  of  Piedmont 
who  early  developed  Liberal  ideas.  These  were  strengthened  by 
frequent  visits  to  Paris  and  London.  The  policy  of  plots  746.  Views 
and  petty  revolts  did  not  appeal  to  him,  and  he  never  of  Cavour 
became  a  member  of  the  society  of  Young  Italy.  He  firmly  be- 
lieved that  political  liberty  was  useless  or  impossible  unless  it 
was  accompanied  by  commercial  and  industrial  prosperity.  His 
efforts,  therefore,  were  early  directed  to  improving  the  economic 
condition  of  Italy.  He  wrote  much  on  agriculture,  railroads, 
and  similar  subjects.  "The  railroads,"  he  said,  about  1845, 
"will  stretch  without  interruption  from  the  Alps  to  Sicily,  and 


GARIBALDI 


6io 


THE  UNIFICATION  OF  ITALY 


CAVOUR 


will  wipe  out  all  the  obstacles 
which  separate  the  inhabitants 
of  Italy  and  hinder  them  from 
forming  a  great  and  single  na- 
tion." He  believed  that  the 
expulsion  of  Austria  from  the 
land  could  be  accomplished 
only  by  an  established  gov- 
ernment which  was  recognized 
by  the  Powers  of  Europe  and 
possessed  a  regular  army. 

At  first  Italian  patriots  were 
far  from  being  united  in  their 
ideas  as  to  the  form  of  govern- 
.ment  to  be  set  up,  or  the  sort 

of  union  which  they  desired.     Some  wished  a  limited  mon- 
archy; others  a  democratic  republic.     Some  wanted  a  union 
747.  Pope     °f  a^  Italy  under  one  head ;  others  wanted  a  mere  feder- 
Pius  IX  and  ation  of  the  existing  states  against  foreign  rule.     Many  per- 
sons hoped  that  the  union  of  Italy  would  be  accomplished 
by  Pope  Pius  IX,   who  ascended  the  papal  throne  in   1846. 
These  expectations  were  encouraged  by  the  Pope's  releasing 
political  prisoners  in  the  Papal  States,  and  by  Liberal  measures 
of  reform  and  of  hostility  to  Austria.     But  when  the  wave  of 
revolution  swept  over  Italy  in  1848,  the  Pope  abandoned  his 
liberalism,  and  adopted  reactionary  policies. 

The   revolution   of   1848  began   (even  before  the  outbreak 
in  Paris)  in  Sicily  and  Naples,  where  the  Liberals  rose  in  arms  and 
forced  the  king  to  issue  a  constitution  (January,  1848).     This 
success,  together  with  the  news  of  the  revolutions  in  France  and- 
748.Revolu-  Austria,  aroused  the  patriots  throughout  the  peninsula, 
turn  of  1848  Milan,  Venice,  and  other  Austrian  possessions  in  Italy 
revolted.    Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia-Piedmont,  influenced 
by  Cavour,  issued  a  constitution  for  his  kingdom,  and  declared 
war  on  Austria.     The  rulers  of  Tuscany,   Naples,   and   the 
Papal  States  were  compelled  by  public  sentiment  to  send  troops 


in  Italy 


THE   ATTAINMENT  OF   ITALIAN   UNITY 


to  fight  under  the  Italian  tricolored  flag,  raised  by  Piedmont. 
But  soon  jealousies  and  differences  of  opinion  arose,  and  Naples 
and  the  Pope  withdrew  their  forces.  At  Custozza  (koos-tod'za), 
in  1848,  the  Piedmontese  army  was  defeated  by  the  Austrians, 
and  again,  in  1849,  at  Novara  (no-va/ra). 

Charles  Albert  then  abdicated.  His  son,  Victor  Emmanuel 
II,  secured  peace  with  Austria  by  paying  a  heavy  war  indemnity. 

The  Austrian  rule  in  ?4p  Failure 
Lombardy  and  Venice  of  the  Revo- 
was  speedily  restored. 
In  Naples  the  king  overthrew 
the  constitution  he  had 
granted,  and  crushed  the  rev- 
olution. In  the  Papal  States 
the  revolutionists  had  set  up 
a  Roman  republic  under 
Mazzini  and  Garibaldi;  but 
in  June,  1849,  a  French 
army,  sent  by  Louis  Napo- 
leon, defeated  the  Roman 
republicans,  and  the  abso- 
lute power  of  the  Pope  was 
restored.  The  brilliant  re- 
treat  of  Garibaldi  through 
the  mountains  of  central 

Italy  was  one  of  the  spectacular  feats  of  this  struggle,  but 
did  not  change  the  outcome.  Everywhere  in  Italy  the  revolu- 
tion failed.  Yet  the  attempt  had  not  been  wholly  in  vain.  A 
prince  had  sacrificed  himself  for  Italian  independence,  and  the 
people  had  proved  their  heroism.  "Henceforth  the  National 
cause  had  a  dynasty  to  represent  it,  and  a  people  to  defend  it." 

C.  THE  ATTAINMENT  OF  ITALIAN  UNITY  (1849-1870) 

The  failure  of  the  Revolution  of  1848  left  Italy  divided  as 
before,  and  garrisoned  by  foreign  troops.  The  Austrians  held 
the  northeast,  and  French  troops  supported  the  papal  monarchy 


PIUS 


6l2 


THE   UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 


at  Rome.     The  kingdom  of  Sardinia-Piedmont  alone  clung  to 
Liberal  ideas,  a  constitution,  and  the  tricolored  flag  —  the  em- 
750.  Italy       blem  of  Italian  unity.     It  was  to  King  Victor  Emmanuel 
after  1848      that  Italian  patriots  thenceforth  turned  their  eyes. 

Unfortunately  Victor   Emmanuel's  subjects   numbered  less 
than  five  millions  as  against  the  thirty-seven  millions  of  Austria. 


GROWTH  OF  THE  ITALIAN  KINGDOM 


But  they  had  a  patriotic  and  able  king;  they  had  an  army 
that  could  fight;  above  all,  they  had  in  Count  Cavour  a 
minister  —  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  statesmen  —  whose 


THE   ATTAINMENT   OF   ITALIAN   UNITY  613 

life  was  devoted  to  the  work  of  freeing  and  uniting  Italy. 
From  1849  to  1859  was  the  period  of  preparation  for  Italian 
unity ;  the  years  1859  to  1870  saw  its  realization. 

For  a  time  Cavour  was  the  most  unpopular  man  in  Turin. 
He  was  hated  by  radicals  for  his  moderation,  and  by  reaction- 
aries for  his  liberalism.  Gradually  Mazzini,  the  leader  751-  Policy 
of  the  visionary  republicans,  lost  ground,  and  the  true  °or  p^°£r 
greatness  of  Cavour  was  recognized.  From  1852  until  mont 
Cavour's  death,  in  1861,  he  was  (with  two  short  intervals)  prime 
minister  and  almost  dictator  pf  the  kingdom.  He  labored  un- 
ceasingly for  economic  prosperity,  Liberal  reforms,  and  the  mili- 
tary  strength  of  the  monarchy.  In  addition  to  remodeling  taxes, 
he  reformed^  the  clergy.  The  number  of  monasteries  totaled 
604;  and  there  was  one  ecclesiastic  to  every  214  inhabitants. 
Belgium  and  Austria,  both  strongly  Catholic  countries,  had 
respectively  only  one  priest  to  500,  and  one  to  610  inhabitants. 
After  a  bitter  fight,  Cavour  carried  through  a  moderate  reform, 
which  abolished  the  religious  orders  not  engaged  in  public  teach- 
ing, preaching,  or  nursing  the  sick.  His  farsighted  statesman- 
ship sent  Sardinian  troops  to  take  part  in  the  Crimean  War 
(§  721),  a  step  which  was  described  as  "a  pistol  shot  in  Austria's 
ear."  Then,  in  the  congress  of  Paris,  Cavour  was  enabled  to 
bring  the  cause  of  Italy  before  the  diplomats  of  Europe,  and  to 
pave  the  way  for  future  action. 

Great  Britain  was,  in  general,  favorable  to  Italian  hopes, 
but  feared  to  see  the  peace  of  Europe  again  disturbed.     Napo- 
leon III,  during  his  adventurous  career  as  a  young  man,   752.  Atti- 
had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  plots  of  the  Carbonari  to  Napoleon 
free  Italy,  and  still  favored  that  cause.     But  the  Catholic  III 
party  in  France  violently  opposed  any  action  which  might  en- 
danger the  Pope's  temporal  power.     While  Napoleon  hesitated, 
a  fanatical  Italian  patriot  hurled  three  bombs  at  his  carriage  in 
the  streets  of  Paris  (January,  1858),  by  which  256  persons  were 
killed  or  seriously  wounded.    Although  the  Emperor  and  Empress 
escaped  unharmed,  this  attempt  convinced  him  that  his  life 
would  not  be  safe  unless  he  redeemed  his  early  vows.     In  July, 


614  THE  UNIFICATION  OF  ITALY 

1858,  he  secretly  agreed  with  Cavour  to  join  Piedmont  in  at- 
tacking Austria  when  a  fitting  moment  came.  Austria  was 
to  be  entirely  expelled  from  Italy,  and  her  possessions  there 
annexed  to  Piedmont.  In  return  France  was  to  be  given  the 
Piedmontese  territories  of  Savoy  and  Nice,  thus  extending 
French  territory  to  the  Alps,  her  "natural  frontier"  on  the  south- 
east. 

A  plausible  pretext  for  war  with  Austria  was  needed,  and  the 

months  which  followed  were  the  most  trying  of  Cavour's  life. 

War  in  ^s  ^ill ,  working  on  Austrian  stupidity  and  pride,  brought 

northern        it  to  pass  that  Austria  issued  an  ultimatum  (April,  1859) 

Italy  (1859)    demanding  that  Piedmont  disarm,  on  pain  of  war.    Cavour 

was  radiant  with  joy.     Austria  was  put  clearly  in  the  wrong ; 

Napoleon  would  now  be  obliged  to  help ;  the  other  Great  Powers 

would  remain  neutral. 

The  war  proved  short  and  decisive,  lasting  less  than  three 
months.  In  April  an  army  of  Austrians  crossed  the  Ticino 
(te-che'no)  River,  and  invaded  Piedmont.  The  French  army 
had  already  begun  to  pour  over  the  Alps,  and  in  May  the 
French  Emperor  arrived  to  take  command  in  person.  The  allies 
soon  drove  the  Austrians  out  of  Piedmont,  and  at  Magen'ta 
inflicted  upon  them  a  severe  defeat.  This  was  followed  by 
a  second  victory,  after  a  fiercely  fought  battle,  at  Solferino 
(sol-f e-re'no) .  Garibaldi,  meanwhile,  liberated  the  Alpine  part 
of  Italy  as  far  as  the  frontier  of  Tyrol.1 

The  complete  expulsion  of  Austria  from  Italy  now  seemed 
certain.  But  Napoleon  III  was  alarmed  at  the  hostile  attitude 
which  Prussia  was  taking ;  moreover,  he  did  not  want  to  make 
Piedmont  too  strong.  In  July  he  suddenly  deserted  his  ally, 
and  entered  into  negotiations  for  peace  at  Villafranca.2  When 
Victor  Emmanuel  found  that  he  was  deserted  by  the  French, 
he  could  only  resign  himself  to  join  in  "the  infamous  treaty" 

1  Between  1849  and  1859  Garibaldi  had  spent  several  years  in  New  York  City, 
engaged  in  "commerce,  and  had  accumulated  a  small  fortune. 

2  Read  James  Russell  Lowell's  poem  entitled  "Villafranca."     It  well  expresses 
the  indignation  felt  by  Liberals  the  world  over  at  this  betrayal. 


THE  ATTAINMENT  OF  ITALIAN  UNITY  615 

which  was  signed  (at  Zurich)  in  November,  1859.     Its  terms  were 
the  following :  — 

1.  Lombardy  was  annexed  to  Piedmont,  but  Venetia  was  left  to 

Austria. 

2.  The  rest  of  Italy  was  to  be  restored  to  the  condition  in  which 

it  was  at  the  opening  of  the  war. 

3.  A  scheme    of    Italian    confederation   was    proposed    under   the 

presidency  of  the  Pope. 

The  last  two  provisions  of  the  treaty  could  not  be  carried  out. 
All  central  Italy  had  revolted  from  its  rulers  and  sought  union 
with  Piedmont;  and  after  the  peace  Napoleon  did  not  ob-  754- 
ject  to  Piedmont's  annexation  of  those  territories.  As  a  f^^  7 
result,  Tuscany,  Parma,  Modena,  and  the  northernmost  (1860-1864) 
of  the  Papal  States  were  all  peacefully  added  to  Victor  Emman- 
uel's kingdom.  In  return,  Victor  Emmanuel  reluctantly  ceded 
to  France  the  provinces  of  Nice  and  Savoy,  the  cradle  of  the 
Piedmontese  monarchy.  The  annexation  of  the  kingdom  of 
Sicily  and  Naples  followed  soon  after,  as  the  result  of  a  success- 
ful revolution  carried  out  by  Garibaldi,  with  Cavour's  secret  as- 
sistance. With  a  thousand  "  red-shirts,"  Garibaldi  landed  in  Sicily 
(May,.  1 860),  and  was  received  by  the  people  with  open  arms.  In 
August  he  crossed  over  to  the  mainland.  By  September  Naples 
was  in  his  hands,  and  he  was  planning  to  march  upon  Rome,  to 
overturn  the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope.  The  sound  states- 
manship of  Cavour  saw  that  Europe  was  not  ripe  for  this  step, 
and  he  sent  Piedmontese  troops  to  check  his  too  zealous  ally. 
In  February,  1861,  the  struggle  came  to  an  end  with  the  sur- 
render of  the  last  of  the  Bourbon  kings  of  Naples.  Already 
Sicily  and  Naples  had  declared,  by  overwhelming  votes,  for 
union  with  Piedmont;  and  in  March,  Victor  Emmanuel  II  was 
proclaimed  king  of  Italy. 

Except  Venetia  and  the  patrimony  of  St.  Peter  (as  the  district 
immediately  about  Rome  was  called),  the  whole  of  the  peninsula 
was  at  last  consolidated  under  one  rule  (map,  p.  612).  Italy 
ceased  to  be  "a  mere  geographical  expression,"  and  took  its 


6i6 


THE  UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 


VICTOR  EMMANUEL  II 


place  as  one  of  the  nations  of  Europe.     To  this  end  many  per- 
sons had  contributed,  with  heroic  courage,  high  endeavor,  and 
noble    self-sacrifice.     But    the 
genius  which  mastered  all  and 
brought  the  work  to  a  success- 
ful issue  was  that  of  Cavour. 
Three  months  later  (in  June, 
1 86 1 ),  he  died,  worn  out  before 
his  time  by  his  labors. 

For  the  completion  of  Italian 
unity  King  Victor  Emmanuel 
was  largely  indebted  to  Prussia. 

755.  Italian    In  1 866  he  joined  with 

unity  coin-       ,  i     .   i  •       i  ,1 

pieted  t^lat  kingdom  in  the  war 

(1870)  which  crushed  Austria's 

power  (§  767);  and  in  reward 
for  this  assistance  he  received 
Venetia,  the  last  considerable 
district  held  by  Austria  south 

of  the  Alps.  Four  years  later  the  Franco-Prussian  War  (§  772) 
gave  Victor  Emmanuel  opportunity  to  seize  Rome,  which  for 
a  thousand  years  had  been  ruled  by  the  Popes.  The  French 
troops  which  had  there  supported  the  Pope  were  now  with- 
drawn for  use  elsewhere.  The  Piedmontese  troops  were  re- 
ceived with  cheers  by  the  Roman  people;  and  not  one  of  the 
Great  Powers  raised  its  voice  in  serious  protest.  Thenceforth 
Rome  was  the  capital  of  a  united  kingdom  of  Italy. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  come  to  a  friendly  arrangement  with 
the  Pope.     A  liberal  annuity  was  offered  him,  together  with  the 

756.  Sub-      right  to  keep  up  in  the  Vatican  the  rank  of  a  sovereign 
L'ion*  Mhe  Prince-     But  Pius  IX  would  not  consent  to  the  loss  of  the 
papacy  temporal  power   of   the   papacy.     Throughout   the   rest 

of  his  life  he  remained  a  voluntary  "prisoner"  in  the  Vatican, 
refusing  to  set  foot  outside  its  gardens.  The  policy  which  he 
adopted  has  been  closely*  followed  by  his  successors.  The  pa- 
pacy has  remained  unreconciled  to  its  loss  of  Rome,  and  this 


THE  ATTAINMENT  OF   ITALIAN  UNITY  617 

attitude  has  hampered  the  Italian  government  in  many  ways. 
But  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  its  temporal  power,  the  position  of  the 
papacy  has  never  been  higher  than  it  is  to-day.  To  many  minds 
this  seems  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Pope's  position  is  no 
longer  complicated  by  the  local  cares  of  an  Italian  prince.1 

The  present  constitution  of  Italy  is  an  expansion  of  that 
granted  by  Charles  Albert  to  his  kingdom  in  1848:  — 

1.  The  king  exercises  his  executive  authority  through  ministers   757> 

who  are  responsible  to  Parliament.  constitution 

2.  The  Parliament  is  composed  of  two  chambers,  one  nominated   of  Italy 

by  the  king,  and  the  other  elected  by  the  people. 

3.  The   franchise  was  at   first   limited   to   adult  male   citizens  who 

could  read  and  write,  and  who  possessed  certain  additional 
educational  or  property  qualifications.  In  1912  manhood 
suffrage  was  adopted,  thus  increasing  the  number  of  voters 
from  3,000,000  to  8,000,000.  At  the  same  tune,  payment  for 
members  of  Parliament  was  introduced. 

For  ten  years  after  the  complete  unification  of  Italy,  questions 
of  debt  and  institiitiojiaJLd'eY^lopment  occupied  the  government. 
Then  came  fifteen  years  (1881-1896)  devoted  to  the  devel-   758.  Italy 
opment  of  railroads^and  public  works.;  and  to  attempts  to  since  l87° 
secure  external  prestige  through  increase  of  the  army  and  navy, 
and  through  an  unsuccessful  war  with  Abyssinia  (1895-1896), 
and  colonial  ventures  of  doubtful  value  on  the  African  shore      ^ 
of  the  Red  Sea.     After  1896  the  burden  of  public  debt  led  to 
soberer  policies.     King  Humbert  I,  who  succeeded  his  father  in 
1878,  was  assassinated  by  an  anarchist  in  1900,  and  his  son, 
Victor  Emmanuel  III,  came  to  the  throne.     In  1908  the  world 
was  horrified  by  an  appalling  earthquake  in  Sicily,  which  de- 
stroyed the  city  of  Messina,  and  killed  150,000  persons.     The 
war  with  Turkey,  by  which  Italy  in  1912  acquired  the  province 
of  Tripoli  in  northern  Africa,  will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter 

(§  830). 

1  The  great  Vatican  Council  in  1870,  just  a  few  months  before  the  Pope's  loss  of 
temporal  sovereignty,  proclaimed  his  official  decisions  "on  questions  of  faith  and 
morals"  to  be  infallible. 


618  THE   UNIFICATION   OF   ITALY 

Notwithstanding  many  hindrances  to  national  progress,  much 
has  been  accomplished  for  Italy.  Brigandage  has  in  large  meas- 
ure been  suppressed.  Waste  lands  have  been  brought  under 
cultivation,  and  malaria  decreased  by  extensive  drainage  sys- 
tems. Many  miles  of  state  railroads  have  been  built.  A  sys- 
tem of  public  education  has  been  established,  which  extends 
from  elementary  schools  to  the  universities.  As  a  result,  illit- 
eracy, which  is  one  of  the  curses  of  Italy,  decreased  from  73 
per  cent  of  the  adult  population  in  1871,  to  56  per  cent  in  1901. 
Modern  manufactures,  though  late  in  arising,  have  developed 
rapidly  in  recent  years,  especially  in  the  north.  But  the 
burden  of  the  national  debt  is  still  crushing,  and  Italy  re- 
mains the  most  heavily  taxed  country  in  Europe.  This  in 
part  accounts  for  the  great  number  of  its  inhabitants  who 
emigrate  to  other  lands,  especially  to  the  United  States.  In- 
dustrial and  political  discontent,  moreover,  is  widespread ;  and 
strikes  and  labor  disturbances  are  incessant  and  are  complicated 
by  Socialist  agitations.  To  check  the  growth  of  the  radical  party, 
Pope  Pius  X  in  1905  practically  abolished  the  church  rule  by 
which  good  Catholics  were  forbidden  to  vote  in  parliamentary 
elections.  The  permanence  of  the  Italian  kingdom  is  as- 
sured, but  the  future  of  no  other  great  power  of  western 
Europe  is  clouded  with  so  many  unsolved  problems. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1846.   Pius  IX  becomes  Pope. 

1848.   Revolution  put  down  in  Austria  and  Bohemia;  Francis  Joseph  I 

becomes  Emperor  of  Austria. 
1848.   Revolution  in  Italy  put  down  by  Austria;    Victor  Emmanuel  II 

becomes  king  of  Sardinia-Piedmont. 
1852.   Cavour  becomes  prime  minister  of  Sardinia-Piedmont. 

1859.  Napoleon  III  aids  Sardinia  in  wresting  Lombardy  from  Austria. 

1860.  Most  of  central  Italy  gained. 

1861.  Naples  and  Sicily  annexed;  kingdom  of  Italy  proclaimed. 
1866.   Venetia  added  to  kingdom  of  Italy. 

1870.   Rome  taken  from  the  Pope ;  Italian  unity  completed. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  619 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  How  do  you  explain  the  wide  spread  of  the 
revolutionary  movements  in  1848?  (2)  Compare  the  aims  of  the  revolu- 
tionists in  Vienna  with  those  in  Hungary  and  Italy.  (3)  Why  did  the 
revolution  in  the  Austrian  lands  fail  ?  (4)  Why  should  Russia  intervene 
to  aid  Austria  in  Hungary?  (5)  Why  did  the  events  in  Paris  in  1870-1871 
find  no  echo  in  Austria-Hungary?  (6)  What  did  the  first  Napoleon  con- 
tribute to  the  cause  of  Italian  unity  ?  (7)  How  did  Mazzini  aid  the  move- 
ment? (8)  What  did  Garibaldi  do  to  further  it?  (9)  What  did  Cavour 
contribute?  (10)  Why  did  the  movement  to  drive  the  Austrians  out  win 
greater  success  in  1859  than  in  1848?  (n)  Why  was  the  movement  for 
Italian  unity  finally  successful?  (12)  Why  did  Victor  Emmanuel  seek  to 
win  Rome  for  his  capital  ?  (13)  Why  did  the  Pope  resist  ?  (14)  Compare 
Italy's  position  in  1900  with  its  situation  in  1850. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  KOSSUTH.  Thayer,  Throne  Makers  ("Kossuth"); 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XV,  916-918;  Kossuth,  Memories  of  my  Exile.  — 
(2)  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  THE  AUSTRIAN  EMPIRE.  Hazen,  Europe  Since 
1815,  152-159,  169-181 ;  Andrews,  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  I,  .363- 
373;  Phillips,  Modern  Europe,  289-308.  —  (3)  PRESENT  GOVERNMENT  or 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  Ogg,  Governments  of  Europe,  456-474,  489-500; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  III,  2-3;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II, 
165-168,  171-175.  —  (4)  MAZZINI  AND  YOUNG  ITALY.  Hazen,  159-164; 
Andrews,  I,  205-213;  Stillman,  Union  of  Italy,  44-48;  Cesaresco,  Libera- 
tion of  Italy,  ch.  iv;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  115-118.  —  (5) 
GARIBALDI.  Hazen,  232-236;  Murdock,  Reconstruction  of  Europe,  ch.  xiii; 
Cesaresco,  Liberation,  ch.  xiv;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  126- 
128.  —  (6)  CAVOUR.  Hazen,  215-239;  Andrews,  II,  91-114;  Thayer, 
Throne  Makers  ("Cavour");  Cesaresco,  Cavour.  —  (7)  How  CAVOUR 
BROUGHT  ON  WAR  IN  1859.  Phillips,  366-370;  King,  Italian  Unity,  II, 
56-67;  Cesaresco,  Liberation,  ch.  xi;  Mazade,  Cavour,  186-193.  —  (8) 
VATICAN  COUNCIL  or  1869-1870.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXVII,  947- 
951 ;  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  XV,  303-309.  —  (9)  PRESENT  GOVERNMENT 
OF  ITALY.  Hazen,  374-380  ;  Ogg,  365-381 ;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XV, 
19.  —  (10)  ECONOMIC  CONDITION  OF  ITALY.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XV, 
8-14,  80-81 ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  138-141. 

General  Reading.  —  The  best  general  accounts  of  the  Revolution  of 
1848  in  Central  Europe  are  in  Hazen,  Andrews,  Fyffe,  and  Phillips.  For 
Austria-Hungary  since  1849,  see  Colquhoun,  The  Whirlpool  of  Europe.  The 
best  histories  of  the  attainment  of  Italian  unity  are  by  Bolton  King, 
Cesaresco,  Stillman,  and  Probyn.  Trevelyan's  various  works  dealing  with 
Garibaldi  are  fascinatingly  written.  For  present  conditions .  in  Italy,  see 
King  and  Okey,  Italy  To-day. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  UNIFICATION   OF   GERMANY 

A.  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  GERMANY 

THE  Revolution  of  1848,  which  broke  out  first  in  France  and 
whose  influence  in  Austria  and  in  Italy  has  been  traced  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  profoundly  disturbed  Germany  also.  As  in 
Italy,  the  movement  in  Germany  had  two  objects  :  (i)  to  secure 
Liberal  and  democratic  reforms  in  the  separate  German  states  ; 
(2)  to  unite  all  Germany  into  a  single  national  union. 

The  German  Confederation,  which  was  established  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  was  in  many  ways  similar  to  the  government 
759.  Weak-  of  the  United  States  under  the  old  Articles  of  Confedera- 
°  after"  t^on'  ~^°  imPortant  measure  could  be  passed  in  the  Diet 


1815  without  the  unanimous  vote  of  all  the  thirty-eight  states. 

Its  members  were  without  individual  freedom  in  voting  ;  they 
were  mere  delegates,  sent  by  their  governments  with  precise 
directions,  and  were  obliged  to  ask  instructions  before  each  vote. 
The  result  was  that  no  important  measure  was  ever  passed  by 
the  Diet.  In  addition,  the  Confederation  had  no  organized 
executive,  and  no  means  of  enforcing  its  rulings  upon  the  sep- 
arate states.  The  Diet  was  only  a  council  of  representatives  of 
the  federated  princes,  under  the  presidency  of  Austria.  It  in 
no  way  represented  the  sentiments  of  the  German  people. 
Hence  the  movements  for  Liberal  reforms  and  national  union 
did  not  center  in  the  Diet,  but  rather  in  the  universities,  for 
which  Germany  was  famed. 

In  Germany,  as  in  the  United  States,  it  was  the  need  of  regu- 

lating commerce  which  caused  the  first  step  towards  union 

Prussian        to   be  taken-     Tne   accident  that   Prussia  ruled   many 

Zoliverein      scattered  territories,  with  a  thousand  miles  of  frontiers, 

620 


THE   REVOLUTION   OF    1848  IN   GERMANY 


621 


made  a  Zollverein  (tsol'fer-In ;  customs  tariff  union)  a  matter 
of  importance  for  her.  By  1854  Prussia  succeeded  in  including 
in  such  a  union  the  whole  of  southern  and  central  Germany, 
with  the  exception  of  Austria.  The  states  belonging  to  the  Zoll- 
verein abolished  all  customs  duties  on  their  trade  with  one  an- 
other, and  agreed  upon  a  common  tariff  in  their  trade  with 
foreign  countries.  Railroads  were  developing  rapidly  in  Ger- 
many in  this  period,  and  the  Zollverein  enabled  its  states  to 


0 50 100 o 

Zollverein  in  1834 
Additions  up  to  1854 


GERMAN  ZOLLVEREIN  (1834-1854) 

reap  full  benefit  from  the  commerce  which  railroad  building 
stimulated.  At  the  same  time,  this  commercial  union  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  towards  uniting  Germany  politically  under 
Prussian  headship. 

The  news  of  the  February  Revolution  of  1848  in  Paris,  and  the 
fall  of  Metternich  in  Austria,  caused  great  excitement   761-  Revo- 
throughout  Germany.    Risings  occurred  in  the  great  cities,   ^g^ 
particularly  in   Munich   (mu'nik)   and   Berlin.      In   the   Prussia 
latter  city  barricades  were  erected,  and  street  fighting  occurred 


622  THE  UNIFICATION  OF  GERMANY 

which  caused  the  death  of  several  hundred  citizens  (March, 
1848).  The  kind-hearted  but  arbitrary  and  vacillating  king, 
Frederick  William  IV,  ordered  the  soldiers  to  withdraw  from 
the  city,  and  he  donned  the  revolutionary  colors  —  the  old 
black,  red,  and  gold  of  the  medieval  Empire.  He  also  sum- 
moned an  assembly  which  drew  up  a  constitution  for  Prussia. 
This  constitution  was  later  (1850)  modified  by  the  king 
into  a  very  conservative  instrument;  nevertheless  it  was  im- 
portant because  it  made  Prussia  permanently  a  constitutional 
state. 

At  the  same  time  an  impetus  was  given  to  the  movement  for 

German  unity.     In  May,   1848,  a  " constituent  parliament," 

762.  Move-    elected  by  manhood  suffrage  from  the  different  German 

mentfor        states,  met  in  the  city  of  Frankfort,  on  the  river  Main. 

German  / 

unity  (1848-  Its  purpose  was  to  draw  up  a  constitution  for  a  united 

1849)  Germany.     Its  members  were  chiefly  university  professors, 

lawyers,  and  journalists.  The  two  great  questions  which  con- 
fronted it  were :  (i)  What  territories  should  be  included  in 
the  new  Germany  ?  (2)  Who  should  be  its  head  ?  On  the  first 
point  the  question  especially  was  whether  Austria  should  be 
allowed  to  bring  into  the  new  union  her  non-German  provinces, 
with  their  38,000,000  inhabitants,  thus  enabling  her  to  over- 
balance the  32,000,000  of  Germany  proper.  The  second  point 
involved  a  decision  as  to  whether  Austria  or  Prussia  should  be 
the  head  of  the  new  state.  The  "parliament"  at  last  decided 
(i)  that  Austria  should  be  admitted  with  her  German  provinces 
only ;  and  (2)  that  the  crown  of  the  new  German  Empire  should 
be  offered  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  Unfortunately,  neither 
Austria  nor  Prussia  would  agree  to  these  proposals.  Austria 
was  now  regaining  control  of  her  revolted  provinces  and  was  thus 
free  to  act  decisively  in  Germany.  To  the  proposals  of  the 
Frankfort  "parliament"  she  announced  curtly  that  she  "would 
neither  let  herself  be  expelled  from  the  German  Confederation, 
nor  let  her  German  provinces  be  separated  from  the  indivisible 
Austrian  monarchy."  The  king  of  Prussia,  for  his  part,  was 
afraid  of  war  with  Austria  in  case  he  accepted  the  headship  of 


BISMARCK  AND  THE  WAR  WITH  AUSTRIA  623 

the  new  empire.     For  this  and  other  reasons  he  declined  the 
perilous  offer  of  the  Frankfort  assembly. 

This  refusal  wrecked  the  whole  plan  for  union,  and  caused 
the  breaking  up  of  the  Frankfort  "parliament."    The  revolu- 
tionary party  was  then  put  down  in  all  the  German  states,     6    Its 
and  German  unity  was  postponed  for  twenty  years.     To  failure 
escape  punishment  many  of  the  revolutionary  leaders  fled   ^l849) 
to  foreign  lands.     The  United  States  thus  gained  many  valuable 
citizens,  among  whom  was  Carl  Schurz  (shoorts),  who  for  fifty 
years  honorably  served  his  adopted  country.     Austria  speedily 
regained  her  lost  ascendancy,  and  Prussia  made  a  humiliating 
submission  at  Ol'miitz  (1850).     The  old  Confederation  of  1815 
was  restored,  completely  under  Austrian  influence. 

B.   BISMARCK  AND  THE  WAR  WITH  AUSTRIA  (1861-1866) 

In  1 86 1  William  I  succeeded  his  brother,  Frederick  William 
IV,  as  king  of  Prussia.  The  humiliation  of  Prussia  at  Olmiitz 
had  burned  deep  into  his  patriotic  soul.  His  chief  aim  764.  Aims 
tbecame  the  expulsion  of  Austria  from  the  German  Con-  °nd  ^a* 
(federation,  and  a  union  of  Germany  under  Prussia.  But  marck 
the  accomplishment  of  these  ends  was  largely  the  work  of  his 
minister,  Otto  von  Bismarck.  The  latter  was  a  statesman  of 
commanding  genius  and  relentless  will.  "From  the  beginning 
of  my  career,"  Bismarck  once  said,  "  I  have  had  but  the  one  guid- 
ing star :  By  what  means  and  in  what  way  can  I  bring  Germany 
to  unity?"  Bismarck  had  served  for  a  time  as  the  Prussian 
envoy  in  the  Diet  at  Frankfort.  This  service  had  taught  him 
that  Austria  was  the  chief  enemy  to  Prussian  greatness  and  to 
German  unity,  and  that  ultimately  Prussia  would  have  to  fight 
her.  In  1862  Bismarck  became  the  chief  minister  of  Prussia. 
From  that  time  until  his  dismissal  from  office,  in  1890,  he  played 
the  largest  part  in  shaping  German  destinies. 

Bismarck  was  an  aristocrat  of  the  aristocrats.  He  was  a 
stanch  upholder  pf  the  theory  that  monarchs  rule  "by  the  grace 
of  God  "  and  not  by  the  will  of  the  people.  The  hope  of  German 


624 


THE  UNIFICATION   OF   GERMANY 


of  "blood 
and  iron 


unity,  he  believed,  lay  not  in  Liberalism  but  in  Prussia's  mak- 
ing itself  a  great  military  power.     He  wished  to  secure  a  re- 
765  Policy     organization  of  the  Prussian  army,  together  with  increased 
armaments.     To  accomplish  this,  Bismarck  was  obliged 
for  four  years  to  wage  an  unceasing  conflict  with  the 
shortsighted  Liberal  majorities  of  the  Prussian  Diet,  who  re- 
fused   the    necessary   ap- 
propriations.      With 
brutal      frankness      Bis- 
marck  declared,    in     his 
first  speech  to  the  Diet, 
"  The  unity  of  Germany  is 
to  be  brought  about,  not  by 
speeches    nor    by   votes    of 
majorities,    but    by    blood 
and  iron."    With  indomi- 
table courage  and  inflex- 
ible   will    he    forced    the 
Prussian   people   to   sub- 
mit to  his  direction.     At 
times  he  even  overrode  or 
hoodwinked  the  king  him- 
self.1 

Bismarck's  first  oppor- 
BISMARCK  tunity  to  use  the  reorgan- 

ized army  came  in  1864. 

In  that  year  a  war  was  successfully  waged   by   Prussia   and 
766.  The       Austria  jointly   against  Denmark,  in  the  interest  of  the 
Danish  War  Germans  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein  (hol'stin)  who  were 
under    Danish    rule.     As    a    result    of    the    war,    these 
two  duchies  were  taken  temporarily  under  the  joint  rule  of 
the  victors.     From  this  situation  the  adroit  and  unscrupulous 

1  The  army  system  adopted  was  practically  that  which  now  prevails  throughout 
the  German  Empire.  Every  healthy  young  man  was  required  to  serve  for  three 
years  in  the  active  army,  followed  by  four  years  in  the  reserve.  In  this  way  every 
able-bodied  German  man  was  trained  as  a  soldier,  and  Prussia  could  put  in  the  field 
on  short  notice  an  efficient  army  of  400,000  men. 


(1864) 


BISMARCK  AND  THE   WAR   WITH  AUSTRIA          625 

diplomacy  of  Bismarck,  —  by  steps  too  intricate  to  be  here  re- 
lated, —  succeeded  (in  June,  1866)  in  bringing  forth  his  long- 
contemplated  war  with  Austria. 

In  this  contest  Austria  was  supported  by  all  the  South  Ger- 
man states  (including  Saxony),  and  by  Hanover  and  some  other 
states  of  North  Germany.     To  most  observers,  it  seemed   767.  Seven 
that  Prussia  must  surely  be  crushed.     Italy,  however,  had 
secretly  promised  aid  to  Prussia,  and  in  return  was  to  be   (1866) 
given  the  Austrian  province  of  Venetia.     The  Prussian  army  was 
armed  with  breech-loading  "  needle  guns  "  ;  while  the  Austrians, 
in  common  with  the  rest  of  Europe,  still  used  muzzle-loaders, 
in  which  no  improvement  had  taken  place  since  the  beginning 
of  the  century,  excepting  the  substitution  of  the  percussion  cap 
for  the  old  flint  lock.     Above  all,  the  Prussians  had  in  Roon, 
the  minister  of  war,  and  in  Moltke  (molt'ke),  the  general  in 
the  field,  men  who  in  their  spheres  were  as  able  as  Bismarck 
was  in  diplomacy. 

The  thorough  preparations  of  the  Prussians  gave  them  from 
the  beginning  the  advantage  over  their  opponents.  Within 
three  days  the  Prussians  occupied  three  hostile  German  states. 
Within  seven  weeks  the  war  was  over.  On  the  eve  of  the  decisive 
battle,  Moltke  joined  the  army  in  Bohemia,  together  with  the 
king,  Bismarck,  and  Roon.  On  July  3  the  Austrians  were  over- 
whelmingly defeated  in  the  battle  of  Koniggratz  (ku-niK-grets'), 
or  Sadowa  (sa'do-va).  "Your  majesty  has  won  not  only  the 
battle,"  said  Moltke  to  King  William,  "but  the  campaign." 

With  wise  moderation  Bismarck  checked  the  demands  of  the 
military  authorities,  and  offered  Austria  a  liberal  peace.  Vene- 
tia alone  was  taken  from  her,  and  given  to  Italy.  Prussia  made 
no  territorial  gains  from  Austria*;  but  she  did  annex  Sleswick- 
Holstein,  together  with  the  North  German  states  which  had 
fought  against  her.  These  included  Hanover,  Hesse-Cassel, 
Nassau,  and  the  free  city  of  Frankfort  (map,  p.  631).  The 
rulers  of  these  states  protested  bitterly,  but  without  avail. 
Austria  was  obliged  to  pay  a  large  war  indemnity,  and  to  con- 
sent to  a  reorganization  of  Germany  with  Austria  left  out. 


626  THE  UNIFICATION  OF  GERMANY 

For  a  time  the  new  organization  took  the  form  of  a  North 

German  Confederation,  which  included  all  the  states  of  Ger- 

768.  The       many  except  Austria  and  the  four  South  German  states 

North  (Bavaria.  Wiirttemberg,  Baden,  and  Hesse-Darmstadt). 

German 

Confedera-     A  strong  federal  government  was  given  to  the  new  union, 

tion  (1867)  radically  different  from  that  of  the  old  German  Confedera- 
tion. The  four  South  German  states  soon  entered  voluntarily 
into  a  secret  military  alliance  with  the  new  federal  state. 

At  last  the  objects  of  Bismarck's  policy  were  understood. 
From  being  the  most  hated  man  in  Germany  he  became  the 
most  popular.  The  chief  influence  which  for  centuries  Austria 
had  exercised  in  German  affairs,  was  gone  forever.  Prussia 
was  fast  becoming  the  heart  and  the  head  of  a  new  and  united 
German  nation. 


C.  THE  FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR  (1870-1871) 

Napoleon  III  in  this  crisis  had  "committed  every  error  which 
it  was  possible  to  commit."  He  had  counted  on  making  his  own 
769.  Atti-  profit  out  of  a  war  between  powers  which  seemed  practi- 
*wtieonm~  caUy  equal.  But  to  his  amazement  Prussia  had  crushed 
(1866-1867)  Austria,  and  was  uniting  Germany.  French  statesmen 
now  saw  in  Prussia  a  rival  for  that  ascendancy  in  Europe  which 
France  had  enjoyed  for  two  hundred  years,  and  Napoleon's  pres- 
tige suffered  serious  decline.  But  in  1866  France  was  too  unpre- 
pared, and  too  disorganized  by  the  Mexican  expedition  (§  726), 
for  Napoleon  to  go  to  war.  He  contented  himself  with  demand- 
ing, therefore,  that  France  be  allowed  to  "compensate"  herself 
for  Prussian  gains  by  seizing  territories  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  or  by  conquering  Belgium.  Bismarck  believed  that  war 
with  France  was  not  only  inevitable,  but  necessary  to  German 
union;  so  he  skillfully  blocked,  in  turn,  each  of  Napoleon's 
" compensation"  projects.  Cajoled,  thwarted,  humiliated, 
France  burned  to  avenge  herself  on  the  "upstart  Prussians." 
What  seemed  a  fitting  occasion  was  soon  at  hand. 

In  1869  a  Liberal  revolution  brought  the  reign  of  the  Bourbon 


THE  FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR 


627 


queen  of  Spain  to  an  end,  and  it  became  necessary  to  find 
a  ruler  to  take  her  place.     After  repeated  attempts,  Prince 
Leopold    of    Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen    (zig'ma-ring-en),   770.  Hohen- 
one  of  the  petty  princes  of  southern  Germany,  was  induced  zoU^ 
(in  July,  1870)  to  become  a  candidate,  subject  to  the  ap-  for  Spanish 
proval  of  King  William  as  head  of  the  Hohenzollern  house.   tblone 
This  choice  caused  a  storm  of  indignation  in  Paris.    The  French 
minister    of    foreign    affairs 
said  in  the  French  Chamber 
that  the   proposal   "put   in 
peril  the  interests  and  honor 
of  France";   and  he  added 
that  the  government  "  would 
know  how  to  fulfill  its  duty 
without  hesitation  and  with- 
out feebleness." ,   This  threat 
of  war  naturally  inflamed  the 
people  of  both  Germany  and 
France ;  and  Prince  Leopold 
withdrew    his    name.      The 
French  foreign  minister  then 
required  a  promise  from  the 
Prussian  king  that  he  would 
never  in   the  future  permit 
the  prince  to  renew  his  candi- 
dature.    This   request,  when   presented   to   King  William  at  -" 
Ems,  through  the  French  ambassador,  was  politely  but  firmly 
refused. 

In  all  this  there  was  no  real  cause  for  war.    But  Bismarck 
was  anxious  for  war,  and  took  steps  to  bring  it  about.     The 
telegram  which  stated  the  facts  of  the  interview  at  Ems  771.  Bis- 
reached  Bismarck  at  Berlin,  while  he  was  at  dinner  with  "J*™1^ 
Moltke  and  Roon.     "As  I  read  it  to  them,"  said  Bis-  Ems  dis- 
marck  later,  "they  were   both   actually   terrified,   and  Patch 
Moltke's  whole  being  suddenly  changed.       He  seemed  to  be 
quite  old  and  infirm.    It  looked  as  if  our  most  gracious  majesty 


WILLIAM  I 


I/ 


628  THE  UNIFICATION  OF  GERMANY 

might  knuckle  under  after  all.    I  asked  him  (Moltke)  if,  as  things 

stood,  we  might  hope  to  be  victorious.     On  his  replying  in  the 

Busch  Bis-     affirmative,  I  said,  '  Wait  a  minute  ! '  and,  seating  myself 

marck,  I,         at  a  small  table,  I  boiled  down  those  two  hundred  words 

304,     ,  174    £O  about  twenty,  but  without  otherwise  altering  or  adding 

anything.     It  was  the  same  telegram,  yet  something  different  — 

shorter,  more  determined,  less  dubious.     I  then  handed  it  over 

to  them,  and  asked, '  Well,  how  does  that  do  now  ? '     '  Yes,'  they 

said,  'it  will  do  in  that  form.'    And  Moltke  immediately  became 

quite  young  and^resh  again.     He  had  got  his  war,  his  trade." 

The  dispatch,  thus  altered,  was  interpreted  in  the  press  to 
mean  that  the  king  had  been  insulted  and  had  snubbed  the 
France   French  envoy  —  which  was  not  the  case.    In  both  Berlin 
an<^  ^a"s  the  war  spirit  rose  to  fever  heat.     To  Thiers 
and  others  who  opposed  war,  on  the  ground  that  France 
was  not  sufficiently  prepared,  the  French  minister  of  war  gave 
the  assurance  that  the  army  was  "ready  to  the  last  gaiter 
button."     The  French  prime  minister  declared  that  he  accepted 
the  responsibility  "with  a  light  heart "  ;  and  on  July  19  France 
declared  war.     Never  did  a  great  state  rush  more  blindly  to  its 
own  destruction. 

France  stood  alone  in  the  war,  while  Prussia  was  assisted  by 
the  South  German  states,  as  well  as  by  the  North  German 
773  Su-        Confederation.     The  Prussian  armies  showed  the  same 
periority  of     thorough   preparation   and   energy   which   had   brought 
success  in  1866.     The  French  armies,  when  put  to  the  test, 
were  found  greatly  lacking.     In  arrangements  for  supplying 
/  and  transporting  troops,  in  generalship,  and  in  the  spirit  which 
I  animated  officers  and  men,  the  Germans  were  superior.     In 
courage  the  French  equaled  them,  and  they  had  equally  good 
breech-loading  rifles,  and  the  first  of  machine  guns.     These 
advantages,  however,  could  not  make  up  for  their  other  weak- 
nesses.    It  was  France  instead  of  Germany  that  was  invaded, 
Paris  instead  of  Berlin  that  was  taken. 

1  Compare  the  original  dispatch,  and  Bismarck's  condensation  of  it,  in  Ander- 
son's Constitutions  and  Documents,  pp.  593-594. 


THE  FRANCO-PRUSSIAN  WAR  629 

Soon  after  hostilities  began,  the  French  were  defeated  (at 

Worth)  after  a  bloody  contest,  and  were  forced  to  fall  back 

mftM  -  --• 

From  the  frontier.  A  series  of  battles  followed,  ending  7  sedan 
in  a  desperate  struggle  at  Gravelotte  (grav-lot').  The  campaign 
result  was  that  the  two  French  armies  were  prevented 
from  uniting,  and  one  of  them,  numbering  1 70,000  men,  took 
refuge  in  the  strongly  fortified  city  of  Metz.  Leaving  a  force 
to  besiege  this  place,  the  main  German  army  turned  westward 
after  the  second  French  army,  under  General  MacMahon, 
whom  they  found  at  Sedan^.  There,  on  September  i/was  fought 
"one  of  the  decisiveTGattles  of  the  world  —  a  battle  that  re- 
sulted in  the  surrender  of  the  largest  army  ever  known  to  have 
been  taken  in  the  field,  a  battle  that  dethroned  a  dynasty  and 
changed  the  form  of  government  in  France."  MacMahon  was 
defeated  and  surrounded  by  an  overwhelming  force.  Next 
day  his  army  of  100,000  men,  together  with  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon, surrendered.  France  was  left  without  an  army  in  the 
field. 

After  Sedan,  the  Germans  advanced  on  PariSj  and  began 
the  siege  of  that  city  (September  19,  1870).  The  French  capi- 
tal was  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified  cities  in  the  world,  775  Siege 
and  great  efforts  had  been  made  to  provision  it.  Com-  of  Paris 
munication  with  the  outside  world  was  kept  up  during  the  * 
siege,  by  means  of  carrier  pigeons  and  balloons.  Gambetta,  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  National  Defense,  escaped  from 
the  city  in  a  balloon,  and  worked  with  fierce  energy  (but  in 
vain)  to  organize  new  armies  and  to  rescue  Paris.  The  com- 
mander of  the  French  army  at  Metz,  who  was  incompetent 
and  disloyal,  surrendered  in  October,  thus  setting  free  more 
German  troops  to  use  about  Paris.  In  December,  after  long 
delays,  the  bombardment  of  the  city's  defenses  began.  The 
sufferings  of  the  Parisians  during  the  five  months  that  the 
siege  lasted  were  appalling.  Dogs,  cats,  and  rats  were  eaten ;  and 
fuel  gave  out.  Only  when  the  city  was  face  to  face  with  actual 
starvation,  did  it  surrender  (January  28,  1871).  . 

Before  peace  could  be  concluded,  a  recognized  government 


630  THE  UNIFICATION  OF  GERMANY 

was  needed  in  France  to  take  the  place  of  the  empire,  which 
776.  Peace  na(^  ^een  overthrown  (§  728).  To  furnish  this,  a  Na- 
of  Versailles  tional  Assembly  was  called  at  Bordeaux,  and  the  aged 
(Feb.,  1871)  Th{ers  was  chosen  head  of  the  state  (§  729).  At  Versailles 

(February  26,  1871)  the  following  preliminaries  of  peace  were 

signed :  — 

1.  France    agreed    to    cede  to    Germany  the   greater   part  of   the 

provinces  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  including  the  fortified  cities  of 
Metz  and  Strassburg. 

2.  She  also  agreed  to  pay  a  war  indemnity  of  $1,000,000,000. 

3.  Until  the  indemnity  was  paid,  German  troops  were  to  remain 

garrisoned  in  France. 

On  March  i  the  Germans  marched  in  triumph  through  Paris. 
The  result  of  the  harsh  terms  of  peace  was  a  French  hatred  for 
Germany,  which  has  scarcely  yet  lost  its  bitterness. 

D.  THE  NEW  GERMAN  EMPIRE 

The  victory  over  France  was  the  last  influence  needed  to 
complete    the    union    of  .  Germany.     After    much    negotiation 
777-  Ger-      Bismarck's  skillful  diplomacy  overcame  both  the  disin- 
prociaimed6  cunati°n  °f  the  kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirttemberg  to  sur- 
(Jan.,  1871)   render  their  independence,  and  the  Prussian   king's  ob- 
jections to  some  details.     On  January  18,  1871,  in  the  hall  of 
the  French  royal  palace  at  Versailles,  the  result  of  the  negotia- 
tions was  made  known  by  the  proclamation  of  the  new  German 
Empire.     The  constitution  adopted  was  that  framed  for  the 
North  German  Confederation,  in  1867,  with  merely  incidental 
alterations.     It  is  still  the  constitution  under  which  Germany 
is  governed,  its  chief  provisions  being  the  following :  - 

i.  The  number  of  states  included  in  the  empire  is  twenty-five,  with 
one  imperial  territory  (Alsace-Lorraine).  The  list  includes  4 
kingdoms,  6  grand  duchies,  5  duchies,  7  principalities,  and  3  free 
cities.  Each  of  these  states  has  its  separate  state  government, 
subordinate  to  that  of  the  empire. 


THE  UNIFICATION  OF  GERMANY 


2.  The  king  of  Prussia  is  hereditary  "German  Emperor,"  with  full 

direction  of  military  and  foreign  affairs. 

3.  The  Federal  Council  (Bundesraf)  is  a  council  of  ambassadors  ap- 

pointed by  the  separate  states.  It  oversees  the  administration, 
and  initiates  most  legislation.  The  states  are  represented  un- 
equally in  it.  Prussia,  which  contains  three  fifths  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Germany,  has  17  votes  out  of  a  total  of  61 ;  Bavaria  has 
6,  Saxony  and  Wiirttemberg  4  each,  and  the  other  states  fewer. 

4.  The  Diet  of  the  empire,  called  the  Reichstag  (riKs'taK),  is  the  rep- 

resentative chamber  of  the  legislature.    Jt  is  composed  of  397 


REICHSTAG  (PARLIAMENT)  BUILDING,  BERLIN 

members,  of  whom  Prussia  elects  236.  The  members  are  elected 
by  manhood  suffrage  for  a  term  of  five  years ;  but  the  Emperor 
may  (with  the  consent  of  the  Bundesrat)  dissolve  the  Reichstag 
at  any  time  and  order  new  elections. 

5.  The  administration  of  the  empire  is  in  the  hands  of  a  ministry, 
headed  by  the  imperial  chancellor.  Unlike  the  ministers  of  true 
parliamentary  governments,  the  German  ministers  are  respon- 
sible to  the  Emperor,  and  not  to  the  legislative  chamber.  They 
do  not  need,  therefore,  to  resign  their  offices  when  defeated  in  the 
Reichstag. 

From  1871  until  1890  the  post  of  chancellor  of   the  empire 
and  chief  minister  of  Prussia  was  held  by  Bismarck.     In  the 


THE  NEW  GERMAN  EMPIRE  633 

first  half  of  this  period  occurred  the  "  Kulturkampf "  (kool- 
toor'kampf).  This  was  a  conflict  between  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  and  the  Prussian  government  over  the  control  778.  The 
of  education  and  church  appointments.  Similar  con-  ^f^" 
flicts  occurred  in  Bavaria,  Austria,  Switzerland,  France,  (1871-1890) 
and  Belgium.  They  were  occasioned  in  part  by  the  action  of 
the  church  Council  of  the  Vatican,  in  1870,  in  proclaiming  as 
a  dogma  of  the  church  the  infallibility  of  the  Pope  in  matters 
concerning  the  faith  and  morals.  Bismarck  expressed  his 
confidence  of  victory  in  the  sentence,  "We  shall  not  go  to 
Canossa."  In  the  course  of  the  struggle  laws  were  passed  to 
expel  the  Jesuits  and  other  Catholic  religious  orders  from  Prussia, 
and  to  transform  the  bishops  and  priests  into  state  officials. 
A  powerful  Catholic  party  was  formed  in  the  Reichstag  to  com- 
bat these  measures;  and  at  length  Bismarck,  wearied  by  the 
contest,  caused  the  obnoxious  laws  to  be  gradually  repealed. 

Other  important  features  of  Bismarck's  administration  were     / 
(i)  the  passing  of  laws  to  put  down  the  Socialists,  who  were 
beginning  to  show  marked  strength  in  Germany ;  and  (2)  Work- 

the  enacting  of  measures  to  provide  pensions  under  govern-  ing  class 
ment  control  for  laborers  disabled  by  accident,  sickness,  egisj 
or  old  age.  The  purpose  of  the  latter  measures  was  to  draw  off 
the  working  classes  from  socialism.  "Give  the  workingman 
the  right  to  employment  as  long  as  he  has  health,"  said  Bis- 
marck in  a  speech  to  the  Reichstag.  "Assure  him  care  when  he 
is  sick,  and  maintenance  when  he  is  old.  If  you  will  do  that, 
without  fearing  the  sacrifice,  then  I  believe  the  Socialists  will 
sound  their  bird-call  in  vain.  As  soon  as  the  workingmen  see 
that  the  government  is  deeply  interested  in  their  welfare,  the 
flocking  to  the  Socialists  will  cease."  The  laws  to  put  down  the 
Socialists  failed  to  accomplish  their  object.  The  measures 
to  aid  the  working  classes  have  done  much  good,  but  they  also 
have  failed  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  Socialist  party  (§  907). 

In  March,  1888,  the  Emperor  William  I  died,  at  the  age  of 
ninety-one.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Frederick,  who, 
however,  was  suffering  from  a  mortal  disease,  and  lived  only 


634 


THE   UNIFICATION   OF   GERMANY 


until  June,  1888.    His  son,  William  II,  then  ascended  the  throne. 
William    II    soon   showed    great   energy   and   self-confidence, 

780.  Acces-    a  high  sense  of  the  imperial  office,  and  a  capacity  for 
wmiam  II      astonishing  the  world  by  feats  of  brilliancy.     He  wished 
(1888)  to  take  a  larger  personal  part  in  the  administration  than 

his  two  predecessors.     Bismarck,  however,  insisted   that   the 
ministers  of  departments  should  communicate  with  the  emperor 

only  through  the  chancellor. 
As  a  result  of  this  difference 
of  views,  Bismarck  was  sud- 
denly dismissed  from  his  office 
in  1890,  and  passed  into  rest- 
less retirement  on  his  country 
estates,  where  he  died  in  1899. 
Under  William  II  a  vigorous 
foreign  policy  has  been  pur- 
sued, with  many  royal  jour- 
neys and  visits  to  neighboring 
monarchs.  The  army  has  been 
fostered  and  a- powerful  navy 
founded,  and  new  measures 
have  been  passed  for  improv- 
ing the  condition  of  the  work- 
ing classes. 

The  greatest  feature  of  Ger- 
many's recent  history  has  been 
her  amazing  industrial  development.     Her  flourishing  industries, 

781.  Ger-      together  with  her  military  and  naval  power,  now  make 
duSriaim'      ner  the  lading  state  on  the  Continent  of  Europe.     In 
growth          part  this  growth  is  the  natural  result  of  the  Industrial 

I  Revolution.  In  part  it  is  due  to  the  patient  thoroughness 
with  which  Germany  —  far  beyond  any  other  country  —  has 

c^applied  to  manufacturing  the  results  of  chemical  and  physical 
research,  in  which  the  German  universities  lead  the  world. 

g  In  part  it  is  a  result  of  the  fostering  care  of  the  state  and  im- 
perial governments. 


WILLIAM  II 


THE  NEW   GERMAN   EMPIRE  635 

Until  1879  Germany  followed  a  free  trade  policy  in  her  com- 
mercial relations  with  foreign  nations.  In  that  year  Bismarck 
introduced  the  system  of  high  tariffs,  to  protect  and  foster 
German  industries.  "Both  France  and  America,"  he  said, 
"have  completely  forsaken  free  trade.  Austria,  instead  of  re- 
ducing her  protective  duties,  has  increased  them;  Russia  has 
done  the  same.  No  one  can  expect  Germany  to  remain  perma- 
nently the  victim  of  its  sincere  belief  in  the  theory  of  free  trade. 
Hitherto  we  have  thrown  our  doors  wide  open  to  foreign  goods, 
and  so  have  made  our  country  the  dumping  ground  for  all  the 
overproduction  of  other  countries.  Let  us  close  the  door,  and 
erect  the  somewhat  higher  barriers  that  are  proposed;  let 
us  see  to  it  that  we  secure,  at  any  rate,  the  German  market 
for  German  manufactures."  This  policy  has  been  continued 
by  William  II  since  Bismarck's  fall. 

The  German  manufacturers  have  secured  not  only  their  home 
market,  but  also  a  large  share  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  The 
commercial  supremacy  which  Great  Britain  so  long  enjoyed  is 
now  threatened  by  German  competition.  In  iron  manufactures 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals,  Germany  leads  all  nations. 
In  porcelains,  woolen  and  cotton  textiles,  and  a  host  of  other 
products  she  has  secured  an  enviable  place.  German  shipping 
has  grown  apace  with  manufactures ;  and  a  beginning  has  been 
made  in  the  acquisition  of  colonies  —  especially  in  Africa  (§  837) 
—  as  outlets  for  German  trade.  Capital  has  accumulated  rap- 
idly, and  German  banking  and  financial  houses  have  attained 
international  importance.  Germany's  population  has  grown 
from  41,000,000  in  1871  to  60,000,000  in  1905  —  largely  through 
the  creation  of  a  strong  and  wealthy  middle  class,  with  numer- 
ous employees  engaged  in  manufactures  and  commerce. 

The  political  development  of  Germany,  however,  has  failed 
to  keep  pace  with  the  growth  in  importance  of  the  middle  782.  Prob- 
and  working  classes ;  and  this  failure  is  one  of  the  causes  lems  of 
of  the  untest  shown  by  the  growth  of  the  Socialist  party.   and  sociai- 
At  present  the  German  people  counts  for  less  politically  ism 
than  in  any  other  country  of  western  Europe.     Although  all 


636  THE  UNIFICATION  OF   GERMANY 

men  twenty-five  j^ears  of  age  have  the  right  to  vote,  the  elec- 
toral laws  lire"  such  as  to  give  a  great  advantage  to  the  upper 
classes,  especially  the  landowning  nobles.  The  Socialists  are 
the  most  numerous  of  all  the  half  dozen  or  more  German  parties. 
In  the  elections  of  1907  their  vote  was  more  than  double  that 
of  the  Conservative  party ; l  but  they  elected  only  43  members 
to  the  Reichstag,  as  against  83  elected  by  the  Conservatives. 
A  reform  of  the  electoral  law  is  one  of  the  things  which  is  urgently 
needed.  With  this  goes  a  demand  also  for  the  introduction 
of  the  cabinet  system  of  government,  by  which  the  imperial 
ministers  shall  become  responsible  to  the  Reichstag,  and  not 
merely  to  the  Emperor. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1848.  Revolutionary  outbreak  in  Berlin ;  Frankfort  Parliament  meets. 

1849.  Failure  of  the  revolution  in  Germany. 

1861.  William  I  becomes  king  of  Prussia. 

1862.  Bismarck  becomes  chief  Prussian  minister. 

1866.  Seven  Weeks'  War  with  Austria. 

1867.  North  German  Confederation  formed. 

1870.  Franco-Prussian  War  begun. 

1871.  Peace  of  Versailles;   German  Empire  proclaimed. 
1888.   Accession  of  Emperor  William  II. 

1890.  Bismarck  dismissed  from  office. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  German  Confederation  after  1815 
with  the  old  Confederation  of  the  United  States.  (2)  Why  did  the  move- 
ment for  national  union  fail  in  1848-1849?  (3)  What  gains  did  Germany 
make  by  the  attempt  at  revolution?  (4)  What  did  Bismarck  mean  by 
his  policy  of  "blood  and  iron"?  (5)  How  did  the  war  with  Austria  con- 
tribute to  the  attainment  of  German  unity?  (6)  Which  side  was  respon- 
sible for  the  Franco-Prussian  War?  (7)  Was  Bismarck's  alteration  of  the 
Ems  dispatch  justifiable?  (8)  Why  was  Prussia  successful  in  this  war? 
(9)  Where  should  the  blame  be  placed  for  the  failure  of  the  French  in  the 
war?  (10)  Why  were  harsher  terms  of  peace  imposed  on  France  in  1871 
than  on  Austria  in  1866?  (n)  How  did  the  war  enable  Bismarck  to  com- 
plete the  formation  of  the  German  Empire?  (12)  Compare  the  constitu- 
1  For  more  recent  election  results,  see  §  907. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  637 

tion  of  the  Empire  with  that  of  the  United  States.     (13)  Were  Bismarck's 
measures  for  the  domestic  government  of  Germany  wise  or  unwise  ?     Why  ? 

(14)  Did  Emperor  William  II  do  right  in  dismissing  Bismarck  from  office? 

(15)  What  explanations  are  there  for  Germany's  great  industrial  growth  in 
recent  years?     (16)  What  is  the  significance  of  the  growth  of  the  Socialist 
party  in  recent  German  elections? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  REVOLUTION  OF  1848  IN  GERMANY.  Hazen,  Europe 
Since  1815,  173-174,  183-186;  Andrews,  Development  of  Modern  Europe, 

I,  379-384;    Henderson,   Short   History   of   Germany,   II,   348-352. —  (2) 
CHARACTER  AND  WORK  or  BISMARCK.     Hazen,  240-256 ;    Thayer,  Throne 
Makers    (" Bismarck");     Munroe  Smith,  Bismarck  and    German    Unity; 
Headlam,  Bismarck;  Encyclopedia  Britannica   (nth  ed.),  IV,  5-8.  —  (3) 
THE    SEVEN    WEEKS'    WAR    WITH    AUSTRIA.    Henderson,   II,    404-406; 
Hazen,  256-271;  Fyffe,  Modern  Europe  (popular  ed.),  948-956;   Robinson 
and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  144-155.  —  (4)  THE  EMS  DISPATCH.     Henderson, 

II,  419-422;   Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  158-159;  Anderson,  Con- 
stitutions  and   Documents,    593-594. —  (5)  BATTLE    OF    SEDAN.     Hender- 
son, II,  432-437;   Murdock,   Reconstruction  of  Modern  Europe,  ch.  xxvi; 
Rose,  I,  ch.  iii;   Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  160-161.  —  (6)  SIEGE 
OF  PARIS.     Henderson,  II,  439-442,  445-446;    Murdock,  ch.  xxviii,  xxx; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  208-210.  —  (7)  PROCLAMATION  OF  THE 
GERMAN  EMPIRE.     Henderson,  Short  History,  II,  447-450;    Rose,  I,  153- 
157;    Fyffe,  1014-1016.  —  (8)  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  EMPIRE.    Ogg,  Gov- 
ernments of  Europe,   210-228;   Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of  Modern 
Europe,   II,    130-134;    Encyclopedia  Britannica,   XI,  816-818.  —  (9)  THE 
KULTURKAMPF.     Hazen,   306-309;    Andrews,  II,  370-375;    Robinson  and 
Beard,   Readings,   II,    178-185. —  (10)   SOCIAL   REFORMS    IN     GERMANY. 
Hazen,    312-318;    Rose,    I,    178-183;    Ogg,    Social  Progress,    ch.   xviii; 
Dawson,   Bismarck    and  State  Socialism,   23-36,   72-127;    Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  185-192.  —  (11)  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  GER- 
MANY.    Ogg,  Social  Progress,  115-119,  123-124;  Encyclopedia    Britannica, 
XI,  811-816.  —  (12)  DISMISSAL  OF   BISMARCK.     Hazen,  322-323;  Robin- 
son and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  200-203. 

General  Reading.  — On  Bismarck,  in  addition  to  the  works  cited  above, 
see  Busch,  Bismarck:  Some  Secret  Pages  of  History.  Sybel,  The  Founding 
of  the  German  Empire  (7  vols.),  presents  the  official  view ;  Malleson,  Refound- 
ing  of  the  German  Empire,  1848-1871,  is  briefer,  but  deals  mainly  with 
military  events.  For  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  see  the  histories  by  Moltke 
and  by  Maurice.  The  history  since  1870  is  dealt  with  by  Andrews  in  a 
volume  entitled  Contemporary  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa  (History  of  all 
Nations  series).  For  Germany's  industrial  development  see  Dawson, 
Evolution  of  Modern  Germany,  and  Howard,  Recent  Industrial  Progress  of 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

GREAT   BRITAIN    IN    THE    NINETEENTH    CENTURY 
A.   POLITICAL  AND  SOCIAL  REFORMS 

GREAT  BRITAIN  is  the  only  state  in  Europe  which  went  through 
the  nineteenth  century  without  an  armed  revolution.     Though 

783.  No         the  framework  of  her  constitution  remained  unaltered, 
armed  revo-  {j-s  practical  operation  was  profoundly  changed.     At  the 
Great  beginning  of  the  century  the  government  was  in  the  hands 
Britain          of  the  great  landowners,  who  were  members  of  the  estab- 

lished  church.     At  its  end  power  was  shared  by  them  with  the 

middle  class,  the  workingmen,  and  the  agricultural   laborers, 

and  offices  were  open  to  men  of  all  religious  faiths.     In  the 

Dickinson,       words  of  an  English  political  writer,  "  Power  has  been 

Parliament      transferred  from  the  control  of  a  compact  and  vigorous 

in  the  Nine- 
teenth Gen-      aristocracy  to  that  of  a  democracy,  which  in  fact,  though 

ta*y> x  not  in  outward  form,  is  more  complete  and  more  uncon- 

trolled than  any  at  present  existing  in  any  first-class  state." 

The-  transfer  of  power  to  the  more  democratic  elements  in 
the  state  was  largely  the  work  of  the  Industrial  Revolution 

784.  Influ-      (chapter  xxviii).     Only  in  the  nineteenth  century  did  the 
fmiustrial 6     far-reaching  political  and  social  effects  of  those  indus- 
north  trial  changes  begin  to  be  apparent.     The  north  of  England, 

where  manufacturing  centered  because  of  its  supplies  of  iron 
and  coal,  became  the  most  populous,  the  wealthiest,  and  the 
Boutmy,         most  influential  part  of  the  kingdom.     "A  new  England 
Constitution     was  added  to  the  old,"  says  a  French  writer.     "It  was 
1 86  as  if  a  new  land  had  been  upheaved  from  the  sea  u  and 

joined  on  to  the  shores  of  some  old-world  continent."  In  reli- 
gion this  new  England  was  the  stronghold  of  Dissent,  that  is, 
of  those  Protestant  sects  not  included  in  the  established  Church 

638 


POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL  REFORMS  639 

of  England.  In  politics  it  was  the  chief  center  of  liberalism, 
and  even  of  those  more  advanced  ideas  which  we  call  radicalism. 
The  long  and  disastrous  reign  of  George  III  ended  in  1820. 
He  was  succeeded  in  turn  by  his  two  sons,  —  George  IV  (1820- 
1830),  a  dissolute  and  incompetent  ruler;  and  William  785-  British 
IV  (1830-1837),  a  bluff  and  erratic  prince  who,  as  a  younger  j^ 
son,  had  been  trained  for  a  naval  career.  William  IV,  century 
like  his  brother,  died  without  legitimate  children.  The  crown 
thereupon  passed  to  his  niece,  Queen  Victoria  (1837-1901),  who 
at  the  time  of  her  accession  was  still  a  girl  of  eighteen.1  She 
had  been  prudently  trained  by  her  mother,  the  widowed  duchess 
of  Kent,  and  from  the  beginning  of  her  reign  showed  intelligence 
and  goodness  of  heart.  The  crown  of  Hanover,  which  had  been 
joined  in  personal  union  with  that  of  Great  Britain  since  1714, 
passed  to  her  uncle,  the  duke  of  Cumberland,  as  the  nearest 
male  heir.  Throughout  h'er  life  Victoria  took  a  keen  interest 
in  German  affairs.  In  part  this  was  due  to  her  mother's  Ger- 
man birth,  to  her  own  happy  marriage  (1840)  to  Prince  Albert 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  to  the  marriage  of  her  eldest 

1  The  following  table  shows  the  family  of  George  III  and  of  Queen  Victoria :  — 
(i)  GEORGE  III  (1760-1820) 

(2)  GEORGE  IV         Frederick,        (3)  WILLIAM  IV        Edward,  Ernest, 

(1820-1830)      Duke  of  York           (1830-1837)    Duke  of  Kent  Duke  of  Cumberland 

(d.  1827)                                           (d.  1820)  (K.  of  Hanover 

I  1837-1851) 
(4)  VICTORIA 
(1837-1901) 
m.  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha  (d.  1861) 


Victoria, 

(5)  EDWARD  VII 

Alice, 

Alfred, 

Helena, 

Louise, 

Arthur, 

Leopold, 

Beatrice, 

m.  Freder- 

(1901-1910), 

m. 

Duke  o 

f       m. 

m. 

Duke 

Duke 

m. 

ick,  Crown 

m.  Alexandra 

Prince    Edin- 

Prince 

Marquis 

of  Con- 

of 

Prince 

Prince  of 

of  Denmark 

of 

burgh 

of 

of 

naught 

Albany 

of 

Prussia, 

Hesse 

and 

Augus- 

Lome, 

Batten- 

later 

later 

tenburg 

later 

berg 

German 

of  Saxe- 

Duke  of 

Emperor 

Coburg 

Argyle 

Albert        (6)  GEORGE  V  (1910-        )        Louise,        Victoria  Maud 

(d.  1892)    m.  Victoria  Mary  of  Teck  m.  m.  Prince  Charles  of  Denmark 

Duke  of  Fife  (King  Haakon  VII  of  Norway) 

Edward  Albert,          Albert  Victoria  Henry  George  John 

Prince  of  Wales 


640    GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 


daughter  to  the  crown  prince  of  Prussia,  later  himself  German 
Emperor  and  father  of  Emperor  William  II. 

Each  of  these  three  British  reigns  saw  important  steps  taken 

in    the   peaceful   transformation   of   the   constitution.     Under 

786.  Catho-    George  IV  laws  were  passed  which  at  last  put  Catholics 

pation*1101"     Practica%  on  an  equality  with  their  Protestant  fellow 

(1829)  subjects!     SUffielhtn"g~riaorJ5eeh  done  in  this  Direction  in 

the  eighteenth  century,  when  unjust  laws  prohibiting  Catholic 

worship  and  limiting  their 
civil  rights  were  repealed. 
Catholics,  however,  were 
still  shut  out  of  Parlia- 
ment and  high  political 
office  (§493).  The  move- 
ment under  George  IV 
was  to  complete  "  Catholic 
emancipation"  by  re- 
moving these  disabilities. 
After  much  agitation, 
Daniel  O'Connell,  an  elo- 
quent Catholic  lawyer, 
organized  a  widespread 
Catholic  Association  in 
Ireland.  He  was  elected 
to  the  House  of  Commons 
with  the  avowed  purpose 

of  testing  the  right  of  a  Catholic  to  sit  in  that  body.  To  deny 
him  his  seat  would  have  precipitated  an  Irish  rebellion.  Con- 
sequently the  duke  of  Wellington  and  Sir  Robert  Ped,  who 
were  then  the  leaders  of  the  government,  gave  way.  In  1829,  to 
the  great  disgust  of  their  Tory  followers,  they  secured  the  passage 
of  a  bill  admitting  Catholics  to  seats  in  Parliament  and  to  nearly 
all  offices  in  the  state.1 

1  The  laws  forbidding  Protestant  dissenters  to  take  political  office  had  been  re- 
pealed the  preceding  year  (1828).  Jews,  however,  were  not  permitted  to  sit  in 
Parliament  until  1858. 


VICTORIA  IN  1837 


POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL  REFORMS       .  641 

A  far  more  important  step  was  the  passage,  in  ,183  a^  of  the 
first  Parliamentary  Reform  Act.     The  members  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  as  we  have  seen,  were  of  two  sorts,  —  county  787.  Par- 
(or  shire)  representatives,  and  borough,  (or  town)  repre-  Kamentary 

representa- 

sentatives.  Every  county,  large  or  small,  had  two  mem-  tion  before 
bers.1  The  right  to  vote  for  county  representatives  was  l832 
restricted  to  the  small  class  of  persons  who  owned  what  was 
called  "freehold"  land,  a  qualification  which  excluded  the 
larger  part  even  of  prosperous  farmers,  whose  lands  were  usually 
"copyhold"  or  "leasehold."  The  Scottish  county  of  Bute, 
with  a  population  of  fourteen  thousand  persons,  had  only 
twenty-one  electors.  It  is  related  that,  at  one  election,  only 
a  single  elector  appeared ;  he  forthwith  took  the  chair,  moved 
and  seconded  his  own  nomination,  cast  his  vote,  and  declared 
himself  unanimously  elected.  The  boroughs  were  represented 
usually  by  two  members  each  (a  few  had  only  one),  and  there 
had  been  practically  no  change  in  the  list  of  boroughs  since  the 
days  of  Charles  II.  Many  populous  manufacturing  towns, 
such  as  Birmingham,  Manchester,  and  Leeds,  which  were  out- 
growths of  the  Industrial  Revolution,  were  without  representa- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  many  places  which  had  lost  their 
former  importance,  or  even  (like  Old  Sarum)  were  without  any 
inhabitants  at  all,  continued  to  send  members  to  Parliament. 
The  seats  of  such  "rotten"  or  "pocket"  boroughs  were  often 
publicly  sold  by  the  landlord,  or  (in  some  boroughs)  by  the 
voters  themselves.  The  qualifications  for  the  franchise  in  the 
boroughs  varied  greatly,  in  some  only  the  small  governing 
body  —  a  close  corporation  —  having  the  right  to  vote.  In  a 
House  of  Commons  of  658  members,  not  more  than  one 
third  were  the  free  choice  of  even  the  limited  bodies  of 
electors  that  had  the  franchise.  More  than  one  third  of  the 
members  owed  their  seats  to  the  influence  of  members  of  the 
House  of  Lords.  To  sum  up,  there  were  two  great  defects: 
(i)  Large  parts  of  the  kingdom  had  no  direct  representation 
in  the  House  of  Commons.  (2)  The  great  majority  of  the 

1  Except  Yorkshke_,  wjjich  was  given  two  additional  members  in  1821. 


642     GREAT   BRITAIN   IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

adult  male  population  had  no  voice  in  the  elections  to  that 
body. 

To  remedy  these  defects,  plans  for  parliamentary  reform  had 
been  proposed  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  But 
during  the  gigantic  struggle,  with  Revolutionary  France,  all 
projects  of  reform  were  stopped  by  the  fear  lest  Great  Britain 
also  might  be  led  into  revolution.  With  the  return  of  peace, 
reform  projects  again  began  to  obtain  a  hearing.  The  advent 
of  the  Whig  party  to  power  (in  1830),  after  twenty-four  years' 
exclusion,  facilitated  their  triumph. 

Lord  John  Russell  played  the  chief  part  in  securing  the  passage 
ofthe  first  Parliamentary  Reform  Act.     After  many  attempts 
788  Re-        a^  piecemea-l  reform,  he  introduced  a  general  Reform  Bill 
form  Act  of    in  the  House  of  Commons  in  March,  1831 .     At  an  im- 
1  portant  stage  of  its  progress,  the  bill  was  carried  by  a 
majority  of  only  one  vote.1    The  ministers  then  procured  a  dis- 
solution of  Parliament.     The  new  elections  gave  them  a  great 

1  The  historian  Macaulay,  who  was  a  member  of  this  House  of  Commons,  gives 
an  excellent  account  in  one  of  his  letters  of  the  excitement  which  prevailed  on  this 
occasion.  "Everybody  was  desponding,"  he  wrote.  '"  We  have  lost  it !  I  do  not 
think  we  are  two  hundred  and  fifty;  they  are  three  hundred.'  This  was  the  talk 
on  our  benches.  As  the  tellers  passed  along  our  lowest  row  the  interest  was  insup- 
portable. 'Two  hundred  and  ninety-one,  two  hundred  and  ninety-two —  We 
were  all  standing  up,  and  stretching  forward,  telling  with  the  tellers.  At  'three 
hundred'  there  was  a  short  cry  of  joy;  at  'three  hundred  and  two,'  another.  We 
knew  that  we  could  not  be  severely  beaten.  The  door  was  thrown  open  and  in  they 
came.  First,  we  heard  that  they  were  three  hundred  and  three ;  then  that  number 
rose  to  three  hundred  and  ten;  then  went  down  to  three  hundred  and  seven.  We 
were  all  breathless  with  anxiety,  when  Charles  Wood,  who  stood  near  the  door, 
jumped  up  on  a  bench  and  cried  out :  '  They  are  only  three  hundred  and  one  t ' 
We  set  up  a  shout  that  you  might  have  heard  to  Charing  Cross,  waving  our  hats, 
stamping  against  the  floor,  and  clapping  our  hands. 

"No  sooner  were  the  outer  doors  opened,  than  another  shout  answered  that 
within  the  House.  All  the  passages  and  stairs  were  thronged  by  people  who  had 
waited  till  four  in  the  morning  to  know  the  issue.  We  passed  through  a  narrow 
lane,  between  two  thick  masses  of  them ;  and  all  the  way  they  were  shouting  and 
waving  their  hats,  till  we  got  into  the  open  air.  I  called  a  cabriolet,  and  the  first 
thing  the  driver  asked  was,  'Is  the  bill  carried ? '  'Yes,  by  one  ! '  'Thank  God  for 
it,  sir ! '  And  away  I  rode  to  Gray's  Inn ;  and  so  ended  a  scene  which  will  prob- 
ably never  be  equaled  till  the  reformed  Parliament  wants  reforming."  —  Trevelyan, 
Life  and  Letters  of  Macaulay,  I,  187-188  (condensed). 


POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL  REFORMS  643 

majority  in  the  Commons.  The  Reform  Bill  now  passed  that 
house  without  difficulty,  but  was  rejected  by  the  House  of  Lords 
(199  to  158).  This  produced  a  great  outburst  of  popular  excite- 
ment. The  lords  were  mobbed  when  they  appeared  on  the 
streets,  and  even  the  bishops  (who  had  voted  unanimously  with 
the  other  peers  in  rejecting  the  bill)  were  subjected  to  abuse. 
Riots  broke  out  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  with  burning  of 
castles  and  the  release  of  prisoners  from  the  jails.  England 
seemed  on  the  brink  of  a  popular  revolution  such  as  those  with 
which  France  was  familiar. 

There  yet  remained  one  weapon  of  a  constitutional  sort  to 
use  against  the  aristocratic  upper  house.  The  Reform  Bill 
was  passed  a  second  time  by  the  House  of  Commons  and  again 
sent  up  to  the  House  of  Lords.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  number 
of  peers  that  the  king  can  create ;  and  it  is  a  fixed  principle  of 
the  British  constitution  that  the  king  must  rule  according  to 
the  advice  of  ministers  responsible  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
The  ministers  now  extorted  from  the  king  a  promise  that,  if 
necessary,  he  would  create  enough  new  peers  favorable  to  the  bill 
to  carry  it  through  the  House  of  Lords.  To  prevent  this  whole- 
sale swamping  of  their  order,  the  Lords  gave  way,  and  in  June, 
1832,  the  Reform  Bill  became  law.  \ 

This  triumph  of  the  people  fixed  in  practice  what  has  well 
been  called  the   " safety  valve"   of  the  British  constitution. 
By  this  is  meant  the  power  of  a  ministry,  when  supported  789.  The 
by  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  and  an  aroused  "^afejf 
public  sentiment  behind  it,  to  require  the  king  to  use  his  the  consti- 
prerogative  of  creating  peers  as  a  means  to  coerce  the  tution 
upper  house.     The  mere  threat  to  use  this  power  is  all  that  is 
needed;    no  such  wholesale  creation  of  peers  has  ever  taken 
place.     For  a  generation  after  1832  the  House  of  Lords  sank 
into  political  impotence,  and  did  not  dare  attempt  to  thwart 
the  will  of  the  representative  chamber. 

The  Parliamentary  Reform  Act  of  1832  took  away  143  mem-  \ 
bers  from  small  boroughs.     It  used  these  seats  to  increase  the 
representation  of  the  more  populous  counties,  and  to  give  mem-   V 


644    GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

bers  to  the  unrepresented  manufacturing  towns  of  the  north. 
The  purpose  of  the  bill  may  be  described  in  language  which 
790.  Pro-       Russell  used  of  one  of  his  earlier  measures :  "  My  proposal 
thcTActof      took   away   representation   from   the   dead   bones   of    a 
1832  former  state  of  England,  and  gave  it  to  the  living  energy 

and  industry  of  the  England  of  the  nineteenth  century,  with 
its  steam  engines  and  factories,  its  cotton  and  woolen  cloths, 
its  cutlery  and  its  coal  mines,  its  wealth  and  its  intelligence." 
The  franchise  for  both  county  and  borough  electors  was,  at  the 
Q  same  time,  made  more  liberal,  and  the-  qualification  in  the  bor- 
oughs was  made  uniform. 

The  reform  of  1832,  though  brought  about  by  peaceful  means, 
constituted  a  real  political  revolution.  It  marked  the  end  of 
791-  Re-  the  Old  Regime  in  England.  It  substituted  the  rule 
of  1867°  S  °f  tne  middle  classes  —  of  the  farmers  and  shopkeepers  — 
and  1884  for  the  rule  of  the  landed  aristocracy.  The  further  step 
of  'making  the  government  democratic  was  accomplished  by 
the  Reform  Acts  of  1867  and  [1884.  The  first  of  these  was 
passed  by  the  Conservatives  (as  the  Tories  were  now  called) 
while  Disraeli  (diz-ra'li)  was7  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Because  it  was  proposed  by  the  Conservatives,  it  had  no  diffi- 
culty in  passing  the  House  of  Lords.  It  doubled  the  number 
of  voters  by  giving  workingmen  the  franchise.  The  Reform 
Act  of  1884  was  passed  whilk^ladstone  (glad'stun),  the  Whig, 
or  Liberal,  leader,  was  prime  minister.  It  added  about  two 
million  persons,  mostly  rural  laborers,  to  the  voting  body.  It 
passed  the  Lords  only  after  a  struggle,  because  it  was  the  work 
of  the  Liberal  party.  After  the  passage  of  the  latter  act,  the 
franchise  in  Great  Britain  was  almost  as  widely  distributed  as 
it  is  in  the  United  States.  Each  extension  of  the  franchise  was 
accompanied  by  a  redistribution  of  seats,  so  that  representation 
became  roughly  proportioned  to  population.  . 

The  Reform  Act  of  1832,  and  later  electoral  laws,  made  some 

improvements  also  in  the  methods  of  holding  elections.     Voters 

5      were  required  to  be  registered,  the  number  of  polling  places 

was  increased,  and  the  time  of  voting  was  reduced  to  one  day. 


POLITICAL  AND   SOCIAL  REFORMS  645 

Until  1872,  however,  the  voting  was  viva  wee,  or  by  show  of 
hands.     The  defeated  candidate,  if  dissatisfied,  might  demand 
a  poll  of  the  voters.      In  that  case,  each  voter  had  to  792.  Voting 
make  public   declaration   of   his   vote,  which   was   then  Deduced 
entered    upon    the   poll    books.      Such   crude    methods   (1872) 
obviously  made  intimidation  and  bribery  easy.     To  remedy 
these  evils  a  system  of  voting  by  secret  ballot  was  adopted 
in   1872,  similar  to  that  used   in  ^Australia   and   the   United 
States. 

The  foregoing  changes  made  the  government  of  Great  Britain 
more  democratic.  Other  laws,  which  did  much  to  improve  the 
material  condition  of  the  people,  followed  as  a  result  of  the  fact 
that  the  people  themselves  now  had  a  larger  part  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

One  of  the  greatest  of  the  social  changes  which  followed  the 
first  Parliamentary  Reform  Act  was  the  abolition  of  negro 
slavery  throughout  the  British  Empire.     A  decision  of  the  793-  Abo- 
British  courts  in  1772  had  established  it  as  the  law  that  J^vcry* 
whenever  a  slave  set  foot  in  England,  his  master  lost  legal   (1833) 
control  of  him.     Nevertheless,  slavery  continued  to  exist  in  Brit- 
ish colonies,  and  British  vessels  continued  to  play  a  large  part 
in  the  slave  trade.     Philanthropists  (especially  Clarkson  and 
Wilberforce)  carried  on  an  agitation  against  this  infamous  traffic. 
As  a  result,  Parliament  was  induced,  in  1807,  to  pass  an  act 
which  abolished  entirely  the  slave  trade  by  British  ships  and 
to  British  colonies.     In  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815),  England 
urged  the  other  Powers  to  similar  steps. 

The  year  following  the  first  Parliamentary  Reform  Act, 
Parliament  passed  an  act  which  abolished  slavery  itself,  and 
appropriated  £20,000,000  to  compensate  the  masters  (1833). 
Thus  the  British  Empire  was  entirely  freed  from  the  curse  of 
negro  slavery.  This  step  was  taken  a  generation  before  the 
extinction  of  slavery  in  the  United  States.  It  should  be  noted, 
moreover,  that  the  abolition  of  slavery  was  accomplished 
peacefully  in  the  British  Empire,  while  in  the  American  re- 
public it  was  brought  about  only  by  a  great  civil  war. 


646     GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

The  first   reformed   Parliament   also   passed   an   important 

measure  to  improve  the  lot  of  free  laborers.     In  manufacturing 

794.  Condi-    establishments    men,    and    even    women    and    children, 

factor°fiifc     °^ten  worked  as  many  as  eighteen  hours  a  day.     Many 

improved       parents  practically  sold  their  children  to  the  owners  of 

factories,  who  worked  them  for  such  long  hours  and  under  such 

bad  conditions  that  they  either  died  or  were  injured  for  life. 

One  young  man  testified   before  a  committee  of   Parliament, 

in  1832,  as  follows:  — 

"What  time  did  you  begin  to  work  at  a  mill?"  —  "When  I  was 

six  years  old." 

"What  sort  of  a  mill  was  it  ?"  —  " A  woolen  mill." 

"What  were  the  hours  of  work?"  —"We  used  to  start  at  five, 

and  work  till  nine  at  night." 

"State  the  effect  upon  your  health  of  those  long  hours  of  labor." 

—  "I  was  made  crooked  with  so  much  standing."     Here  the  witness 

showed  his  legs,  which  were  very  crooked. 

"How  tall  are  you?"  —  "About  four  feet,  nine  inches." 
"What  effect  did  working  by  gaslight  have  upon  your  eyes?" 

"It  nearly  made  me  blind." 

As  a  result  of  such  revelations  as  these,  Parliament  in  1833 
passed  a  Factory  Act,  which  prohibited  entirely  the  employment 
of  children  under  nine  years  of  age.  It  also  limited  to  nine 
hours  a  day  the  labor  of  those  who  were  between  nine  years 
and  thirteen  years  of  age ;  while  "young  persons"  (that  is,  those 
between  thirteen  and  eighteen  years  of  age)  were  limited  to 
twelve  hours  a  day.  Subsequent  acts  still  further  limited  the 
„  employment  of  children.  The  employment  of  both  women 
and  children  underground  in  mines,  where  conditions  were 
even  worse  than  in  factories,  was  entirely  prohibited. 

The  adoption  of  free  trade  was  another  step  which  followed 

the  reform  of  Parliament.     We  have  already  traced  the  origins 

795  Free       of  this  movement  in  the  writings  of  French  economists, 

adopted         and-  in  ^e  great  work  of  Adam  Smith  (§  563).     The  chief 

(1846)  obstacle  to  the  triumph  of  free  trade  was  the  interest  of 

the  landlord  class.     They  wished  to  maintain  the  "corn  laws," 


POLITICAL  AND    SOCIAL   REFORMS  647 

which  prohibited  the  importation  of  "corn"  (that  is,  grain), 
except  when  scarcity  raised  the  price  to  starvation  figures. 
Manufacturers  protested  against  these  laws,  because  they  made 
living  dear  and  compelled  employers  to  pay  higher  wages. 
After  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  had  weakened  the  influence  of 
the  landlord  class  in  Parliament,  it  became  possible  to  attack 
the  "corn  laws"  with  some  hope  of  success. 

An  Anti-Corn-Law  League  was  accordingly  organized  (in 
1838)  under  Richard  Cobden  and  John  Bright.  In  1845,  as 
Cobden  said,  "Famine  itself,  against  which  we  had  warred, 
joined  us."  In  that  year  a  disease  attacked  the  potato,  which 
was  the  chief  article  of  food  of  the  Irish  peasantry.  As  a  result, 
two  million  persons  are  said  to  have  died  of  starvation  and  want 
in  Ireland,  and  within  four  years  another  million  emigrated  to 
America.  A  traveler  reported  that  in  certain  places  "  all  the 
sheep  were  gone ;  all  the  cows,  all  the  poultry  killed ;  only  one 
pig  left;  the  very  dogs  which  had  barked  at  me  before  had 
disappeared;  no  potatoes,  no  oats."  The  Whig  leader,  Lord 
Russell,  who  formerly  had  upheld  the  corn  laws,  now  took  up 
the  cry  for  their  repeal.  He  declared  that  they  had  "been 
proved  to  be  the  blight  of  commerce,  the  bane  of  agriculture, 
the  source  of  bitter  divisions  among  classes,  the  cause  Walpole, 
of  penury,  fever,  mortality,  and  crime  among  the  people."  ^ssdl, 
The  Tory  leader,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  who  was  again  prime  408 
minister,  yielded  to  the  demand,  and  with  the  assistance  of 
the  Whigs,  carried  through  Parliament  the  repeal  of  the  obnox- 
ious laws  (1846).  This  measure  helped  to  relieve  the  distress 
occasioned  by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop.  It  also  perma- 
nently cheapened  the  cost  of  living  for  the  working  classes  of 
Great  Britain,  and  so  greatly  improved  their  condition.  The 
repeal  of  the  corn  laws  practically  completed  the  series  of 
changes  in  the  tariff  laws  which  committed  Great  Britain  to 
the  policy  of  free  trade.  To  Peel  himself  the  measure  brought 
political  downfall ;  for  the  Tory  protectionists  now  abandoned 
their  former  leader,  and  soon  joined  the  Whigs  in  overthrowing 
his  government. 


648     GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

B.   GLADSTONE  AND  IRISH  QUESTIONS 

In  the  first  thirty-five  years  which  followed  the  Reform  Act 
of  1832,  the  Conservatives  (Tories)  were  in  office  less  than  seven 
years  all  told.  In  the  next  thirty-eight  years  (1868-1905)  they 
were  in  office  twenty-six  years.  This  recovery  of  their  lost 
power  was  due  principally  to  two  things :  (i)  they  now  adopted 
a  more  Liberal  policy  with  respect  to  domestic  reforms ;  (2)  they 
gave  more  prominence  than  Liberals  to  foreign  and  colonial 
affairs. 

The  Conservative  leader  who  did  most  to  educate  his  party 
on  these  lines  was  Benjamin  Disraeli,  later  made  earl  of  Beacons- 
796  Glad-  ^e^'  ^e  Decame  prime  minister  for  the  first  time  in 
stone  and  1868.  At  about  the  same  time  Lord  Russell  surrendered 
Disraeli  ^  leadership  of  the  Liberal  party  to  William  E.  Glad- 
stone. From  that  day  until  Beaconsfield's  death,  in  1881, 
there  was  a  prolonged  political  duel  between  these  two  great 
statesmen.  Disraeli,  who  was  a  novelist,  and  a  man  of  spar- 
kling wit,  was  the  son  of  Jewish  parents,  but  was  himself  a 
Christian.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  those  who  deserted 
Peel  on  the  question  of  abolishing  the  corn  laws,  and  bitterly 
attacked  that  statesman  for  his  course.  He  said  that  Peel 
had  "caught  the  Whigs  bathing,  and  had  walked  off  with  their 
clothes"  —meaning  that  he  had  stolen  their  political  ideas. 
Disraeli  was  a  very  brilliant  speaker  and  an  able  statesman,  but 
he  was  regarded  by  many  as  lacking  in  political  sincerity. 

In  his  youth  Gladstone  for  a  time  had  planned  to  become 
a  clergyman.  Though  he  followed  his  father's  wishes  and 
entered  political  life  instead,  he  retained  a  deep  interest  in  re- 
ligion throughout  his  career.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1833 
as  an  extreme  Tory.  He  became  a  Peelite ;  then  an  out-and- 
out  Liberal ;  and  after  more  than  sixty  years  of  active  political 
life,  he  ended  his  parliamentary  career  (in  1894)  as  a  Radical. 
Late  in  life  he  summed  up  the  changes  in  his  political  principles 
in  these  words:  "I  was  brought  up  to  distrust  and  dislike 
liberty.  I  learned  to  believe  in  it.  That  is  the  key  to  all  my 


GLADSTONE  AND   IRISH  QUESTIONS 


649 


changes."  Gladstone  was  a  matchless  orator,  and  a  master 
of  finance  and  constructive  statesmanship.  He  was  fearless 
to  the  point  of  rashness  in  his  political  leadership.  Above  all, 

he  was  a  great  moral 
force,  using  his  remark- 
able intellect  to  advance 
the  cause  of  political, 
social,  and  industrial 
freedom.  Because  of 
his  long  and  honorable 
public  service,  he  be- 
came known  the  world 
over  as  England's 
"Grand  Old  Man." 

Disraeli's  first  minis- 
try fell  the  same  year 
that  it  was  formed,   797.  The 
the    question 


at    Irish  Church 

disestab- 
issue     being     the  ushed 

(1869) 


continuance  of  the 
established     Protestant 
GLADSTONE  Church  in  Ireland.     At 

the  time  of  the  Ref- 
ormation, this  branch  of  the  Anglican  Church  had  been 
assigned  the  former  position  and  the  property  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  in  that  land.  Four  fifths  of  the  people  of 
Ireland,  however,  clung  to  the  old  Catholic  faith;  and  in  1835 
it  was  reported  to  Parliament  that  in  151  parishes  there  was 
not  a  single  Protestant.  Sydney  Smith,  an  eloquent  English 
clergyman,  wrote:  "On  an  Irish  Sabbath  the  bell  of  a  neat 
parish  church  often  summons  to  church  only  the  parson  and 
an  occasionally  conforming  clerk ;  while  two  hundred  yards  off 
a  thousand  Catholics  are  huddled  together  in  a  miserable  hovel 
and  pelted  by  all  the  storms  of  heaven."  Gradually  the  con- 
sciences of  English  Liberals  awoke  to  the  injustice  of  taxing 
the  Irish  people  for  the  support  of  a  faith  professed  by  so  small 


9 


650     GREAT   BRITAIN   IN  THE  NINETEENTH    CENTURY 

a  minority.  On  this  question  the  Conservatives  were  out- 
voted in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  in  the  elections  which 
followed,  the  Liberals  were  victorious. 

Gladstone,  at  the  head  of  a  Liberal  government,  thereupon 
became  prime  minister  for  the  first  time.     The  first  act  of  his 
government  was  to  introduce  and  carry  through  a  measure  to 
disestablish  and  partly  disendow  the  Protestant  Irish  Church. 
Thenceforth  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  Ireland  has 
held  a  position  similar  to  that  which  it  holds  in  the  United  States. 
Gladstone  was  responsible  for  a  host  of  other  reforms  in  his 
first    premiership   (1868-1874).     Among   these  were:    an  act 
1  Other     establishing  in  England   (1870)   a  state  system   of   ele- 
reforms    2^  mentary  education  ;   the  abolition  of  all  religious  tests  at 
(1868-1874)    the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge   (1871);    an 
act  reorganizing  and  unifying  the  great  law  courts   (1873)  ; 
an  Irish  Land  Act,  which  attempted  to  remedy  some  of  the 
economic  evils  which  weighed  upon  the  Irish  peasantry  (1870). 
In  later  years  Gladstone  was  forced  more  and  more  to  consider 
Irish  questions.     To  understand  these  we  must  review  briefly 
Condi-    the  history  of  Ireland's  connection  with  England.     The 
tions  in          policy  of  confiscating  Irish  land,  which  was  begun  in  the 
sixteenth  century  (§  395),  was  continued  under  James  I 
and  Oliver  Cromwell.     Two  thirds  of  the  tillable  land  of  Ire- 
land passed  into  the  hands  of  Englishmen,  who  at  the  same  time 
were  usually  Protestants.     The  great  mass  of  the  Irish  people 
were  forced  to  become  "tenant  farmers"  under  "absentee" 
landlords  who  dwelt  in  Great  Britain.     The  main  concern  of 
these  landlords  was  to  get  as  much  rent  from  their  tenants  as 
possible,  and  to  do  as  little  for  them  as  they  might.     Their 
Irish  tenants  lived  in  miserable  hovels,  paid  high  rents,  and 
usually  were  liable  to  be  turned  out  of  their  little  farms  at  a 
moment's  notice.     Disraeli  once  said  that  the  Irish  peasants 
were  "the  worst  housed,  worst  fed,  and  the  worst  clothed  in 
Europe."     Except  in  Ulster  (the   northern   part   of   Ireland) 
tenants  who  made  improvements  on  the  lands  they  tilled  ran 
the  risk  of  having  their  rents  raised  as  a  result  of  their  own 


GLADSTONE   AND   IRISH  QUESTIONS  651 

industry.  Evictions  (the  turning  out  of  tenants  for  failure  to 
pay  the  rent  demanded)  were  common.  These  led  in  turn  to 
cattle  maiming,  arson,  and  murder  by  way  of  revenge.  Then, 
to  put  down  such  crimes,  Parliament  passed  coercive  laws,  and 
these  served  still  further  to  embitter  Irish  hatred  of  England. 
In  addition  to  other  injustices,  Irish  manufactures  and  commerce 
were  long  crushed  by  the  English  Navigation  Acts  (§  450)  and 
similar  repressive  laws.  Agriculture  and  grazing  were  almost 
the  only  occupations  to  which  Irishmen  could  turn  their  hands. 

The  beginning  of  better  things  for  Ireland  came  in  1879  with 
the  formation  of  the  National  Land  League  under   Charles 
Stewart  Par'nell,  the  leader  of  the  Irish  party  in  Parlia-  800.  Parnell 
ment.     Its  demands  were  summed  up  in  the  "  three  F's  ": 
(i)  Fixity  of  tenure,  (2)  free  sale,  and  (3)  fair  rent.     In  League 
1880  the  "boycott"  (so  called  from  Captain  Boycott,  the  first 
notable  victim  of  the  system)  was  devised  as  a  means  of  com- 
bating those  who   violated    these   principles.     In   Parliament 
Parnell  at  the  head  of  a  solid  Irish  party  adopted  the  policy  of 
systematically  "obstructing"  all  business  until  Irish  grievances 
should  be  redressed.     Gladstone's  second  administration  (1880- 
1885)  passed  a  second  Irish  Land  Act,  which  did  much  good,  but 
fell  short  of  the  demands  of  the  Irish  party. 

With  the  general  development  of  the  spirit  of  nationality 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  came  a  desire  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Irish  Parliament.1     This  led,  in  1870,  to  the  formation  801.  Glad- 
of  the  Irish  Home  Rule  League,  which  advocated  "home 
rule"  (or  self-government)  for  Ireland.     In    Gladstone's   (1886) 
third  administration  (1886)  he  startled  England  by  announcing 
his  conversion  to  the  cause  of  Home  Rule.     The  result  was  a 
disastrous  split  in   the  Liberal  party.     The  majority  of  its 
members  followed  their  official  leader ;  but  a  minority,  of  whom 
Joseph  Chamberlain  was  the  most  important,  formed  the  Liberal 

1  By  an  Act  of  Union,  passed  in  1800,  the  Irish  Parliament  had  been  induced 
to  disband  -and  to  unite  Ireland  with  Great  Britain  in  "the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland."  Thenceforth  Ireland  had  28  representative  peers, 
sitting  for  life,  in  the  British  House  of  Lords,  and  100  members  in  the  House  of 
Commons. 


652     GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

Unionist  party,  and  thereafter  acted  with  the  Conservatives. 
Gladstone's  first  Home  Rule  Bill,  introduced  in  1886,  was  de- 
feated in  the  House  of  Commons  by  341  to  311  votes.  Glad- 
stone then  "appealed  to  the  country"  by  procuring  the  dis- 
solution of  the  House  of  Commons  and  holding  new  elections. 
In  the  new  House  of  Commons  he  had  only  276  supporters 
against  394.  He  thereupon  resigned,  and  a  Conservative  minis- 
try was  formed  under  Lord  Salisbury  (solz'ber-i). 

Lord  Salisbury's  (second)  administration  lasted  from  1886 
to  1892.     Some  further  steps  were  taken  toward  solving  the 
802.  Weak-    Irish  land  question,  but  nothing  was  done  toward  giving 
ening  of         Home  Rule  to  Ireland.     The  Irish  cause  was  weakened 
party  by  a  split  in  the  Home  Rule   party,  a  portion  of  the 

(1886-1892)  irish  members  having  on  personal  grounds  repudiated 
Parnell,  who  died  in  1891.  In  1892  Lord  Salisbury  was  forced 
to  dissolve  Parliament  and  appeal  to  the  country.  The  Liberals, 
under  Gladstone,  adopted  a  platform  which  demanded  Home 
Rule  for  Ireland,  the  disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  (Prot- 
estant Episcopal)  Church  in  Wales,  the  "mending  or  ending" 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  payment  for  members  of  Parliament,  and 
other  radical  measures.  The  result  of  the  elections  was  a  .House 
of  Commons  containing  a  Gladstonian  majority  of  forty. 

Thus  for  the  fourth  time  Gladstone  became  prime  minister. 
This  position  he  held  until  1894,  when  he  resigned  (in  his 
eighty-fifth  year)  on  account  of  ill  health.  His  second  Home 
Rule  Bill  passed  the  House  of  Commons  in  1893,  but  it  was  de- 
feated in  the  House  of  Lords,  by  a  vote  of  419  to  41.  Since  the 
opposition  to  Irish  Home  Rule  was  strong  among  the  upper 
classes  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  people  did  not  overwhelmingly 
demand  it,  Gladstone  was  unable  to  procure  a  creation  of  peers  to 
carry  the  measure  through  the  House  of  Lords  (§  789).  Conse- 
quently he  let  Home  Rule  drop  for  a  time,  and  carried  through 
other  measures  to  which  he  was  pledged.  The  cause  of  Home 
Rule  languished  until  a  decade  after  Gladstone's  death. 

The  Irish  land  question,  however,  was  practically  settled  by  an 
act  passed,  in  1903,  by  the  Conservative  government,  in  agree- 


GLADSTONE   AND   IRISH  QUESTIONS  653 


VICTORIA  IN  1897 

ment  with  the  Irish  party.     The  main  feature  of  this  act  was 
a  provision  for  a  government  loan  of  £100,000,000  to  803.  Irish 
enable  Irish  tenants  to  purchase  their  holdings.     The  re- 
payment  of  the  loans  was  distributed  over  long  periods.   (1903) 
The  peasant  is  thus  at  last  becoming  the  owner  of  the  land  he 
tills,  and  the  chief  source  of  Ireland's  ills  will  soon  be  removed. 
Gladstone  died  in  1898,  and  Salisbury  in  1903.     More  im- 
portant than  the  death  of  either  was  the  death,  in  jt9or,  of 
Queen  Victoria.     The  loyal  affection  felt  for  her  throughout  the 


654    GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

British  Empire  was  shown  at  her  jubilees  (in  1887  and  in  1897) 
on  the  completion  of  her  fiftieth  and  sixtieth  years  of  rule. 
804.  Death     During  her  reign  of  sixty-four  years,  the  people  of  Great 
Victoria*1       Britain  doubled  in  numbers,  while  their  wealth  increased 
(1901)  threefold   and   their   trade   sixfold.     Victoria's   reign   is 

the  most  glorious  in  the  annals  of  England  —  glorious  not  by 
reason  of  conquests  and  wars,  but  by  reason  of  the  progress  of 
peace,  enlightenment,  morality,  and  of  the  uplifting  of  the 
people.  In  English  literature  it  was  an  important  epoch. 
Burns,  Byron,  and  Scott  belong  to  an  earlier  period;  but 
Wordsworth  (1770-1850),  Macaulay  (1800—1859),  Browning 
(1812-1889),  Tennyson  (1809-1892),  Dickens  (1812-1870),  and 
Thackeray  (1811-1862)  were  of  the  Victorian  era.  Many  forces 
combined  to  produce  the  greatness  of  England  in  this  period. 
Among  these  must  be  reckoned  the  good  Queen  Victoria,  whose 
"  noble  life  and  beneficent  influence,"  to  use  the  language  of 
President  McKinley,  "  have  prompted  the  peace  and  won  the 
affection  of  the  world."  The  Prince  of  Wales,  at  the  age  of 
sixty,  succeeded  her  as  Edward  VII  (§  880). 

The  revival  in  the  new  qentury  of  the  struggle  for  Home  Rule 
will  be  described  in  a  later  chapter.      The  following  things 
805  Prog-     should  be  noted  as  having  been  accomplished  for  Ireland 
ress  of  in  the  nineteenth  century :  (i)  The  religious  tests  which 

kept  Irish  Catholics  out  of  political  office  were  re- 
pealed. (2)  The  Protestant  Church  of  Ireland  was  dis- 
established, and  Irish  Catholics  were  no  longer  taxed  to 
support  a  religion  in  which  they  disbelieve.  (3)  The  land 
question  was  practically  settled.  (4)  In  addition,  Ireland  shared 
in  the  benefits  of  the  general  reforms' enacted  by  Great  Britain  — 
in  the  extension  of  the  right  of  voting,  in  free  trade,  in  the  pro- 
tection given  by  the  factory  acts,  and  in  the  reform  of  local 
government.  ^  Irish  manufactures  and  commerce,  Irish  art 
and  literature,  were  revived.  The  "Emerald  Isle"  is  at  last 
awakening  from  the  stagnation  into  which  it  was  thrust  by 
England's  oppression ;  and  to  no  one  Englishman  is  this  result 
more  due  than  to  William  E.  Gladstone. 


THE   BRITISH   CONSTITUTION  655 

To  sum  up  the  history  of  Great  Britain  in  the  nineteenth 
century  we  may  say :  (i)  That  her  constitution  was  transformed 
by  peaceful  means,  (aj  That  great  steps  were  taken  to-  806.  Great 

ward  the  solution  of  many  vexed  social  and  economic  Britain>s 

progress 
problems.     (3)  That  Great  Britain  by  her  example  con-  and  influ- 

tributed  largely  also  to  the  solution  of  the  political  prob-  ence 
lems  of  Continental  countries.    "England  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury," says  a  French  historian,  "has  served  as  a  political  model 
for  Europe.     The  English  people  developed  the  political  seignobos 
mechanism  of  modern  Europe,  —  constitutional  monarchy,  Europe  Since 
parliamentary  government,  and  safeguards   for  personal  l8l4>  IC 
liberty.     The  other  nations  have  only  imitated  them." 

England  passed  through  the  nineteenth  century  without  a 
revolution  mainly  because  of  two  things :  (i)  She  already  had 
an  established  constitution,  under  which  much  political  freedom 
was  enjoyed,  together  with  a  liberty  of  speech  and  of  writing 
which  made  possible  peaceful  movements  for  reform.  (2)  The 
English  are  a  conservative  people,  and  prefer  to  "muddle  along" 
with  existing  conditions  as  long  as  they  are  endurable,  and  to 
change  cautiously  when  change  is  necessary.  Most  of  their 
reforms  —  religious  emancipation,  parliamentary  reform,  factory 
legislation,  Irish  betterment  —  came  gradually  and  as  a  result 
of  compromise.  Thus  Great  Britain  escaped  the  seesaw  of 
revolution  and  reaction,  and  each  step  in  advance  proved 
permanent. 

C.   THE  BRITISH  CONSTITUTION 

The  three  great  acts  of  Parliamentary  Reform  (§§  791,  792) 
transferred  to  the  people  the  chief   political   power  in  Great 
Britain.     The  forms  and  appearances  of  the  monarchy,   807.  The 
however,  were  preserved  unchanged.     In  theory  the  king  ^f  Monarchy 
still  enacts  laws,  declares  war,  makes  peace,  and  carries  preserved 
on  the  government.     In  practice  all  legislative  power  is  e^er- 
cised  by  Parliament,  and  all  executive  power  is  1<r>  *V  hrlr>Hg^f 
Cabinet  ministers,  who  act  in  the  king's  name.     To  Americans 
it  may  seem  absurd  to  maintain  the  ancient  forms  of  government 


656     GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

when  the  substance  has  so  greatly  changed.  But  Englishmen 
cling  with  reverence  and  affection  to  their  king,  and  maintain 
their  monarchical  traditions. 

The  British  constitution  is  not,  like  that  of  the  United  States, 
embodied  in  a  written  document.  It  is  made  up  of  institutions, 
customs,  and  laws  which  have  arisen  in  the  slow  growth  of  cen- 
turies. An  English  philosopher  compares  the  British  consti- 
tution to  one  of  those  old  English  manor  houses  "  which  in- 
stead of  being  built  all  at  once,  after  a  regular  plan,  has  been 
reared  in  different  ages,  has  been  altered  from  time  to  time, 
and  has  continually  been  receiving  additions  and  repairs  suited 
to  the  taste,  fortune,  or  convenience  of  its  successive  proprie- 
tors." Unlike  the  constitution  of  the  United  States,  that  of 
I  Great  Britain  can  be  amended  at  any  time  and  in  any  part  by 
I  an  ordinary  act  of  Parliament. 

The  center  of  the  actual  working  part  of  the  government  is 

I   the  Cabinet.     In  reality  this  is  a  committee  selected  from  the 

808."  The        two  houses  of  Parliament.     Nowadays  it  numbers  from 

Cabinet         sixteen  to  twenty  members.     The  king  chooses  the  prime 

of  govern-      minister  or  head  of  the  Cabinet,  and  the  latter  chooses 

men{  his  colleagues.     In  reality  the  range  of  choice  is  greatly 

1   narrowed  by  the  requirements :  ^p  that  the  Cabinet  shall  be 

\  of  the  same  political  opinions  as  me  majority  in  the  House  of 

\  Commons ;  and^j  that  its  head  and  members  shall  be  those 

1  whom  that  majority  recognizes  as  its  leaders. 

Each  member  of  the  Cabinet  becomes  the  head  of  one  of  the 
great  departments  of  government  (Foreign  Affairs,  War,  Ad- 
miralty, Treasury,  etc.).  Together  with  their  chief  assistants 
in  these  departments,  they  make  up  the  ministry,  usually  num- 
bering about  forty  persons.  The  less  important  ministers, 
equally  with  the  Cabinet  ministers,  must  all  be  members  of 
one  or  the  other  of  the  houses  of  Parliament. 

"  Upon  the  Cabinet,"  Gladstone  once  wrote,  "  is  concentrated 

Gladstone,       tne  wn°le  strain  of  the  government,  and  it  constitutes 

Gleanings,       from  day  to  day  the  true  center  of  gravity  of  the  working 

' 224  system  of  the  state."     The  Cabinet    ministers   perform 


657 


658     GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY 

three  most  important  functions.  In  the  secret  sessions  of  the 
Cabinet  they  decide  what  shall  be  the  policies  of  the  realm.  In 
the  House  of  Commons  and  in  the  House  of  Lords  they 
advocate  and  defend  these  policies.  In  the  executive  depart- 
ments over  which  they  severally  preside  they  carry  out  these 
policies.  In  this  way  a  unity  and  consistency  of  action  is  given 
to  the  government  which  is  wanting  under  most  other  forms  of 
government.  Indeed,  the  union  of  executive  and  legislative  powers 
is  one  of  the  chief  points  of  difference  between  the  British 
constitution  and  the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  In 
the  United  States,  neither  the  President  nor  the  members  of 
his  Cabinet  are  allowed  to  have  seats  in  Congress  or  to  take 
part  in  its  debates.  They  are  forced,  therefore,  to  use  in- 
direct and  roundabout  means  of  securing  the  passage  of  the 
laws  which  they  consider  desirable.  In  Great  Britain  the  prime 
minister  and  his  colleagues  must  be  members  of  Parliament, 
and  they  are  naturally  its  leaders.  The  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons  is  not  the  leader  of  that  body,  as  is  the  case  in 
our  House  of  Representatives,  but  is  merely  an  impartial  pre- 
siding officer.  It  is  the  ministers  that  take  the  leading 
part  in  the  business  of  Parliament.  For  example,  no  vote  of 
money,  and  no  addition  to  any  vote,  can  be  proposed  except  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  by  one  of  the  ministers.  This 
puts  an  effective  check  on  extravagance,  and  prevents  such 
scandals  as  sometimes  arise  in  connection  with  our  river  and 
harbor  bills,  public  building  bills,  and  private  pension  legis- 
lation. 

Another  vital  difference  between  the  American  and  the 
British  systems  lies  in  the  fact  that  when  the  British  ministry 
loses  the  support  of  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons  it  must 
either  resign  or  "appeal  to  the  country."  If  the  latter  course 
is  determined  upon,  the  king  dissolves  Parliament  and  orders  a 
general  election.  If  the  ministers  are  sustained  by  the  voters, 
they  remain  in  office  and  have  thereafter  a  majority  favorable 
to  their  measures.  If  the  opposite  party  secures  a  majority  of 
members  in  the  election,  the  ministers  must  resign,  and  the 


659 


66o    GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

acknowledged  leader  of  the  opposition  party  is  called  by  the 
king  to  form  a  ministry.  He  and  his  followers  then  take 
their  places  on  the  government  benches  in  Parliament,  and 
the  former  ministers  become  the  leaders  of  the  opposition. 
Members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  not  required  to  be  res- 
idents of  the  constituencies  which  they  represent ;  and  if  an  im- 
portant member  of  either  party  is  defeated  in  the  election,  a  seat 
is  found  for  him  from  some  other  constituency.  Thus  great 
statesmen  like  Gladstone  can  spend  the  greater  part  of  their 
lives  in  continuous  service  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Often  such 
a  man  will  serve  three  or  four  times  as  prime  minister,  leading 
the  opposition  in  Parliament  when  his  party  is  out  of  power. 
When  an  election  is  held,  three  weeks  usually  covers  the  whole 
time  between  the  dissolution  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  the 
coming  into  office  of  the  newly  elected  house.  With  this  should 
be  contrasted  the  period  of  thirteen  months  which  usually 
elapses  between  the  election  of  an  American  Congress  and  the 
entrance  of  its  members  upon  the  duties  of  their  office,  —  to 
say  nothing  of  the  greater  length  of  our  political  campaigns. 

From  this  account  it  will  be  clear  why  the  British  Cabinet 

system  is  said  to  be  the  most  democratic  form  of  government 

809.  Cabi-      in  operation  in  any  great  modern  state.     The  fact  that  the 

net  govern-    House  of  Commons  may  be  dissolved  at  any  time  for  the 

ment  the 

most  demo-    purpose  of  ascertaining  the  will  of  the  people  on  any  im- 
cratic  portant  question,  makes  that  body  more  sensitive  to  public 

opinion  than  (for  instance)  is  the  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
whose  members  are  elected  for  a  definite  term  of  years.  The 
ministry,  supported  by  a  majority  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
also  has  more  power  to  put  their  measures  into  effect  than  has 
our  President.  This  is  especially  true  since  the  limitation  of 
the  power  of  the  aristocratic  House  of  Lords  in  1911  (§  885).  It 
should  also  be  noted  that  in  practice  the  king  is  obliged  to  give 
his  consent  to  any  act  passed  by  the  two  houses  of  Parliament. 
In  other  words,  his  veto,  which  has  not  been  used  for  more  than 
two  hundred  years,  has  practically  disappeared.  Moreover, 
since  the  British  constitution  is  not  a  written  or  fixed  constitu- 


THE   BRITISH   COLONIAL   EMPIRE  661 

tion,  any  act  of  Parliament  is  law.  As  in  France,  the  British 
courts  have  no  power  to  set  aside  an  act  of  Parliament  as  invalid, 
on  the  grounds  of  real  or  supposed  conflict  with  the  constitution. 
It  is  much  easier,  therefore,  under  a  government  like  that  of 
Great  Britain,  to  secure  changes,  no  matter  how  sweeping,  when 
really  demanded  by  the  people,  than  it  is  under  a  government  of 
"checks  and  balances"  like  that  of  the  United  States. 

D.  THE  BRITISH  COLONIAL  EMPIRE 

• 

The  British  Parliament  not  only  rules  directly  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  it  is  also  the  supreme 
lawmaking  body  for  a  vast  colonial  empire. 

The  creation  of  this  empire  in  the  eighteenth  century,  by 
the  conquest  of  Canada  and  India  and  the  occupation  of  Aus- 
tralia, has  already  been  described  (chapter  xxiii).  In  glo  Extent 
the  nineteenth  century,  through  successful  wars  and  the  of  the 
advance  of  exploration  and  European  settlement,  it  stead-  empir< 
ily  grew  larger.  To-day  it  includes  lands  scattered  through 
every  quarter  of  the  globe.  Nearly  one  fourth  of  the  total 
land  area  of  the  whole  earth  is  now  included  within  its  limits, 
and  about  one  fourth  of  the  whole  population  of  the  earth  owes 
allegiance  to  the  British  flag.  About  one  eighth  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  British  Empire  (including  the  United  Kingdom) 
belong  to  the  white  race.  The  remainder  belong  to  Asiatic 
and  various  native  (colored)  races.  The  total  population  of 
the  empire  may  be  placed  at  about  400,000,000. 

The  lands  (outside  of  Europe)  included  in  this  great  empire 
fall  chiefly  into  five  groups :  (m)  Canada  and  other  possessions 
in  America ;  /^zV  Australia  and  New  Zealand ;  (^/British 
South  Africa ;Q^  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Sudan 5^5)'  India 
and  Burma. 

The  greatest  possession  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  most  im- 
portant part'  of   the   empire  after  the   mother  country  gn.  British 
itself,  is  Canada.     Nova  Scotia,  Newfoundland,  and  the  A1061"* 
Hudson  Bay  territory  were  acquired  in  1713  (§461).     France 


THE 
BRITISH  EMPIRE 


60       Longitude       30  West 


662 


ngitude       30  East  CO  from    90      Greenwich      120 

663 


664     GREAT   BRITAIN   IN  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

surrendered  the  remainder  of  her  possessions  in  this  region  hi 
1 7  63  (§  544).  In  the  nineteenth  century  the  advance  of  explora- 
tion and  settlement  spread  British  rule  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
In  area  Canada  is  considerably  larger  than  the  United  States, 
but  its  population  is  only  about  one  fifteenth  that  of  our  country. 
This  scantiness  of  population  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  vast 
stretches  in  the  north  are  Arctic  in  character,  and  unsuited  to 
agriculture.  The  southern  third  comprises  much  rich  and  fertile 
land,  and  in  spite  of  its  long  and  cold  winters  it  is  growing 
rapidly  in  number  of  inhabitants  and  in  wealth.  Except  in 
Quebec,  where  French  Canadians  still  predominate,  the  settlers 
in  Canada  are  mainly  of  British  blood  and  speech.  In  1867 
Parliament  passed  an  act  which  resulted  in  the  federal  union 
of  all  British  North  America,  except  Newfoundland,  under  the 
name  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Nine  provinces  and  two 
territories  are  now  included  in  this  union.  Each  of  the  prov- 
inces has  its  own  legislature  and  a  responsible  government 
modeled  after  that  of  England.  The  central  (or  Dominion) 
government  is  composed  of  the  following :  — 

1.  A  governor-general,  sent  out  from  England  by  the  home  govern- 

ment. His  duties  are  largely  formal,  like  those  of  the  king  at 
home,  or  the  president  of  France. 

2.  A  prime  minister  and  ministry,  similar  to  the  British  Cabinet,  who 

are  responsible  to  the  Dominion  Parliament. 

3.  A  Senate  composed  of  members  appointed  for  life  by  the  Dominion 

government.  The  representation  is  not  equal,  as  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  Quebec  and  Ontario  each  have  24  Senators, 
British  Columbia  only  3. 

4.  A  House  of  Commons  elected  by  the  people  for  five  years,  unless 

sooner  dissolved.  The  representation  in  this  is  according  to 
population. 

5.  All  powers  not  specifically  assigned  to  the  provinces  are  reserved 

to  the  Dominion  government.  This  is  directly  contrary  to  the 
corresponding  provision  in  the  United  States  Constitution. 

6.  The  governors  of  the  provinces  are  appointed  by  the  Dominion 

government,  and  it  can  also  veto  legislation  passed  by  the  pro- 
vincial parliaments. 


THE  BRITISH  COLONIAL   EMPIRE  665 

In  nearly  everything  the  Canadians  are  allowed  to  govern 
themselves.  The  Dominion  government  even  maintains  tariff 
laws,  which  apply  to  goods  coming  from  Great  Britain  as  well 
as  from  foreign  countries.  The  duties  on  British  goods,  how- 
ever, are  lower  than  on  those  from  other  lands.  The  Canadians 
are  happy  and  contented  under  their  form  of  government,  and 
show  no  desire  for  annexation  to  the  United  States. 

Australia  is  the  second  in  importance  of  the  British  colonies. 
It  was  acquired  through  the  explorations  of  Captain  Cook, 
and  through  settlements  beginning  in  1788  (§  549).  8l2  The 
Gold  was  discovered  in  Australia  in  1851,  and  great  for-  Australian 
tunes  were  made  by  lucky  miners.  A  more  important  c 
source  of  wealth  was  found  about  the  same  time  in  the  raising 
of  sheep.  Five  colonies  were  established  on  the  mainland, 
and  another  in  the  near-by  island  of  Tasmania,  each  with  its  own 
legislature  and  governor.  In  1901  all  six  were  united  into  a 
federal  government,  under  the  name  of  the  Commonwealth  of 
Australia.  This,  like  Canada,  is  a  self-governing  colony,  made 
up  of  men  mainly  of  British  blood  and  speech.  The  federal 
government  of  Australia  is  similar  to  that  of  Canada ;  it  leaves, 
however,  a  larger  measure  of  independence  to  the  separate  col- 
onies than  is  the  case  with  the  Canadian  constitution.  The 
following  are  the  chief  points  of  difference :  — 

1.  The  governor  of  each  state  is  appointed  by  the  British  government, 

and  not  by  the  Commonwealth  government. 

2.  The  legislation  of  each  state,  within  the  limits  of  its  authority,  is 

not  subject  to  veto  by  the  Commonwealth. 

3.  The  powers  of  government  not  specifically  conferred  on  the  Com- 

monwealth Parliament  are  reserved  to  the  several  states. 

The  two  great  islands  of  New  Zealand  (which  together  are 
twice  as  large  as  England)  are  more  than  a  thousand  miles 
distant  from  Australia,  and  hence  are  not  included  in  the 
Commonwealth.  They  make  up  a  separate  self-governing 
colony,  which  is  very  progressive  and  prosperous. 

South  Africa  is  the  land  in  which  British  power  has  made 
greatest  strides  in  recent  years.  Cape  Colony  (Cape  of  Good 


666     GREAT   BRITAIN   IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 


ORTUGUES? 
EAST 


Hope)  was  conquered  from  Holland  in  1806,  while  that  country 
was  aiding   Napoleon   Bonaparte  in   his  wars  against    Great 
813  British    Britain.     When   slavery   was   abolished    by    the   British 
South  Parliament  in  1833,  many  Dutch  inhabitants,  or  "Boers" 

Africa  (boorz),  of  Cape  Colony   "trekked"  northward  to  es- 

cape British  rule.  They  founded  the  independent  settlements 
of  Natal  (na-tal'),  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the  Transvaal'. 
Natal  was  annexed  by  the  British  in  1843.  A  petty  war  with 
the  Transvaal  Boers,  in  which  the  British  were  defeated,  led 
to  treaties  (1881  and  1884)  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  the 

South  African  Re- 
public should  have 
complete  self-govern- 
ment in  internal  affairs, 
but  in  external  affairs 
was  to  be  under  the 
suzerainty  of  Great 
Britain.  Gold  mines 
were  worked  in  Cape 
Colony  from  an  early 
day,  and  in  1871  dia- 
mond mines  were  dis- 
covered at  Kimberley 
which  made  that  place 
the  center  of  the  dia- 
mond industry  of  the  world.  The  Boers,  however,  remain 
chiefly  farmers  and  stock-raisers.  In  1885  came  the  discovery 
of  rich  gold  deposits  in  the  Transvaal,  and  a  flood  of  British 
and  foreign  miners  and  adventurers  poured  into  that  state. 
Friction  followed  between  these  newcomers  and  the  Boers. 
The  result  was  the  Second  Boer  War  (1899-1902),  in  which 
the  Orange  Free  State  joined  the  Transvaal  in  spirited  resist- 
/ance  to  British  claims. 

i/  The  vigor  of  the  Boers  and  the  great  distance  of  the  seat  of 
conflict  from  Europe,  taxed  the  resources  of  Great  Britain  to 
the  uttermost.  Her  foes  were  sturdy  frontiersmen,  trained 


I  ND'IAN 
OCJE  AN 


Boer  Republics,  conquered  1899-1902 
Union  of  South  Africa 
Other  British  Possessions 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


THE   BRITISH   COLONIAL   EMPIRE  667 

from  boyhood  to  the  use  of  weapons,  and  they  fought  in  a 
country  whose  every  pass  and  tl  kopje"  (hill)  was  familiar  to 
them.    There  were  no  great  battles,  and  the  war  was  mainly  8l     The 
a  series  of  ambuscades,  traps,  and  sieges.     After  many  Boer  War 
humiliating  reverses,  and  the  sending  to  South  Africa  of   (l899-i902) 
nearly  half  a  million  soldiers,  Great  Britain  was  at  last  successful. 
Both  the  Transvaal  and  the  Orange  Free  State  were  then  made 
British  colonies.     The  war  revealed  great  defects  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  British  army,  while  the  gallant  fight  made 
by  the  Boers  aroused  much  sympathy,  both  among  Liberals  in 
England  and  throughout  the  world. 

The  Conservative  party  in  England  was  responsible  for  the 
measures  which  began  the  war  and  for  its  successful  completion  ; 
but  soon  after  its  conclusion  the  Liberals  again  came  into  815.  Union 
power.     They  adopted  a  policy  of  conciliation  towards 


the  Boers,  and  soon  restored  the  right  of  local  self-govern-  (1909) 
ment  to  the  conquered  territories.  The  good  effects  of  this 
policy  were  seen  when  both  colonies,  in  1909,  voluntarily  joined 
with  Natal  and  Cape  Colony  in  forming,  under  authorization  of 
the  British  government,  the  federal  Union  of  South  Africa. 
The  constitution  of  the  Union  is  roughly  similar  to  the  con- 
stitutions of  Canada  and  Australia.  The  government  is  placed 
in  the  hands  of  a  governor-general,  a  responsible  ministry,  and 
a  parliament  of  two  houses.  The  fact  that  the  natives  of  South 
Africa  (negroes)  are  more  than  twice  as  numerous  as  the  white 
settlers  accounts  for  some  of  the  special  features  of  the  con- 
stitution. The  existence  side  by  side  of  the  Dutch  (Boers) 
and  the  British,  each  clinging  to  its  language  and  customs,  also 
complicates  the  situation.  A  former  Boer  leader,  General 
Botha  (bo'ta),  did  much  to  bring  about  the  formation  of  the 
Union.  He  is  one  of  the  ablest  and  broadest-minded  statesmen 
of  that  land,  and  he  became  the  first  prime  minister  of  the  Union 
government.  He  typifies  the  spirit  of  loyal  acceptance  of  the 
results  of  the  war,  which  was  produced  by  Great  Britain's  con- 
ciliatory policy  toward  the  defeated  party.  "I  want  the  king 
and  the  British  people  to  realize,"  he  said,  "that  the  trust  re- 


668     GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

posed  in  us  has  been  worthily  taken  up.     I  hope  that  they  will 
have  cause  of  pride  in  the  young  South  African  nation." 

Egypt  is  nominally  a  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire,  but  prac- 
tically it  is  under  British  rule.     The  circumstances  which  led, 
816  The        *n  J882,  to  tne  British  "occupation"  of  Egypt  will  be  told 
British  in       in  the  next  chapter.     Since  that  time  —  although  Egypt 
Egypt  has  its  own  ruler,  called  the  Khedive,  who  is  subject  to 

the  Sultan  —  British  soldiers  have  guarded  the  country,  and 
.  British  officials  have  had  a  large  part  in  its  administration. 
The  British  "occupation"  has  been  of  very  great  advantage 
to  Egypt.  Taxes  have  become  less,  justice  has  become  more 
certain,  order  has  •  been  kept,  great  public  works  have  been 
built,  and  the  condition  of  the  people  has  been  improved.  Es- 
pecially noteworthy  is  a  series  of  enormous  dams,  to  pen  up  the 
waste  waters  of  the  river  Nile,  while  it  is  in  flood,  and  gradually 
let  them  out  later,  so  that  barren  lands  become  rich  fields  of 
cotton,  sugar  cane,  and  rice.  Another  great  work  is  the  build- 
ing of  a  railroad  southward,  to  meet  one  which  is  being  built 
northward  from  Cape  Colony.  When  this  road  is  completed, 
it  will  be  possible  to  go  by  rail  for  five  thousand  miles  —  through 
Egyptian  desert  and  tropical  jungle,  where  lions  and  elephants 
abound  —  from  Cairo  in  Egypt  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
It  is  likely  that  the  British  will  remain  in  Egypt  indefinitely. 
India,  whose  population  is  alien  in  race,  religion,  and  modes 
of  life  from  the  population  of  Europe,  remains  in  a  class  apart. 

817.  British  -"-ts  area  *s  ^a^  as  £reat  as  that  of  the  United  States, 
India  and  and  it  has  more  than  three  times  as  many  people.  Un- 
like other  British  possessions,  India  had  an  old  and  very 
highly  developed  civilization  when  the  Europeans  first  came. 
There  was  no  room  for  new  settlements  in  India,  and  the 
British  there  are  still  few  in  numbers.  Since  1763  the  area 
ruled  directly  by  Great  Britain  has  greatly  increased,  as  a 
result  of  confiscations  and  annexations.  Nevertheless,  about 
half  of  India  is  still  ruled  by  native  princes,  under  the  suze- 
rainty of  Great  Britain.  In  the  course  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Great  Britain  was  forced  to  conquer  the  kingdom 


THE   BRITISH   COLONIAL  EMPIRE  669 

of   Burma,  in  Further  India,  and  added  that  country  to  its 
Indian  possessions. 

The  rule  of  the  East  India  Company,  under  a  board  of  con- 
trol appointed  by  the  British  government  (p.  458),  continued 
until  the  Indian  Mutiny  in  1857.  This  was  a  revolt  of  the 
native  Sepoy  troops,  due  to  uneasiness  created  by  the  rapid 
progress  of  British  ways  and  rule.  Its  immediate  occasion  was 
a  rumor  that  certain  new  cartridges  furnished  to  the  troops 
were  greased  with  a  mixture  of  hog  and  beef  fat  —  the  one  ani- 
mal an  object  of  loathing  to  Mohammedans,  and  the  other  of 
religious  worship  to  the  Hindus.  Fortunately  the  movement 
was  confined  to  the  army  and  to  a  few  provinces.  It  brought 
terrible  suffering  to  many  of  the  English  residents,  including 
women  and  children,  before  the  revolt  was  put  down  in  1858. 
After  the  Mutiny,  the  British  government  took  over  the  rule 
of  the  British  possessions  in  India,  and  the  East  India  Company 
came  to  an  end.  A  further  step  to  strengthen  British  rule  was 
taken  in  1877,  when  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed  by  a  new 
title,  that  of  "  Empress  of  India." 

The  portion  of  India  directly  under  British  rule  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  viceroy  and  executive  council  chosen  by  the  British 
government.  Steps  have  recently  been  taken  to  admit  the 
educated  natives  to  a  share  in  India's  government  by  the  crea- 
tion of  a  legislative  council,  made  up  in  part  of  elected  members. 
In  1913  the  construction  was  begun,  on  a  magnificent  scale, 
of  a  brand-new  capital  for  India,  not  far  from  the  ancient  city 
of  Delhi. 

In  addition  to  these  larger  blocks  of  territory,  Great  Britain 
has  smaller  possessions  scattered  all  over  the  world.     These 
include  Gibraltar,  Malta,  and  Cyprus  in  the  Mediterra-  818.  Scat- 
nean  Sea;  the   Bermudas,  certain   of   the  West   Indies,  teredpos- 

sessions  of 
and  the  Falkland  Islands  off  the  coast  of  America ;  Aden,   Great 

Ceylon,  and  the  Straits  Settlements  on  the  coast  of  Asia ;  Britain 
together  with  many  islands  in  the  Indian  and  Pacific  oceans. 
Most  of  these  possessions  are  "  crown  colonies  "  and  are  governed 
chiefly  by  officials  appointed  from  England.     These  scattered 


670    GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

colonies  are  valuable  to  Great  Britain  chiefly  as  coaling  stations 
and  naval  bases. 

.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Liberals,  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  colonies  were  lightly  valued,  and  statesmen  looked 

819  British    f°rwar(i  without  dismay  to  a  time  when  they  might  be 
colonial   ^      lost.     "We  know,"  said  Gladstone,  in  1864,  "that  British 
po  cy  North  America  and  Australia  must  before  long  be  inde- 
pendent states.    We  have  no  interest  except  in  their  strength 
and  well-being."     But  since  regular  steamship  lines,  submarine 
cables,  and  wireless  telegraphy  have  made  communication  less 
difficult,  there  is  no  longer  talk  of  letting  the  colonies  fall  "like 
ripe  fruit  from  the  tree."     On  the  contrary,  efforts  have  been 
made  to  unite  them  to  their  imperial  mother  by  ties  of  interest 
and  affection. 

'The  union  of  different  groups  of  the  colonies  among  them- 
selves into  federal  unions  has  been  described  in  the  case  of 

820  Im-        Canada,   Australia,   and   South   Africa.     Some   progress 
penal  has  also  been  made  toward  uniting  the  colonies  by  closer 
Federation     pOi{tjcaj  tjes  ^th  the  home  country.     In  connection  with 

the  celebration  of  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee,  in  1887,  a  Colonial 
Conference  was  called  at  London,  which  was  attended  by  lead- 
ing statesmen  from  all  the  self-governing  colonies.  This  was 
the  first  step  toward  what  is  called  Imperial  Federation,  —  that 
is,  toward  giving  to  the  colonies  a  share  in  the  government  of 
the  British  Empire.  Several  such  conferences  have  since  been 
held ;  and  while  no  workable  scheme  for  admitting  the  colonies 
to  partnership  in  the  government  has  yet  been  devised,  the  ties 
have  been  drawn  closer  between  Englishmen  at  home  and  their 
brethren  "beyond  seas."  Great  Britain  has  learned  the  folly  of 
trying  to  tax  her  self-governing  colonies,  and  now  refrains 
from  any  such  attempt.  She  protects  her  colonists  with  her 
navy,  and  in  case  of  need  with  her  armies;  but  makes  no 
demand  upon  them  for  contributions  to  the  empire's  defense. 
The  colonies,  however,  are  now  voluntarily  undertaking  this 
burden.  In  the  Boer  War,  Australia  and  Canada  sent  regi- 
ments of  their  citizens  to  aid  the  British  soldiers  in  that  hard- 


TOPICS  AND   REFERENCES  671 

fought  contest.  New  Zealand  and  Australia  have  undertaken 
to  provide  warships  as  a  contribution  to  the  British  fleet.  In 
Australia  and  in  other  colonies  a  scheme  of  military  defense  has 
been  worked  out  jointly  by  the  home  and  colonial  authorities. 
A  recent  British  poet  has  described  Great  Britain  as  a  lion, 
and  the  self-governing  colonies  as  full-grown  cubs,  ready  to 
come  at  the  lion's  call  to  his  assistance :  — 

"The  Lion  stands  by  his  shore  alone 
And  sends,  to  the  bounds  of  Earth  and  Sea, 
First  low  notes  of  the  thunder  to  be. 
Then  East  and  West,  through  the  vastness  grim, 
The  Whelps  of  the  Lion  answer  him." 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1820.   Death  of  George  HI. 

1829.    Catholic  Emancipation  Act  passed. 

1832.  First  Parliamentary  Reform  Act. 

1833.  Slavery  abolished  throughout  the  British  colonies. 
1837.   Accession  of  Queen  Victoria. 

1846.   The  Cora  Laws  repealed  and  Free  Trade  established. 

1867.  Second  Parliamentary  Reform  Act. 

1868.  Gladstone  for  the  first  time  Prime  Minister. 

1869.  Protestant  church  in  Ireland  disestablished. 
1884.   Third  Parliamentary  Reform  Act. 

1886.  Gladstone  adopts  cause  of  Home  Rule ;  split  in  the  Liberal  party. 

1898.  Death  of  Gladstone. 

1901.  Death  of  Queen  Victoria. 

1903.  Irish  land  question  settled. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Which  contributed  more  to  the  advancement 
of  the  people,  the  gradual  reforms  of  Great  Britain  or  the  revolutions  of 
France?  (2)  How  do  you  account  for  the  conservative  character  of  the 
English  people?  (3)  Was  it  just  to  exclude  Protestant  dissenters,  Catho- 
lics, and  Jews  from  Parliament  while  taxing  them?  (4)  Do  the  same 
reasons  apply  to  the  unrepresented  towns  and  classes  before  the  reform  of 
Parliament?  (5)  What  changes  did  the  parliamentary  reform  acts  make 
in  the  political  control  of  Great  Britain  ?  (6)  Which  party  profited  most 
by  the  Reform  Act  of  1832?  (7)  Compare  the  abolition  of  slavery*  in  the 


672     GREAT   BRITAIN   IN  THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY 

British  Empire  with  that  in  the  United  States.  (8)  Was  the  adoption  of 
Free  Trade  a  wise  or  an  unwise  step  for  Great  Britain?  (9)  Why  have 
other  countries  not  followed  Great  Britain's  lead  in  this  matter?  (10) 
Which  seems  to  you  the  greater  statesman,  Gladstone  or  Disraeli  ?  Why  ? 
(n)  If  you  were  English,  would  you  be  a  Conservative,  a  Liberal,  or  a  Lib- 
eral-Unionist ?  Why?  (12)  What  arguments  may  be  urged  for  giving 
Home  Rule  to  Ireland?  (13)  What  arguments  may  be  urged  for  not  doing 
so?  (14)  Is  the  Cabinet  system  of  Great  Britain,  or  the  Presidential 
system  of  the  United  States,  the  better  form  of  government?  Give  your 
reasons.  (15)  Why  did  Great  Britain  win  in  the  contests  for  colonial 
empire?  (16)  Compare  the  government  of  Canada  with  that  of  the 
United  States.  (17)  By  what  right  did  Great  Britain  gain  Australia? 
(18)  Is  the  federal  government  of  Canada  or  of  Australia  the  better  form? 
Why?  (19)  Compare  the  treatment  of  the  Boers  by  Great  Britain  after 
the  Boer  War  with  the  treatment  of  the  Southern  states  by  our  Federal 
Government  following  the  Civil  War.  (20)  Ought  the  British  to  withdraw 
from  Egypt?  (21)  Is  the  British  rule  over  India  good  or  bad  for  India? 
Why?  (22)  Is  the  connection  of  the  colonies  with  Great  Britain  good  or 
bad  for  the  colonies  ?  For  Great  Britain  ?  Give  your  reasons. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  O'CoNNELL  AND  CATHOLIC  EMANCIPATION.  Mc- 
Carthy, History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I,  ch.  xii;  Lawless,  Ireland,  377-389. 
—  (2)  THE  OLD  PARLIAMENTARY  SYSTEM.  Hazen,  Europe  Since  1815,  400- 
415 ;  Ilbert,  Parliament,  33-47 ;  May,  Constitutional  History  of  England,  I, 
ch.  vi  (first  half) ;  Beard,  Introduction  to  English  Historians,  538-548.  — 
(3)  PARLIAMENTARY  REFORM  OF  1832.  Hazen,  428-438;  Montague, 
English  Constitutional  History,  206-208 ;  Beard,  Introduction,  549-565 ; 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  239-245 ;  Cheyney,  Readings  in  English 
History,  679-690.  —  (4)  ABOLITION  OF  SLAVERY  AND  THE  SLAVE  TRADE. 
McCarthy,  Epoch  of  Reform,  ch.  vii;  Walpole,  History  of  England  from  1815, 
III,  388-414.  —  (5)  IRISH  FAMINE  OF  1845.  Lawless,  Ireland,  396-402 ; 
McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I,  278-282  ;  Kendall,  Source  Book  of 
English  History,  414-418.  —  (6)  EVILS  OF  THE  FACTORY  SYSTEM.  Chey- 
ney, Industrial  and  Social  History,  235-239,  244-252;  Cheyney,  Readings, 
690-697 ;  Kendall,  Source  Book,  401-406 ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings, 
II,  282-285.  —  (?)  REPEAL  OF  THE  CORN  LAWS.  McCarthy,  History  of 
Our  Own  Times,  I,  222-233;  McCarthy,  Life  of  Peel,  ch.  xiii;  Cheyney, 
Readings,  708-715 ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  286-289.  — 
(8)  ENGLISH  ATTITUDE  TOWARDS  THE  AMERICAN  CIVIL  WAR.  McCarthy, 
History  of  Our  Own  Times,  II,  190-219,  224-228;  Rhodes,  History  of  the 
United  States,  III,  502-538;  Cheyney,  Readings,  729-735;  Harding,  Select 
Orations  Illustrating  American  History,  392-413.  —  (9)  GLADSTONE'S 
PERSONALITY  AND  CHARACTER.  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I, 
425-433;  Russell,  Gladstone;  Morley,  Gladstone,  Bk.  II,  ch.  vi.  — - 


TOPICS   AND  REFERENCES  673 

(10)  DISRAELI.  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times,  I,  256-266 ;  Froude, 
Disraeli,  236-262;  Bryce,  Studies  in  Contemporary  Biography  ("Beacons- 
field"). —  (n)  PARNELL  AND  IRISH  LAND  QUESTIONS.  McCarthy,  History 
of  Our  Own  Times,  III,  63-70;  Johnston  and  Spencer,  Ireland's  Story, 
324-338;  O'Brien,  Life  of  Charles  Stewart  Parnell;  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Readings,  II,  296-300.  —  (12)  THE  HOME  RULE  MOVEMENT.  Hazen, 
497-509;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  IX,  579-580;  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Readings,  II,  300-305 ;  O'Brien,  Parnell.  —  (13)  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CANADA. 
Hazen,  523-530;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  V,  158-164;  Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  316-322;  Bourinot,  Canada  Under  British  Rule. — 

(14)  CONSTITUTION  OF  CANADA.     Encyclopedia  Britannica,  V,  165 ;   Court- 
ney,   Working   Constitution    of  the    United  Kingdom,    Pt.    Ill,   ch.    iii.  — 

(15)  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AUSTRALIA.    Encyclopedia  Britannica,  II,  558-565 ; 
Jenks,  History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies.  —  (16)  CONSTITUTION  OF  AUS- 
TRALIA.    Hazen,  530-534;    Beard,  Introduction,  645-662;    Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  472-474.  —  (17)  THE   CABINET   SYSTEM.     Bagehot, 
English  Constitution  (26.  ed.),  ch.  ii;    Montague,  163-172;    Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  258-266.  —  (18)  THE  MUTINY  IN  INDIA.     McCarthy, 
History  of  Our  Own  Times,  II,  chs.  xxxii-xxxv;    Beard,  Introduction,  638- 
644.  —  (19)  THE  BOER  WAR.     Hazen,  536-545  ;    Encyclopedia  Britannica, 
XXVII,  199-208;     Conan    Doyle,  The  War  in  South  Africa,  chs.  ii,  iv; 
De  Wet,  Three  Years'  War;   Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  331-336. 
—  (20)  PRIVATE  LIFE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  QUEEN  VICTORIA.     Lee,  Queen 
Victoria,  ch.  xlix. 

General  Reading.  —  Justin  McCarthy,  History  of  Our  Own  Times  (5 
vols.),  covers  the  whole  reign  of  Queen  Victoria.  Spencer  Walpole,  A 
History  of  England  from  the  Conclusion  of  the  Great  War  in  1815  (6  vols.), 
covers  the  period  to  1856.  Herbert  Paul,  A  History  of  Modern  England 
(5  vols.),  deals  with  the  period  from  1846  to  1895.  Morley's  Life  of  Glad- 
stone (3  vols.)  is  an  admirable  work.  The  Dictionary  of  National  Biography 
should  be  consulted  for  special  biographies. 


674 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  EASTERN   QUESTION  AND  THE  PARTITION  OF 
AFRICA 

A.  ARMED  PEACE  AMONG  EUROPEAN  POWERS 

THE  Franco-Prussian  War  ended  in  the  annexation  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  the  newly  founded  German  Empire  (§  776).  This 
spoliation  of  France  by  Germany  marked  the  abandon-  g2I  In_ 
ment  of  the  idea  of  a  "community  of  Europe,"  which  crease  of 
underlay  the  system  of  Metternich.  It  marked  also  the  a 
complete  triumph  of  the  idea  of  national  separatism.  Intense 
rivalries  then  prevailed  for  a  generation  among  the  states  of 
Europe,  —  the  natural  consequence  of  Bismarck's  high-handed 
policy  of  "  blood  and  iron,"  and  of  reliance  upon  armed  force. 
France  passionately  desired  a  "war  of  revenge"  that  should 
recover  for  her  the  lost  French  provinces.  To  that  end  she 
strained  every  nerve  to  increase  her  army,  her  navy,  and  her 
defenses.  Germany  was  obliged  to  follow  suit  to  retain  what 
she  had  won.  In  the  race  of  armaments,  France  was  easily 
outstripped.  Her  population  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  increased  only  one  million,  while  that  of  the 
German  Empire  increased  fifteen  millions.  Other  Powers,  in 
self-defense,  were  obliged  to  follow  courses  similar  to  those  pur- 
sued by  Germany  and  France.  By  the  close  of  the  century 
Europe  thus  presented  the  aspect  of  "an  armed  camp."  France 
had  a  war  strength  of  2,500,000  men,  Germany  of  3,000,000,  and 
Russia  of  3,500,000,  —  in  addition  to  powerful  navies.  Rapid- 
fire  guns,  smokeless  powder,  powerful  explosive  shells,  and  Lavjsse)  Qen. 
repeating  rifles  of  long  range  increased  the  terrors  of  war.  erai  View, 
"Formerly,"  says  the  historian  Lavisse,  "peace  wore  J  7-I 
only  demi-armor.  To-day  it  is  armed  from  head  to  foot. 

675 


676    EASTERN  QUESTION  AND   PARTITION  OF  AFRICA 

Without  any  effort,  by  a  tap  of  the  telegraph,  after  some 
puffs  of  locomotives,  there  is  war ;  and  what  terrible  war  !  Just 
as  the  politics  of  former  centuries  appear  to  be  almost  trivial  com- 
pared with  those  of  to-day,  so  the  armies  of  [the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury] compared  with  ours  seem  to  be  mere  playthings."  On 
the  other  hand,  "it  is  not  impossible  that  the  apprehension  of 
war  retards  war.  No  one  is  sure  of  winning,  and  every  one 
knows  that  defeat  may  be  fatal.  That  is  what  makes  the  hand 
hesitate  that  is  able  to  give  the  tap  on  the  telegraph.  It  is 
possible  that  armed  peace,  by  being  prolonged,  may  appear  at 
once  too  burdensome  and  too  absurd,  and  that  reason  and 
humanity  may  assert  their  right." 

In  the  face  of  the  bitter  hostility  of  France,  Bismarck's  policy 
was,  so  far  as  possible,  to  maintain  cordial  relations  with  both 
822.  Triple  Russia  and  Austria.  His  purpose  was  the  maintenance 
alliances1  °^  Peace  on  ^e  Dasis  of  the  existing  territorial  arrange- 
(1883-1891)  ments,  —  that  is,  the  possession  of  Alsace-Lorraine  by 
Germany.  Gradually  a  new  grouping  of  the  Powers  took 
place.  The  establishment  of  a  French  protectorate  over  Tunis 
(in  1881)  brought  France  and  Italy  to  the  verge  of  war;  and 
Italy  thereupon,  in  1883,  entered  with  Austria  and  Germany 
into  a  Triple  Alliance,  which  has  several  times  been  renewed. 
About  the  same  time  France  and  Russia  formed  a  Dual  Alliance 
for  mutual  defense  against  European  attacks.  Thus  the  five 
Continental  Powers  were  arranged  in  two  groups,  —  the  Triple 
Alliance,  made  up  of  Austria,  Germany,  and  Italy,  and  the  Dual 
Alliance,  composed  of  Russia  and  France.  England's  policy  for 
a  time  was  to  hold  aloof  from  continental  alliances,  but  in 
recent  years  she  has  cast  in  her  lot  with  France  and  Russia 
(1907).  The  name  "Triple  Entente"  (aN-taNt';  "triple  un- 
derstanding") is  sometimes  given  to  this  friendly  relationship  of 
the  last  three  Powers. 

A  consciousness  of  the  burdens  imposed  by  these  armaments 
and  alliances  at  length  produced  a  desire  for  concord.  It  was 
felt  not  only  by  the  rulers,  but  by  the  more  enlightened  classes 
of  the  people,  on  whom  the  burden  of  war  chiefly  falls.  Out 


ARMED  PEACE   AMONG   EUROPEAN   POWERS         677 

of  this  desire  came,  in  the  closing  years  of  the  century,  a  restora- 
tion of  the  Concert  of  the  Great  Powers,  and  its  extension  in  prac- 
tice to  cover  the  concerns  of  interest  to  civilized  peoples  in  823.  Re 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  Great  Powers  of  Europe  ^ ^fCo 
(Germany,  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  Austria,  Italy)  Powers 
now  make  a  practice  of  acting  together  in  all  important  in- 
ternational concerns.  Their  action  is  not  usually  registered 
in  public  treaties;  none  the  less,  through  their  joint  under- 
standings, embodied  in  diplomatic  notes  and  other  communi- 
cations, they  have  in  recent  years  largely  ruled  Europe,  and  have 
regulated  European  interests  in  Africa  and  Asia.  In  its  inter- 
national relations  this  is  the  most  signal  feature  of  the  present 
age.  It  foreshadows,  perhaps,  —  no  matter  how  remotely,  — 
the  formation  of  a  new  World  State,  in  which  all  great  questions 
will  be  treated  in  international  congresses,  and  disputes  between 
nations  will  be  settled  by  diplomacy  and  arbitration  instead  of 
by  the  sword.  An  important  step  in  this  direction  has  more 
recently  been  taken  in  the  Hague  Peace  Conferences,  which  will 
be  treated  in  a  later  section. 


B.  THE  EASTERN  QUESTION 

The  only  wars  which  actually  broke  out  in  Europe,  in  the  forty 
years  following  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  were  in  the  uneasy 
lands  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  These  were  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Eastern  Question  —  that  is,  the  question  of  the  ulti- 
mate fate  of  the  Turkish  Empire  — was  still  unsolved  (§  721). 

In  spite  of  frequent  promises  of  reform,  Turkey  continued  to 
be  a  plague  spot  in  Europe.     In  1870  Russia  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity offered  by  the  Franco-Prussian  War  to  declare  824.  The 
that  she  would  no  longer  be  bound  by  the  clauses  of  the  5;us??~ 
treaty  of  Paris  (§  723)  which  limited  her  action  in  the  war  (1877- 
Black   Sea.     This   step   aroused   a   fanatical   movement  l878) 
among  the  Turks,  the  aim  of  which  was  to  throw  off  the  control 
of  the  Powers  and  oppose  to  Christendom  the  united  force  of 
Mohammedanism.     Brutal  conflicts  followed  with  the  native 


678    EASTERN  QUESTION   AND   PARTITION  OF  AFRICA 


TURKISH  SOLDIER,  1877 


Christians  of  Bulgaria  and  Servia.  After  fruitless  negotiations 
to  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  other  Powers,  Russia  declared 
war  alone  against  Turkey,  in  April,  1877. 
The  Russians  crossed  the 
Danube  and  invaded  Turkey 
with  a  large  force.  The  war  soon 
centered  about  Plevna,  a  place  of 
great  strategic  importance,  where  a 
Turkish  army  was  intrenched.  After  five 
months'  desperate  resistance  this  force 
capitulated.  Through  the  snow  and  ice  of 
the  Balkan  Mountains  the  Russians  then 
pressed  southward,  and  soon  were  within  a 
hundred  miles  of  Constantinople.  The  hos- 
tile attitude  of  Great  Britain  prevented  fur- 
ther advance.  In  March,  1878,  Turkey 
signed  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  (sta'-fa-no). 
If  this  had  been  allowed  to  stand,  it  would  practically  have 
destroyed  the  Turkish  power  in  Europe. 

Great  Britain  and  Austria,  however,  regarded  the  treaty  as 
too  favorable  to  Russia.     To  prevent  a  general  European  war, 
825.  Con-      an  international  congress  was  called  at  Berlin,  in  1 878,  under 
PeriL0          tn^  presidency  of  Bismarck.     The  result  was  a  triumph 
(1878)  for  British  and  Austrian  diplomacy,  and  a  defeat  for  Russia. 

The  new  arrangements  were  more  favorable  to  Turkey,  but  less 
satisfactory  to  the  Christian  communities  of  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula, than  in  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano.  The  chief  provisions  of 
the  treaty  of  Berlin  were  the  following :  — 

1.  The  Russian  frontier  was  extended  to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube. 

2.  Herzegovina  (her- tse-go-ve'na)  and  Bosnia  were  handed  over  to 

Austria  to  occupy  and  rule.1 

3.  The    independent    state   of    Montenegro    received    an    Adriatic 

seaport. 

1  By  a  secret  treaty  the  island  of  Cyprus  was  "leased"  by  Turkey  to  Great 
Britain,  in  reward  for  her  friendship.  During  the  revolution  in  Turkey  in  1909, 
Austria  definitely  annexed  Herzegovina  and  Bosnia  to  the  Austrian  Empire  (§  863). 


THE   EASTERN   QUESTION 


679 


4.  Servia,  virtually  independent  since  1829,  was  made  entirely  so, 

with  enlarged  boundaries. 

5.  Complete  independence  was  given  to  Roumania,  a  country  formed 

in  1 86 1  by  the  voluntary  union  of  the  semi-independent  Danube 
principalities,  Wallachia  (wo-la'ki-a)  and  MoldaVia. 


Vienna1 


o«  \  \    .."••... ••'<&:      .4.*cHidia  .^ 

,          *    A   C  E>    O   K    ,   A%^'-'-^°!>S-aV,'st«tan^f— 

•j  ^  /         V  j          e.v  2  .     L     r^^\~* 

f^m* 


IONIAN 


'>v:;* 

SCALE  OF  MILES  ^» 


0  ^0        100       150        200 

.....  Boundary  of  Bulgaria  according 
to  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano 


3  °®s>    s- 

^          o  ***    ' 

&         b  ^RHODES 

*     E  A     N      %        S      V     A 


THE  BALKAN  STATES  (1878-1886) 

6.  Bulgaria  was  erected  by  the  congress  into  a  new  Christian  state, 
self-governing  but  tributary  to  Turkey.  Its  extent  was  to  be 
less  than  half  that  provided  in  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  but  it 
was  increased  in  1886  by  the  annexation  of  East  Roumelia  as 
the  result  of  a  successful  revolution. 


680    EASTERN  QUESTION  AND  PARTITION   OF  AFRICA 

7.  Greece,  as  a  result  of  the  congress  and  subsequent  negotiations, 
secured  Thessaly  and  part  of  Epirus.1 

These  arrangements  greatly  curtailed  Turkey  in  Europe,  but 
large  Christian  populations  were  still  left  to  be  oppressed  by 
Mohammedan  officials  and  soldiers.    That  the  Eastern  Question 
was  not  solved  was  shown  by  the  abominable  "  Armenian  mas- 
sacres" carried  out  under  direction  of  the  Sultan's  officials  in 
|.-i896,  and  by  later  attempts  at  revolution  in  Macedonia. 
In  Egypt,  meanwhile,  events  were  occurring  which  reduced 
the  Sultan's  rule  to  a  bare  tribute- receiving  right,  and  paved 
826  Condi-    the  way  ^or  its  practical  annexation  to  the  British  Empire, 
tions  in          All  effective  power  of  the  Sultan  had  ceased  there  some 
Egypt  time  before  the  Russo-Turkish  War.     Its  governor  had 

secured  practical  independence  and  hereditary  transmission  of 
his  power,  with  the  title  of  Khedive.  The  completion  of  the 
Suez  Canal,  in  1869  (§719),  facilitated  the  introduction  of  Euro- 
pean influence  and  customs,  and  again  made  Egypt  a  part  of  the 
chief  shipping  route  to  the  East.  The  Khedive  had  received  a 
large  number  of  shares  in  the  stock  of  the  canal  company,  but 
his  extravagance  soon  plunged  the  land  into  bankruptcy.  His 
shares  were  then  sold  to  the  British  government  (1875),  thereby 
giving  it  a  controlling  interest  in  that  important  waterway. 

To  protect  the  financial  interests  of  their  subjects,  to  whom 
the  Egyptian  government  owed  large  sums,  Great  Britain  and 
827.  British    France  finally  intervened.     The  administration  of  Egyp- 
occupation      tjan  finances  was  intrusted  to  two  comptrollers-general 
begun  of  their  own  appointment.     In  1881  a  revolt  against  this 

(1882)  foreign  control  broke  out  under  a  military  agitator  named 

Arabi  (a-ra'be).  A  massacre  of  Europeans  took  place  at  Alex- 
andria, and  European  intervention  again  became  necessary. 
When  France  (to  her  subsequent  regret)  refused  to  cooperate 
in  this,  Great  Britain  acted  alone.  Alexandria  was  bombarded 

1  A  rash  war  undertaken  by  Greece,  in  1897,  to  wrest  Crete  from  Turkey,  ended 
in  Turkish  victory.  The  intervention  of  the  Powers  then  made  Crete  a  semi-inde- 
pendent Christian  principality  under  Turkish  suzerainty.  In  1913  Greece  finally 
secured  this  island  (p.  684). 


THE   EASTERN  QUESTION  68l 

by  her  fleet,  and  a  British  army  defeated  Arabi  near  Cairo 
(1882).  Since  these  events  Egypt  has  been  under  permanent 
British  occupation,  though  the  Khedive  still  reigns. 

The  Egyptian  province  of  the  Sudan,  or  the  upper  Nile,  was 
lost  through  a  revolt  headed  by  a  Mohammedan  fanatic  styled 
the  "Mahdi"  (ma'de),  or  Prophet.     The  last  Egyptian  strong- 
hold intKa'f  province  fell  in  1885,  when  Khartum  (kar-  828.  Recon- 
toom')  was  taken,  and  the  Anglo-Egyptian  general,  Gor-  Jhe^dan 
don,  was  murdered.     This  disaster  forced  the  British  gov-   (1898) 
ernment  to  take  action.     After  ten  years  spent  in  preliminary 
organization,  the  Anglo-Egyptian  troops  under  Kitchener  began 
their  advance.     To  reach  the  seat  of  trouble  the  railroad  from 
Cairo  was  extended  —  in  one  place  for  two  hundred  and  thirty 
miles  across  the  desert.     In  1898  the  Mahdists  were  crushed  and 
the  lands  about  the  upper  Nile  reoccupied.     The  railroad  was 
afterwards  completed  to  Khartum,  a  distance  of  twelve  hundred 
miles  from  Cairo,  and  order  and  security  were  restored. 

The   European  conquest  of   former  Turkish  lands  west  of 
Egypt  was  begun  when  France  seized  Algeria,  in  the  first  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  (§  697).     In  1881  France  com-  829.  The 
pelled  the  ruler  of  Tunis  to  sign  a  treaty  which  put  that 
country  also  under  French  protection.  Tunis 

Italy  had  long  had  her  eyes  on  this  ancient  Roman  province, 
and  resented  the  extension  of  French  power  there.     As  we  have 
seen,  it  led  her  to  join  the  Triple  Alliance  against  France  830.  Italy 
(§  822).     Circumstances,  however,  long  prevented  Italy  ^poli 
from  any  attempt  to  redress  the  balance  in  northern  Africa.   (1911-1912) 
The  opportunity  for  this  came  when  a  revolution  occurred  in  the 
government  of  Turkey  (in   1909),  which  weakened  Turkey's 
powers  of  resistance  (§  864).     In  September,  1911,  Italy  de- 
manded that  she  be  allowed  to  occupy  the  Turkish  province  of 
Tripoli,  on  the  ground  of  misgovernment  by  its  Turkish  officials. 
The  demand  was  refused,  and  war  followed.     The  Italians  im- 
mediately landed  an  army  in  Tripoli  and  began  to  occupy  the 
country.     They  encountered  little  opposition,  except  from  the 
.  fanatical  Arabian  tribesmen  of  the  interior,  for  Italy's  control 


682    EASTERN  QUESTION  AND  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA 

of  the  sea  prevented  Turkey  from  sending  troops  to  the  seat  of 
war.  In  the  latter  part  of  1912  the  brewing  storm  of  a  new 
Balkan  war  forced  Turkey  to  conclude  peace  with  Italy.  The 
following  were  its  chief  provisions :  — 

1.  Italy  was  allowed  to  retain  Tripoli  (renamed  Libya  by  the  Italians) . 

2.  The  Aegean  Islands  were  to  be  returned  to  Turkey. 

3.  The  religious  authority  of  Constantinople  over  the  Mohammedans 

in  the  conquered  province  was  to  be  retained. 

4.  Italy  assumed  that  portion  of  the  Turkish  debt  which  was  guaran- 

teed on  the  basis  of  the  Libyan  revenues. 

On  the  day  following  the  signing  of  this  peace  with  Italy, 
Turkey  exchanged  declarations  of  war  with  the  Balkan  states, 
831.  The  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Greece,  and  Montenegro.  The  whole 
Balkan  War  peninsula,  from  the  Aegean  to  the  Adriatic,  had  long  been 
(1912-1913)  r-pe  £or  war  an(j  rebeiiion  T/he  purpose  of  the  allies  was 

to  drive  the  Turks,  "bag  and  baggage,"  out  of  Europe.  They 
hoped  to  redeem  that  region  from  the  curse  of  Turkish  misrule 
which  for  nearly  five  centuries  had  condemned  it  to  barbarism. 
While  the  troops  of  the  little  kingdom  of  Montenegro  laid  siege 
to  the  near-by  city  of  Scutari  (skoo-ta're),  the  Bulgarian, 
Servian,  and  Greek  armies  advanced  simultaneously  into  » 
ancient  Thrace  and  Macedonia.  The  Turks  were  forced  to 
combat  all  three  of  these  invasions  at  once.  In  spite  of  the 
training  which  had  been  given  the  Turkish  army  by  German 
officers,  it  proved  disorganized  and  inefficient.  There  were 
divided  counsels  at  headquarters  (a  result  of  the  revolution  of 
1909),  and  the  arrangements  for  the  transportation  of  supplies 
broke  down  completely.  The  armies  of  the  allies,  on  the  other 
hand,  surprised  the  world  by  their  efficiency.  Within  a  month, 
the  Servians  took  their  former  capital  (Uskub),  from  which 
they  had  been  expelled  five  hundred  years  before.  The  Greek 
army  joined  hands  with  Servian  and  Bulgarian  contingents 
in  Saloniki  (sa-lo-ne'ke).  The  main  army  of  the  Bulgarians 
cut  off  Adrianople  from  the  capital,  and  forced  the  chief 
body  of  the  Turks  back  to  within  forty  miles  of  Constantinople. 
During  the  winter  the  armies  rested  on  their  arms,  but  with- 


THE   EASTERN  QUESTION 


683 


the  coming  of  spring  the  war  was  resumed.  The  Bulgarians  took 
Adrianople  in  March,  and  were  then  able  to  reenforce  their  army 
before  Constantinople.1  After  desperate  fighting  the  Montene- 
grins secured  Scutari  (in  April) ;  but  the  determined  opposition 
of  Austria  prevented  their  retaining  it,  and  in  May  this  impor- 
tant town  was  turned  over  to  agents  of  the  Great  Powers. 


BULGARIAN  INFANTRY  IN  TRENCHES  BEFORE  ADRIANOPLE 

For  some  years  Austria  had  sought  to  extend  its  rule  into  the 
Balkan  peninsula  (§§  742,  863),  and  had  even  dreamed  of  secur- 
ing an  outlet  to  the  Aegean  Sea.     The  unexpected  strength  832.  Peace 
shown  by  the  Christian  Balkan  states  rudely  shattered  signed  at 

*  .  London 

these  dreams.     Austria  was  prevented  from  intervening   (May  30, 

in  this  struggle  only  by  the  knowledge  that  such  a  step  J9I3) 
would  produce  a  gigantic  European  war,  between  the  forces  of  the 
Triple  Alliance  on  the  one  side  and  those  of  the  Triple  Entente 
on  the  other  (§  822).  The  efforts  of  the  British  minister  of 
foreign  affairs  (Sir  Edward  Grey) ,  seconded  by  those  of  Emperor 
William  II  of  Germany,  averted  this  danger.  After  long 
negotiations  the  efforts  of  the  six  Great  Powers  forced  the  Bal- 

1  In  March,  1913,  the  king  of  Greece  was  slain  at  Saloniki  by  a  Greek  anarchist 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Constantine. 


684    EASTERN  QUESTION  AND   PARTITION   OF  AFRICA 


kan  states  to  sign  preliminary  articles  of  peace  (at  London, 
May  30,  1913).  The  terms  of  the  peace  included  the  following : 

1.  Turkey  was  to  cede  all  her  European  territory  lying  west  of  a  line 

to  be  drawn  from  Midia  on  the  Black  Sea  to  Enos  on  the  Aegean. 

2.  The  island  of  Crete  was  ceded  to  the  Powers,  and  to  them  was 

also  left  the  disposal  of  the  Aegean  islands  formerly  possessed  by 

Turkey. 

3.   An     International 
Commission  was  to 
meet    at    Paris    to 
settle  (a)  the  distri- 
bution of  the  con- 
quered     territory, 
and  (&)  the  amount 
of  the  war  indem- 
nity to  be  paid  by 
Turkey,  and  other 
financial  questions. 
By  previous  agree- 
ment among  the  Pow- 
ers   it   was    arranged 
that    Servia    was    to 
have  a  much  needed 
seaport  on  the  Adri- 
atic,    together     with 
commercial  access  to  it 
through  a  neutralized 

belt  of  intervening  territory.  The  mountain  tribes  of  the  former 
Turkish  province  of  Albania  were  to  be  organized  into  a  self- 
governing  state,  with  Scutari  as  its  chief  city. 

Unfortunately  the  allies  marred  the  glory  of  their  victory  by 
fighting   among  themselves.     The  Greeks  and  Servians  were 
8      War      unwilling  to  carry  out   the  treaty  of  alliance,  concluded 
before  the  war,  under  which  the  Bulgarians  claimed  the 
greater  part  of  the  conquered  territory.     Roumania,  too, 
which  had  taken  no  part  in  the  war,  demanded  from  Bulgaria 
a  territorial  cession  on  the  Black  Sea  as  reward  for  her  neutral- 


THE  BALKAN  STATES  AT  THE  END  or  1913 


between 
the  allies 


THE  PARTITION   OF  AFRICA  685 

ity.  The  aim  was  to  prevent  that  state  from  securing  a  pre- 
dominance in  the  Balkans  similar  to  that  of  Prussia  in  Ger- 
many. In  July,  1913,  desperate  fighting  occurred.  The 
Bulgarians  were  driven  back  from  Saloniki  by  the  Greeks,  and 
from  western  Macedonia  by  the  Servians,  while  the  Roumanians 
advanced  upon  Sofia,  the  Bulgarian  capital.  At  the  same  time 
the  Turks  reoccupied  points  beyond  the  Enos-Midia  frontier. 
It  was  charged  —  and  denied  —  that  the  Bulgarians  committed 
atrocities  on  the  abandoned  territory  which  "  surpassed  all  the 
horrors  of  barbaric  times."  By  the  treaty  of  Bucharest,  signed 
in  August,  Bulgaria  yielded  to  the  demands  of  the  other  Balkan 
states  in  fixing  their  new  boundaries.  In  the  following  month, 
Bulgaria  and  Turkey  agreed  upon  a  new  boundary  by  which 
Turkey  retained  Adrianople. 

The  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe  is  thus  reduced  to  very 
small  proportions.  The  Eastern  Question,  in  the  form  which 
it  had  presented  since  the  beginning  of  the  expulsion  of  the 
Turks  in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  practically  at  an  end.  But 
new  Balkan  questions,  which  undoubtedly  will  be  long  in  settle- 
ment, have  already  arisen.  These  include  the  economic  and 
political  development  of  the  freed  populations,  as  well  as  their 
relations  with  one  another  and  with  the  Great  Powers. 

C.  THE  PARTITION  OF  AFRICA 

Until  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century  Africa  re- 
mained "the  Dark  Continent."  Little  beyond  its  coast  line 
was  known.  Even  as  late  as  1875  geographies  and  atlases  834.  Africa 
showed  the  great  Kongo  River  as  a  small  stream,  with  a  before  l875 
course  utterly  unlike  the  true  one.  France  had  conquered 
Algeria;  Great  Britain  held  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal, 
and  a  few  places  on  the  west  coast ;  France,  Spain,  and  Por- 
tugal possessed  a  few  unimportant  trading  stations.  With 
these  exceptions,  no  Christian  country  had  thought  it  worth 
while  to  occupy  African  territory.  Considerably  less  than  one 
tenth  of  Africa  was  claimed  by  European  Powers.  Until  Italy 


3/H&.    "  Aui'rERJ&ENEGAL  sJ>  "-v^X 

—  ^S.         /       %..'•.»..>   V3.^»w..lr A  -«»^  -,       W-3 


AFRICA  IN  1913 

Liberia  and  Abyssinia  were  independent  states.  The  rest  of  Africa  was  divided 
into  possessions  and  protectorates  of  other  powers,  as  follows :  (i)  Great  Britain  — 
all  the  areas  colored  red  on  the  map,  including  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Rhodesia,  etc. ; 
(2)  France  —  all  the  areas  colored  purple,  including  Algeria,  Tunis,  etc. ;  (3)  Ger- 
many —  all  the  African  areas  colored  yellow  ;  (4)  Portugal  —  Portuguese  Guinea, 
Angola,  and  Portuguese  East  Africa;  (5)  Italy  —  Eritrea,  Italian  Somaliland, 
and  Tripoli ;  (6)  Belgium  —  Belgian  Kongo ;  (7)  Spain  —  Rio  de  Oro  and  part  of 
Morocco.  Egypt  was  claimed  as  a  tributary  state  by  Turkey,  but  it  was  practically 
under  the  control  of  Great  Britain. 

686 


THE   PARTITION    OF   AFRICA  687 

and  Germany  had  achieved  their  unity,  Europe  was  occupied 
with  the  solution  of  internal  problems.  With  these  tasks  com- 
pleted, European  governments  began  to  direct  their  attention, 
as  never  before,  to  the  mysterious  continent  of  Africa. 

Considerable  progress,  however,  had  already  been  made  in 
African  exploration.  Arab  traders  and  slave  raiders  had  long 
visited  its  interior;  but  it  was  not  until  the  middle  of  g3g 
the  nineteenth  century  that  devoted  missionaries  and  ration  of 
scientific  explorers  began  to  reveal  the  geography  of  those  n< 
regions.  In  the  second  half  of  the  century  this  work  went  on 
apace.  In  1858  the  great  lake  called  Victoria  Nyanza  (the 
source  of  the  Nile)  was  discovered.  The  greatest  of  African 
explorers  was  Dr.  David  Livingstone,  a  British  missionary  who 
spent  thirty  years  in  repeated  expeditions  into  the  interior.  He 
endured  incredible  hardships  in  a  hostile  country,  often  with 
only  three  or  four  natives  for  companions,  and  died  there  in 
1873.  Next  to  him  ranks  the  Anglo-American  Henry  M.  Stan- 
ley, whose  explorations  in  1877  made  known  the  great  water- 
way of  the  Kongo,  leading  into  the  heart  of  the  continent. 

One  great  obstacle  to  European  progress  in  Africa  (aside 
from  its  lack  of  good  harbors)  was  the  existence  of  a  ring  of 
mountain  chains  close  to  the  coast,  making  difficult  all  836.  Kongo 
access  to  the  "hinterland."  The  discovery  of  the  Kongo  fjj^ed 
River  opened  up,  for  the  first  time,  an  easy  avenue  to  the  (1883) 
vast  and  inhospitable  interior.  The  Belgian  king,  Leopold  II, 
was  the  first  to  see  the  opportunity  afforded  by  Stanley's  dis- 
covery. He  had  already  formed  the  plan  of  founding  in  Africa 
a  great  state  through  the  combined  action  of  manufacturers 
and  traders  (who  sought  Africa's  commercial  development), 
and  of  missionaries  and  philanthropists  (who  wished  to  Chris- 
tianize the  natives  and  to  stop  the  horrors  perpetrated  by 
Arab  slave  catchers).  Under  King  Leopold's  patronage,  Stan- 
ley in  1879  led  an  expedition  from  the  west  coast  up  the 
Kongo  River  to  take  possession  of  its  vast  basin.  His  chief 
station,  named  Leopold ville,  was  established  on  Stanley  Pool, 
where  the  Kongo  broadens  out  before  breaking,  in  a  series 


688     EASTERN   QUESTION   AND   PARTITION   OF   AFRICA 

of  rapids  and  cataracts,  through  the  mountain  barrier  which 
separates  the  upland  interior  from  the  coast.  The  Kongo  Free 
State  was  definitely  organized  in  1883,  with  Leopold  as  king. 
A  railroad  was  built  around  the  rapids,  and  above  them  steam 
navigation  was  established  for  a  thousand  miles.  The  slave  trade, 
as  formerly  carried  on,  was  abolished;  and  an  enormous  com- 
merce in  rubber,  founded  on  forced  labor  (often  exacted  with 
great  cruelty),  was  built  up.  Toward  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
century  loud  outcries  were  raised,  in  England  and  America, 
against  the  harsh  and  cruel  treatment  inflicted  on  the  natives 
by  Belgian  agents.  As  a  result,  an  arrangement  was  made  in 
1908,  between  King  Leopold  and  the  Belgian  Parliament,  by 
which  the  Kongo  State  ceased  to  be  an  independent  state  and 
became  a  Belgian  colony.  The  worst  of  the  evils  complained 
of  were  remedied,  but  stories  are  still  heard,  from  time  to  time, 
of  Belgian  cruelties  in  the  Kongo  colony. 

The  British  occupation  of  Egypt  and  the  founding  of  the 
Kongo  State  precipitated  a  wild  scramble  of  European  Powers 
8  The  ^or  African  territory.  The  lead  in  this  movement  was 
partition  taken  by  Germany,  which  was  beginning  to  feel  the  need 
of  Africa  Q£  coionjai  outlets  for  her  rapidly  expanding  industry  and 
population.  South  America  was  closed  to  her  by  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  and  other  European  nations  held  most  of  the  regions 
elsewhere  where  colonization  was  possible.  Germany's-attention 
turned  therefore  to  Africa.  In  1884,  as  a  result  of  secretly 
negotiated  treaties  with  native  chiefs,  the  German  flag  was 
raised  over  Togoland  and  Kamerun  (ka-ma-roon')  on  the  west 
coast.  In  subsequent  years,  and  by  similar  methods,  the  col- 
onies of  German  Southwest  Africa  and  German  East  Africa  were 
acquired.  The  other  European  Powers  soon  joined  in  the  com- 
petition for  African  territory.  The  rules  under  which  annexa- 
tions should  be  regarded  as  valid  were  laid  down  by  a  congress 
of  the  Powers  held  in  Berlin  in  the  winter  of  1884-1885. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  scarcely  a  foot  of  unclaimed  ter- 
ritory in  the  vast  African  continent.  In  future  ages  the  occu- 
pation of  Africa  will  probably  be  looked  upon  as  an  event  in 


THE   PARTITION   OF   AFRICA 


689 


history  which  ranks  with  the  European  occupation  of  America 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  the  British  occupation  of 
Australia  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth.  The  amazing 
thing  is  that  the  partition  should  have  been  made  without  pro- 
voking a  single  European  war.  In  only  two  cases  has  serious 
friction  arisen  between  the  Great  Powers  over  African  territory. 
The  first  case  was  in  1898,  when  England  and  France  very  nearly 
came  to  blows  over  a  district  in  the  Upper  Nile  valley  (the 
"Fashoda  incident")-  The  second  concerned  Morocco,  where 
Germany  emphatically  objected  to  the  establishing  of  a  French 


SCENE  ON  UGANDA  RAILROAD,  AFRICA 

protectorate.  The  latter  dispute  was  settled  in  1911,  when 
France  bought  off  Germany's  claims  in  Morocco  by  ceding  to 
her  a  part  of  French  Equatorial  Africa.  Spain  also  received 
part  of  the  Moroccan  coast. 

A  few  words  may  be  said  in  conclusion  concerning  the  hold- 
ings of  each  of  the  European  Powers  in  Africa.     The  Belgian 
and  the  German  territories  have  already  been  indicated.   838.  Pres- 
The  British  possessions  (including  Egypt,  and  the  former  ®^^" 
Boer  republics  whose  conquest  is  described  in  chap,  xxxiii)   sessions  in 
are  the  most  extensive  and  valuable.     The  development  MTica- 
of  South  Africa  was  largely  due  to  Cecil  Rhodes,  whose  dream 
it  was  to  establish  a  "Cape  to  Cairo"   railway,  intended  to 


690    EASTERN   QUESTION   AND   PARTITION    OF   AFRICA 

unite  the  greater  part  of  eastern  Africa  in  one  territorial  mass 
under  English  rule.  This  road  will  doubtless  be  completed, 
but  it  must  pass  in  part  through  German  East  Africa.  The 
French  possessions,  starting  from  Algeria,  stretch  out  over  a 
vast  extent  of  the  Sahara  and  the  Sudan,  and  include  a  consider 
able  territory  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Kongo  River,  together 
with  the  island  of  Madagascar  (annexed  1882-1896).  The 
Portuguese  retain  considerable  possessions  on  the  east  and 
west  coasts,  but  bad  government  makes  them  of  little  profit. 
The  Spanish  possessions  are  few  and  small.  Italy,  emulating 
the  other  states,  established  colonies  on  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Indian  Ocean;  but  these  lands  are  barren,  and  her  experience 
there  has  been  disastrous.  Tripoli  (Libya),  because  of  its 
nearness  to  Italy,  promises  to  be  of  more  value.  Abyssinia 
continues  independent.  Morocco  is  succumbing  before  the 
advance  of  France  and  Spain.  Throughout  Africa  railways,  tele- 
graph lines,  and  European  commerce  are  making  rapid  progress. 
It  is  open  to  speculation  whether  Africa  may  not,  by  the  year 
2000,  be  as  far  advanced  economically  and  politically  as  South 
America  was  in  1900,  after  four  centuries  of  European  occupa- 
tion. 

IMPORTANT   DATES 

1883.   Triple  Alliance  formed  between  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy. 

1891.   Dual  Alliance  of  France  and  Russia  announced. 

1877-1878.   War  between  Russia  and  Turkey ;   Congress  of  Berlin. 

1882.  British  occupation  of  Egypt  begun. 

1883.  Kongo  State  formed ;  made  Belgian  colony,  1908. 

1884.  Partition  of  Africa  among  the  European  Powers. 
1911-1912.   Italy  takes  Tripoli  from  Turkey. 
1912-1913.   War  of  the  Balkan  allies  against  Turkey. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Who  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the  conditions 
which  produced  the  "armed  peace"  of  Europe?  (2)  What  arguments  can 
be  advanced  in  favor  of  the  Triple  and  the  Dual  alliances  ?  What  argu- 
ments against  them  ?  (3)  Compare  the  present  Concert  of  the  Powers 
with  the  Grand  Alliance  after  1815.  (4)  Why  did  Russia  go  to  war  with 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  691 

Turkey  in  1877?  (5)  Was  Great  Britain  justified  in  intervening  in  Egypt? 
(6)  Point  out  on  the  map  the  territory  lost  by  Turkey  in  1878,  in  1912, 
and  in  1913.  (7)  Point  out  on  the  map  the  territory  now  remaining  to 
Turkey  in  Europe.  Compare  this  with  its  extent  in  1789  (map,  p.  483). 
(8)  Why  did  the  partition  of  Africa  come  just  when  it  did  ?  (9)  Of  what 
value  to  European  powers  are  their  African  possessions?  (10)  Of  what 
value  to  Africa  is  European  colonization  ? 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  TRIPLE  AND  DUAL  ALLIANCES.  Hazen, 
Europe  Since  1815,  319-322;  Phillips,  Modern  Europe,  525-534;  Rose, 
Development  of  European  Nations,  II,  ch.  i.  —  (2)  EARLIER  STAGES  OF  THE 
EASTERN  QUESTION.  Hazen,  601-616;  Seignobos,  Europe  Since  1814, 
ch.  xx ;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  VIII,  831-832;  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Development  of  Modern  Europe,  II,  303-309.  —  (3)  RUSSO-TURKISH  WAR. 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Development,  II,  309-311 ;  Hazen,  617-624;  Phillips, 
491-515;  Fyffe,  Modern  Europe,  1022-1045.  —  (4)  CONGRESS  OF  BERLIN. 
Hazen,  624-627;  Phillips,  515-519;  Fyffe,  1045-1052. —  (5)  BRITISH  OC- 
CUPATION OF  EGYPT.  Hazen,  557-563;  Rose,  II,  143-227;  Johnston, 
Colonization  of  Africa,  231-235;  Penfield,  Present  Day  Egypt,  II,  ch.  x. — 
(6).  ITALIAN  TURKISH  WAR  OF  1911-1912.  See  yearbooks  and  indexes  to 
periodical  literature  for  1911  and  1912.  —  (7)  GROWTH  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
BALKAN  STATES.  Hazen,  627-636;  Phillips,  519-523;  Rose,  I,  ch.  x.  — 

(8)  THE   BALKAN  WAR  OF    1912-1913.      See  yearbooks   and   indexes  to 
periodical  literature.     Wagner,  With  the  Victorious  Bulgarians ;    Ashmead- 
Bartktt,  With  the  Turks  in  Thrace;    Campbell,  The  Balkan  War  Drama.  — 

(9)  DAVID    LIVINGSTONE.       Encyclopedia    Britannica,     XVI,     813-815; 
Hughes,   David  Livingstone;    Stanley,  How   I    Found    Livingstone. —  (10) 
HENRY  M.  STANLEY.     Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXV,  779-781;  Stanley, 
Autobiography.  —  (n)  STANLEY'S    DESCENT    OF  THE   KONGO.     Stanley, 
Autobiography,  ch.  xv;  Stanley,  Through  the  Dark  Continent.  —  (12)  FOUND- 
ING OF  THE  KONGO  STATE.     Hazen,  550-557;    Johnston,  Colonization  of 
Africa,  ch.  xi;    Rose,  II,  269-298;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  VI,  917-922; 
Stanley,  Autobiography,    ch.    xvi;    Wack,  Story  of  the   Congo  Free  State, 
chs.  ii-iii.  —  (13)  GERMANY'S  AFRICAN  COLONIES.     Johnston,  Colonization 
of  Africa;    Keltic,  Partition  of  Africa;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XI,  800- 
803.  —  (14)    THE  MOROCCO  QUESTION.     Encyclopedia  .Britannica,  XVIII. 
858-859 ;    yearbooks  and  indexes  to  periodical  literature. 

General  Reading.  —  See  the  articles  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica 
(nth  ed.)  on  the  Eastern  Question,  Turkey,  Greece,  Roumania,  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  and  Egypt.  Villari,  The  Balkan  Question;  "  Odysseus,"  Turkey  in 
Europe.  For  Africa,  in  addition  to  the  works  cited  above,  see  Africa  and 
its  Exploration,  as  Told  by  its  Explorers  (2  vols.) ;  Brown,  Story  of  Africa 
(4  vols.) ;  Cana,  South  Africa  from  the  Great  Trek  to  the  Union. 


~~l  .Russian  Territory 

\ |S(a<««  subject  to  Kutsia 

French  Territory 
I          I  British  Territory 
I         I  States  under  British  froUetoratt 
Kail  roads 

J" 


692 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

AWAKENING   OF  THE  FAR  EAST,   AND   THE   RUSSO- 
JAPANESE  WAR 

A.  THE  AWAKENING  OF  CHINA  AND  JAPAN 

THE  Far  East  is  likely  for  some  time  to  be  a  storm  center  of 
world  politics.     Until  about  1840,  the  history  of  this  part  of  the 
839.  Mon-     world  ran  in  a  separate  channel  from  that  of  Europe. 
Chinese         Hordes  of  Asiatics  — Huns- in   the   fifth  century,   Bul- 
(1200-1840)    garians  in  the  seventh,  Magyars  in  the  tenth,  and  Turks 
in  the  fourteenth  —  invaded  Europe ;   and  Jenghiz  Khan  (died 
1227)  and  his  successors  established  a  Mongol  empire  whicr 
stretched  from  Poland  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  held  Russia 
in  subjection  for  more  than  two  centuries.     Now,  however,  the 
tide  of  invasion  is  turned  the  other  way,  and  Europe  is  trans- 
forming Asia. 

China  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  civilized  countries  of  the 
world.  Its  great  religious  teacher,  Cojifiiciiis,  flourished  five 
hundred  years  before  Christ.  The  Mongol  rule,  established 
by  Jenghiz  Khan,  lasted  until  1368;  then  for  three  hundred 
years  China  was  ruled  by  Emperors  of  the  Ming  dynasty.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  the  Manchu  Tartars  overthrew  the 
Ming  dynasty,  and  in  spite  of  various  unsuccessful  movements 
for  the  restoration  of  native  rule,  the  Manchu  government  lasted 
until  recent  days.  With  the  accession  of  the  Ming  dynasty, 
China  shut  her  doors  to  other  nations.  Although  in  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries  some  commerce  was  estab- 
lished with  Europeans,  it  was  restricted  to  a  single  port  — 
Qanton,. 

The  first  effective  breach  in  the  barrier  with  which  China 
surrounded  herself  was  made  by   the  unjust   " Opium  War" 

694 


THE  AWAKENING  OF   CHINA  AND   JAPAN  695 

waged  by  Great  Britain,  in  1840-1842,  to  compel  the  admis- 
sion of  opium  from  India.     By  the  treaty  which  ended  that 
war,  the  island  of  Hongkong  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  840.  open- 
and  Shanghai   (shang-ha/i)  and  three  other  ports  were  J^ina  ° 
opened  to  British  trade  on  the  same  terms  as  Canton.    (1840-1884) 
Commercial  treaties  with  the  United  States,  France,  and  other 
countries  soon  followed.     In  1857-1860  the  British,  in  alliance 
with  the  French,  waged  a  secqnd  war  upon  China,  and  Peking 

was  taken.     This  war  secureoMtne  toleration  of  Christianity  and  ^ 

I  Ox*  I  ) 

thevJ-dmission  of  resident  ambassadors  to  the  Chinese  capital.  ' 

New  " treaty  ports"  were  opened  up  to  European  trade,  the 
number  ultimately  rising  to  more  than  forty,  and  China's  age- 
long seclusion  came  to  an  end.  France  meanwhile  acquired 
rights  in  China's  former  dependency  of  Anam,  which  (largely 
at  the  expense  of  the  kingdoms  of  Cambodia  and  Siam)  have 
grown  into  the  great  French  protectorate  of  Indo-China. 

Equally  important  with  the  opening  up  of  China  was  the 
awakening  of  Japan.  The  Emperor  of  Japan  (sometimes  called 
theMkado)  had  early  lost  much  of  his  power  to  the  Shogun  841.  Awak- 
(sho'goon),  the  hereditary  commander  of  the  army ;  and  a  j^n° 
sort  of  feudal  system  had  arisen  in  which  local  authority  (1637) 
was  vested  in  lords  called  daimios  (di'mi-oz),  who  were  practically 
vassals  of  the  Shogun.  In  this  system  the  Emperors  played  a 
part  roughly  similar  to  that  of  the  Frankish  kings  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries,  while  the  Shoguns  corresponded  to  the 
" mayors  of  the  palace"  (§  21).  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  Japan  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  its  followers  were 
suspected  of  political  aims,  and  in  1637  its  acceptance  by  the 
Japanese  was  forbidden.  At  the  same  time  natives  were  for- 
bidden to  leave  the  country  under  penalty  of  death.  For  two 
centuries  thereafter,  Japan,  like  China  and  Korea,  was  practi- 
cally a  "hermit  nation." 

The  credit  of  opening  Japan  to  Western  commerce  and  ideas 
belongs  to  Commodore  Perry,  of  the  United  States  navy,  who 
in  1854  induced  the  Shogun  to  conclude  a  treaty  opening  up 
Yokoha'ma  and  two  other  ports  to  trade.  Great  Britain, 


6g6 


AWAKENING  OF  THE   FAR   EAST 


Russia,  and  France  quickly  followed  with  similar  treaties.  For 
a  time  there  was  trouble  growing  out  of  Japanese  conservatism 
and  hatred  of  foreigners,  but  this  speedily  died  down.  In  1867 
the  progressive  Emperor  Mutsuhito  (mooVsoo-he'to)  came  to 
the  throne.  In  his  reign,  which  lasted  until  1912,  Japan  leaped 
the  chasm  of  centuries  in  acquiring  European  science  and  in 
material  progress.  First,  the  Shogun  was  overthrown  and  the 
feudal  system  entirely  suppressed.  Swarms  of  Japanese  stu- 
dents were  then  sent  to  Europe  and  America  for  education,  where 
they  showed  a  remarkable  power  to  assimilate 
Western  culture  in  all  its  branches.  Under 
these  influences  Japan  was  revolutionized  in  its 
government,  its  industry,  and  its  educational  and 
military  systems.  A  constitution  was  proclaimed 
in  1889,  by  which  the  administration  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  ministers  responsible  to  the  Emperor, 
and  the  legislative  power  was  vested  in  an  Imperial 
Diet  of  two  houses.  No  other  case  in  history  can 
be  found  of  so  complete  a  transformation  in  so 
short  a  time. 

The  first  test  of  Japan's  new  military  institu- 
tions came  in  1894.     In  that  year  war  broke  out 
842.  War       with  China  through  rival  pretensions  over 
between         t^e   kingdom   of    Kore'a.      The   Japanese 
China  navy,  built  in  the  best  shipyards  of  Europe, 

(1894-1895)  speedily  sank  the  Chinese  fleet ;  and  the  Japanese  army, 
drilled  and  equipped  in  European  fashion,  was  completely 
victorious  over  China's  antiquated  forces.  All  Korea  was 
occupied;  Port  Arthur  and  Weihaiwei  (wa'hl-wa/),  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Pechili  (pa'che-le),  were 
captured ;  and  Peking  Itself  was  threatened.  China  then  made 
peace,  through  her  great  viceroy  and  diplomat,  Li  Hung  Chang 
(le'hoong'chang')-  Its  terms  included  the  renunciation  of  her 
claims  in  Korea,  the  payment  of  an  indemnity,  and  the  cession 
to  Japan  of  Port  Arthur  and  the  island  of  Formosa. 
This  treaty  was  too  favorable  to  Japan  to  suit  the  European 


JAPANESE 
SOLDIER 


THE   AWAKENING   OF   CHINA  AND   JAPAN  697 

Powers,  for  they  had  their  own  designs  upon  Chinese  possessions. 
Russia,  France,  and  Germany  joined  in  forcing  Japan  to  give 
up  her  conquests  on  the  mainland,  and  to  content  herself  8  EUTO- 
with  Formosa  and  an  increased  indemnity.  Then  Ger-  pean  powers 
many,  to  obtain  "  satisfaction "  for  the  murder  of  German  m 
missionaries,  seized  the  port  of  Kjauchau  (kyou'chou'),  in  1897, 
and  forced  its  lease  from  China  as  a  coaling  and  naval  station 
for  ninety-nine  years.  Germany  also  secured  the  grant  to  her 
subjects  of  a  first  right  to  construct  railroads,  open  mines,  etc., 
in  the  adjoining  province.  Early  in  1898  Russia  secured  Port 
4rtte"  by  a  similar  lease  for  twenty-five  years,  thus  obtaining 
what  she  did  not  hitherto  possess  —  a  port  on  the  Pacific  which 
was  free  from  ice  the  year  round.  Russia  also  received  a  con- 
cession to  build  a  railroad  from  Port  Arthur  to  join  her  Trans- 
Siberian  railway  (§  849).  This  concession  became  a  pretext  for 
treating  Chinese  Manchuria  as  practically  Russian  territory. 
To  restore  the  balance  of  power  in  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  Great 
Britain  leased  ffieihaiwei,  and  also  secured  a  grant  of  about 
two  hundred  square  miles  on  the  mainland  opposite  Hong- 
kong. France  in  turn  seized  a  port  in  the  south,  and  extorted 
concessions  for  the  development  of  the  southern  provinces. 

For  a  time  it  looked  as  if  the  appetites  of  the  European  Powers 
for  territory  and  trade,  which  had  been  merely  whetted  and  not 
dulled  by  their  seizures  in  Africa,  would  repeat  in  China  844.  China 
the  tragic  drama  which  the  eighteenth  century  had  wit- 
nessed  in  Poland.  That  China  was  saved  from  this  fate  ment 
was  due  to  a  number  of  causes\H  Among  these  were  the  greater 
publicity  oiow  given  to  international  events  tw  the  cable  and 
the  pressythe  mutual  jealousies  of  the  Powers^and  the  watchful 
hostility  of  JapaA^j. uhe  insistent  demand  of  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  for  equality  of  commercial  and  industrial 
opportunities  —  known  as  the  policy  of  "the  open  door"  — 
was  also  a  factor  in  saving  China  from  dismemberment. 

China  herself,  moreover,  showed  a  strength  and  a  power  of 
adaptation,  in  the  face  of  these  events,  which  hitherto  had  been 
unsuspected.  She  awoke  from  her  sleep  of  centuries,  and  began 


AWAKENING   OF  THE   FAR   EAST 


to  adopt  many  of  the  improvements  of  the  West.  Concessions 
to  foreigners  multiplied  rapidly  after  the  war  with  Japan.  A 
railroad  from  Peking  to  Tientsin  was  built  by  the  government, 
and  arrangements  were  made  for  the  construction  with  foreign 
capital  of  other  lines  thousands  of  miles  in  length.  Telegraph 
lines  were  extended;  electric  roads,  electric  lights,  and  tele- 
phones were  introduced  in  the  chief  cities;  and  the  principal 
rivers  and  canals  were  opened  to 
Western  commerce.  At  the  same 
time  Chinese  students,  following 
the  example  of  the  Japanese,  be- 
gan to  go  in  large  numbers  (often 
at  government  expense)  to  Europe 
and  to  America,  where  they  studied 
Western  ways  and  acquired  Euro- 
pean civilization  and  learning. 

The    young    Emperor    (Kuang- 
Hsu)  favored  the  introduction  of 

845  The       Western     civilization.      His 

Boxer  War     aunt,  the  empress  dowager, 

(I9°o)  opposed   this,  and   in    1898, 

by  a  coup  d'etat,  she  resumed  the 
power  she  had  exercised  during 
the  Emperor's  minority.  As  a 
result  of  her  influence  there  oc- 
curred in  IQ.QD  a  rising  against  for- 
eigners, headed  by  the  "Borers," 

one  out  of  many  Chinese  secret  societies.  Christian  missionaries 
and  their  converts  were  massacred,  and  the  foreign  embassies  in 
Peking  were  besieged.  To  rescue  them,  the  Great  Powers  of 
Europe,  together  with  Japan  and  the  United  States,  formed  a 
joint  army,  which  fought  its  way  to  Peking  and  released  the 
legations.  The  empress  dowager  was  forced  to  make  peace, 
with  abject  apologies,  and  to  pay  large  money  indemnities. 

Not  long  after  this  occurred  one  of  the  greatest  events    of 
recent  years,  profoundly  affecting  the  situation  throughout  the 


EMPRESS  DOWAGER  OF  CHINA 


RUSSIA  AFTER  THE   CRIMEAN  WAR  699 

whole  of  Asia  —  the  successful  war  waged  by  the  Japanese 
against  the  great  and  domineering  empire  of  Russia.  But  before 
we  take  up  this  event,  we  must  turn  back  and  trace  the  history 
of  Russia  since  the  Crimean  War. 


B.     RUSSIA   AFTER   THE    CRIMEAN  WAR 

The  Tsar  Alexander  II,  who  had  signed  the  peace  which  ter- 
minated the  Crimean  War  (§  723),  took  a  great  step  towards 
converting  Russia  into  a  modern  state  by  freeing  its  serfs.   846.  Serf- 
More  than  half  of  the  seventy-odd  millions  of  European  J^g^ed 
Rttssiar  were   still  irT\  condition  of   absolute   gfiffr1™*1     (1861) 
The  masters  had  the  right  "to  sell  their  peasants  and  domestic 
servants,  not  even  in  families,  but  one  by  one,  like  cattle." 
The  only  restriction  was  that  they  should  not  be  sold  by  auction, 
since  this  was  "unbecoming  in  a  European  state."     The  Cri- 
mean War  had  revealed  great  disorder,  weakness,  and  corruption 
in  the  Russian  government,  and  this  revelation  gave  a  powerful 
stimulus  in  Russia  to  Liberal  movements  of  all  kinds.     After 
long  study  an  edict  emancipating  the  serfs  was  issued  in  1861^ 

—  on  the  eve  of  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States  which  put 
an  end  to  negro  slavery  in  our  own  land.     By  this  decree  forty   . 
million  human  beings  were  released  from  bondage.     But  the 
scanty  lands  which  they  received  were  charged  with  heavy 
annual  payments  to  indemnify  their  former  masters,  and  the 
peasants  themselves  —  impoverished,  brutalized,  and  ignorant 

—  were  bound  to  their  village  communities   as  they  formerly 
had  been  to  the  estates  of  their  masters.     Although  freed  from 
personal  serfdom,  they  were  far  from  attaining  economic  and 
political  freedom.    In  some  respects  the  condition  of  the  peasant 
became  worse  than  it  had  been  before  the  emancipation. 

Disappointment  at  the  failure  to  obtain  a  political  constitu- 
tion from  Alexander  II  caused   an  opposition  party  to  847.  Nihilist 
arise,  principally  among  young  university  students,  and  a^°re!m 
this  gradually  became  revolutionary.     To  a  policy  of  arbi-  action 
trary  arrests,  imprisonment  in  foul  dungeons,  and  transporta- 


700  AWAKENING  OF  THE   FAR   EAST 

tion  to  Siberia,  the  Nihilist  secret  societies  replied  by  a  policy 
of  terrorism  based  on  assassination.  In  March,  1881,  the  Tsar 
himself  was  assassinated  by  the  hurling  of  a  nitroglycerin 
bomb  against  his  carriage.  That  very  day  he  had  signed  a 
"ukase,"  or  decree,  which  would  have  laid  the  foundations  of 
constitutional  government  by  establishing  a  consultative  as- 
sembly. His  son,  Alexander  III  (1881-1894),  revoked  this 
decree,  and  during  the  whole  of  this  reign,  and  in  the  first  ten 
years  of  that  of  his  son  Nicholas  II,  a  reactionary  policy  pre- 
I  vailed.  Terrorists  were  hunted  down,  the  press  was  gagged,  and 
[(  exile  to  Siberia  was  freely  used  to  check  Liberal  opinions. 

The  chief  feature,  however,  of  the  history  of  Russia  in  the 

latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  its  steady  advance  in 

848.  Rus-       Asia.     Seven  great   European  wars,   from    the   time  of 

v^nce^n        Peter  the  Great  to  the  Congress  of  Berlin  (1711-1878), 

India  had  brought  Russia  only  meager  results.     A  frontage  on 

the  Baltic  and  Black  seas  was  acquired,  but  their  outlets  re- 

mained under  the  control   of  other  Powers.     In   Asia  much 

greater  results  could  be  shown.     Her  policy  there  was  two- 


included  a  southward  expansion  toward  India  and  the 
Arabian  Sea.  This  movement  produced  numerous  wars  and 
treaties  with  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Great  Britain.  By  1828 
the  beginning  was  made  of  an  ascendancy  in  Persia,  which  has 
since  been  strengthened  by  diplomacy,  money  loans,-  and  rail- 
way building.1  Russian  Turkestan  was  annexed,  Khiva  and 
Bokhara  were  made  vassal  states,  and  in  1884  the  Russian 
frontier  was  pushed  to  the  borders  of  Afghanistan.  The 
northern  half  of  the  Pamir  plateau  —  the  aroof  of  the  world," 
which  commands  the  ramparts  of  India  —  was  acquired  in  1893. 
This  advance  of  Russia  in  Central  Asia  seriously  threatened  the 
security  of  British  India,  for  the  Russian  frontier  and  railway 
terminal-  (at  Kushk)  were  but  seventy-five  miles  from  Herat 
(her-at'),  which  was  long  regarded  as  "the  key  to  India."  It 
is  this  conflict  of  interests  in  Asia  which  explains  the  long  dip- 

1  For  the  recent  history  of  Russia  and  Great  Britain  in  Persia,  see  §  866. 


RUSSIA  AFTER   THE    CRIMEAN   WAR  701 

lomatic  antagonism  between  Russia  and  England,  manifesting 
itself  in  their  opposing  attitudes  on  the  Eastern  Question  in 
Europe,  and  elsewhere.  Their  antagonism  was  not  allayed 
until  1907,  when  the  formation  of  the  Triple  Entente  (§  822) 
removed  the  chief  causes  of  friction  between  the  two  countries. 

ffZ)  The  second  feature  of  Russia's  policy  in  Asia  was  her 
advance    to    the    Pacific,    through    Siberian    colonization,    the 
building  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway,  and  intervention  849.  Siberia 
in  China  and  Korea.     The  Russian  colonization  of  Siberia  and  the 

—  like  the  settlement  of  the  western  parts  of  the  United  Siberian 
States  —  has  been  a    natural  and  peaceable  expansion,  railway 
"To  become  a  colonist,  there  is  ho  ocean  to  cross,  no  steamboat 
fare  to  pay.     The  poorest  peasant,  a  staff  in  his  hand,  an  ax 
at  his  belt,  his  boots  slung  from  a  cord  over  his  shoulder, 

'    Rambaud,  m 

can  pass  from  one  halting  place  to  another,  until  he  reaches  international 
the  ends  of  the  empire."     The  early  Siberian  settlers  were  Monthly,  n, 
gold  hunters,   trappers,   fur  traders,  fugitive  serfs,  and 
transported  criminals.     A  treaty  with  China  in  1689  fixed  the 
boundaries   of   the   two   lands   until    1858,    when    Russia  ex- 
torted the  cession  of  northern  Manchuria  and  the  whole  left 
bank  of  the  Amur  (a-moor')  River.     Maritime  Manchuria  (in- 
cluding Vladivostok')  was  acquired  in  1860.     In  1895-1902  the 
Russian  government  took  a  step  of  supreme  importance  in 
making  accessible,  and  hence  valuable,  these  vast  possessions 
by  constructing  the  Trans-Siberian  railway,  nearly  5000  miles 
long.     Wholly  apart  from  its  military  value,  it  is  esti-   Rambaud 
mated  that  in  the  corrimerce  of  the  world  this  road  "will   (as  above), 
work  as  important  a  revolution  as  did  the  discovery  of  the  36* 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  the  fifteenth  century,  or  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Suez  Canal  in  the  nineteenth." 

The  total  area  of  the  Russian  Empire  is  more  than  twice 
that  of  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  is  about  one  sixth  of  the  land 
surface  of  the  globe.  Its  inhabitants  number  130,000,000,  or 
about  one  twelfth  of  the  earth's  population.  Less  than  one 
fourth  of  this  population,  however,  is  included  in  Russia's  vast 
Asiatic  possessions. 


702 


AWAKENING   OF  THE   FAR   EAST 


Russian  control, 
to    a 


C.   THE  RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  (1904-1905) 

The  causes  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War  are  to  be  found  in 
the  energetic  and  unscrupulous  way  in  which  Russia,  after  the 
850.  Russo-  completion   of   the  Trans-Siberian  railway,   pushed  her 
War  begun     commercial  and  political  interests  in  the  Far  East.     At  the 
(1904)  time  of  the  Boxer  troubles  she  had  taken  possession  of 

Chinese  Manchuria,  under  >  pretext  of  safeguarding  her 
railroad  and  other  interests  /  there,  promising  to  evacuate 
it  when  peace  should  be  /  restored.  But  instead  of  evacu- 
ating that  province,  /  Russia  strengthened  her  hold  on 
it.  A  disposition  was  /  also  shown  to  bring  Korea  under 

means  used  was  a  concession  granted 
company  to  cut  timber  in  the  Yalu 
(ya-loo')  valley,  which  became  an  ex- 
cuse for  building  forts  and  introduc- 
ing Cossack  soldiers  into  that  region. 
Japan  was  already  smarting  under 
the    check    administered    to 
her    by    the    Powers    after 
her  victorious  war  with 
China,  and  was  also  in 
urgent  need  of  an  out- 
let on  the  Asiatic  con- 
tinent for  her  growing 
manufactures  and  popu- 
lation.   She  looked  with 
bitter  hostility  upon  this 
extension     of     Russian 
power,  for  it  menaced 

her  prosperity  and  independence.  Long  negotiations  took 
place,  in  which  no  less  than  ten  draft  treaties  were  successively 
discussed,  without  coming  to  a  conclusion.  At  last  Japan 
resolved  to  resort  to  war,  and  "her  military  and  naval  prepara- 
tions, unlike  those  of  Russia,  kept  pace  with  her  diplomacy."  1 

1  France,  Russia's  ally,  was  deterred  from  actively  aiding  Russia  in  the  war  by 
an  alliance  of  England  with  Japan,  which  would  become  effective  in  case  Japan 


COSSACK 

Russian  light  cavalryman;  formerly  Russia's 
'  most  renowned  soldiery,  but  of  little  use  in 
war  as  now  waged. 


THE   RUSSO-JAPANESE  WAR  703 

Three  days  after  the  war  opened,  the  Japanese   surprised 
the  Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  (February  8,  1904).     They 
torpedoed  two  battleships  and  two  cruisers,  and  "bottled  8gl  Fall 
up  "  the  rest  of  the  fleet  by  blockading  that  harbor.     These  of  Port 
exploits  gave  the  Japanese  the  command  of  the  sea,  an  Arthur 
advantage  which  they  thenceforth  retained.     Korea  was  occu- 
pied, and  the  Russians  were  driven  from  the  Yalu  River.     By 
May  28,  the  Japanese  lines  had  been  drawn  across  the  Liao- 
tong  (le-ou'tong')  peninsula,  and  Port  Arthur  was  cut  off  on 
the  land  side.     There  followed  a  seven  months'  siege,  marked 
by  unparalleled  suffering,  which  was  ended  on  January  i,  1905, 
by  Port  Arthur's  surrender. 

Meanwhile,  the  Russian  army  was  disastrously  defeated  at 
Liaoyang  (le-ou'yang')  in  September,  1904,  and  forced  to  fall 
back  upon  Mukden'.     The  winter  was  passed  by  both  8g2  The 
armies  intrenched  amid  snow  and  ice,  under  conditions  Mukden 
of  great  suffering,  especially  for  the  Russians,  for  whose  c 
supply   the    single-track   line   of    the  Trans-Siberian   railway 
proved   inadequate.     The   arrival  in   the  Japanese   camp  of 
the  Port  Arthur  army,  with  its  heavy  siege  guns,  enabled  the 
Japanese,  after  fifteen  days'  severe  fighting,  to  drive  the  Rus- 
sians from  Mukden  (March  10,  1905).     The  Russian  losses,  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  captured,  numbered  more  than  100,000. 
Their  broken  and    disorganized  army  was  then  forced  back 
toward  Harbin  (har-ben'),  the  junction  point  with  the  main 
line  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway. 

A  new  Russian  fleet,  meanwhile,  was  making  the  long  voyage 
from  the  Baltic  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     Its  vessels 
were  ill-equipped,  and  the  crews  were  mutinous,  demoral-  853.  Battle 
ized,  and  ill-led.     When  the  fleet  reached  Japanese  waters,  °|  Jj^* 
it  was  annihilated  (May  27-29)  by  Admiral  To'go  in  the    (May,  1905) 
battle  of  the  Sea  of  Japan,  —  one  of  the  greatest  naval  battles 
in  history.     Without  serious  damage  to  a  single  Japanese  ship, 
nineteen  vessels  of  the  enemy  were  sunk  or  captured.     Russia's 

were  attacked  by  more  than  one  power.    Troubles  with  Germany  over  Morocco 
(§  837)  also  tied  her  hands. 


704  AWAKENING  OF  THE  FAR  EAST 

naval  power  was  thereby  destroyed,  and  her  cause  was  rendered 
hopeless.  Soon  after,  the  Japanese  reoccupied  the  island  of 
Sakhalin  (sa-Ka-lyen'),  from  which  Russia  had  driven  them  in 
1875.  They  also  began  to  close  in  upon  Vladivostok. 

The  efforts  of  President   Roosevelt    of  the   United   States 
brought  about  a  meeting  of  representatives  of  the  two  Powers 
854.  Treaty    (at  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire)  in  August,   1905,  to 
mouth S"        discuss  terms  of  peace.     The  demand  of  Japan  for  the 
(1905)  cession  of  Sakhalin  Island  and  for  the  payment  of  an 

indemnity  to  reimburse  her  for  the  cost  of  the  war  threatened 
for  a  time  to  break  up  the  conference.  The  appeals  of  Pres- 
ident Roosevelt,  however,  finally  brought  about  a  compromise. 
Japan  abandoned  the  claim  for  an  indemnity,  but  gained  all 
the  points  for  which  she  had  undertaken  the  war.  The  terms 

!f  the  treaty  were  as  follows  :  — 
.   Japan's  paramount  interest  in  Korea  was  recognized.1 
.   Russia  agreed  to  evacuate  Chinese  Manchuria. 
.   Her  lease  of  the  Liao-tong  peninsula,  together  with  the  southern 
half  of  the  Port  Arthur  railway,  were  ceded  to  Japan. 
.   Japan  was  also  given  the  southern  half  of  Sakhalin  Island,  to- 
gether with  special  fishing  rights  on  the  Siberian  coast. 
The  Russo-Japanese  War  was  an  event  of  very  great   im- 
ortance,  not  only  for  the  Powers  immediately  concerned,  but 
g      Re_        for  China,  America,  and  the  whole  world.     It  involved 
suits  of          the  future  fate  of  China,  and  the  control  of  the  Pacific ; 
and  these  are  questions  of  vital  importance  to  America 
and  Australia,  as  well  as  to  Asia  and  Europe.     The  unexpected 
ability   displayed   by   the   Japanese   insures   for   the   "yellow 
peoples"  of  Asia  the  prospect  of  an  independent  future,  parallel 
with  that  of  the  white  races.     It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
recent  development  of  China  and  Japan  may  prove  to  be  of 
more  importance  in  the  world's  history  than  any  events  which 
have  occurred  since  Greece  saved  Europe  from  Persian  conquest, 
more  than  two  thousand  years  ago. 

1  In  1910  Japan  forced  the  emperor  of  Korea  to  abdicate,  and  formally  annexed 
that  country. 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  705 


IMPORTANT    DATES 

1840-1842.   The  British  "  Opium  War"  begins  the  opening  of  China  to 

Europeans. 

1854.    Commodore  Perry  induces  Japan  to  open  its  ports. 
1 86 1.   Serfdom  abolished  in  Russia. 
1894-1895.   War  between  China  and  Japan. 
1897-1898.   Seizure  of  Chinese  territory  by  Germany,  Russia,  Great 

Britain,  and  France. 
1900.   The  Boxer  War. 
1902.   Trans-Siberian  railway  completed. 
1904-1905.   Russo-Japanese  War. 

TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Were  the  Western  powers  justified  in  forcing 
China  to  open  her  ports  to  foreigners?  (2)  What  difference  was  there 
between  the  opening  of  the  ports  of  Japan  and  that  of  China  ?  (3)  How  do 
you  account  for  the  rapid  development  of  Japan  since  1867  ?  (4)  Why  was 
the  development  less  rapid  in  China?  (5)  What  effect  did  its  defeat  by 
Japan  have  upon  China?  (6)  Was  the  interference  of  Russia,  Germany, 
and  France  after  that  war  just  or  unjust  ?  (7)  Compare  the  attitude  of 
the  European  powers  towards  China  with  the  dealings  of  Russia,  Prussia, 
and  Austria  with  Poland  in  the  eighteenth  century.  (8)  What  has  saved 
China  so  far  from  the  fate  of  Poland  ?  (9)  Compare  the  Boxer  movement 
with  anti- Chinese  movements  in  this  country.  (10)  Compare  the  condition 
of  Russia  before  1861  with  that  of  the  other  European  countries,  (i  i)  Com- 
pare the  emancipation  of  the  Russian  serfs  with  the  abolition  of  negro  slav- 
ery in  the  United  States.  (12)  Did  the  terrorist  methods  of  the  Russian 
revolutionaries  help  or  hinder  their  cause?  (13)  Compare  the  eastward 
advance  of  Russia  in  Siberia  with  the  westward  growth  of  the  United 
States.  (14)  What  railway  in  the  United  States  played  a  part  analogous 
to  that  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  ?  Is  it  likely  that  railways  will  have 
as  much  influence  in  Africa?  (15)  Was  Japan  in  the  right  in  going  to  war 
with  Russia  when  and  in  the  manner  she  did  ?  (16)  Of  what  advantage  was 
it  to  the  Japanese  to  shut  up  the  Russian  fleet  at  Port  Arthur  ?  (17)  Com- 
pare the  siege  of  Port  Arthur  with  that  of  Sebastopol  in  the  Crimean  War. 

(18)  What   reasons    can   you   give    for    the   success    of    the    Japanese? 

(19)  Compare  the  number  of  men  engaged  in  Manchuria  on  each  side  with 
the  numbers  in  Napoleon's  campaigns,  and  in  our  Civil  War. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  EARLY  RELATIONS  OF  EUROPE  WITH  CHINA. 
Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of  Modern  Europe,  II,  331-338;  Hazen, 
Europe  Since  1815,  681-687;  Douglas,  Europe  and  the  Far  East,  41-90; 


706  AWAKENING  OF  THE  FAR  EAST 

—  (2)  AWAKENING   OF  JAPAN.      Robinson  and  Beard,   Development,  II, 
338-343;     Hazen,    687-695;     Douglas,    169-209;     Robinson   and   Beard, 
Readings,  II,  424-433.  —  (3)  WAR  BETWEEN  CHINA  AND  JAPAN.    Hazen, 
695-698;    Robinson  and  Beard,  Development,  II,  343-346;    Douglas,  304- 
322;    Encyclopedia  Britannica,  VI,  233-234;    Robinson  and  Beard,  Read- 
ings, II,  433-435.  —  (4)  THE  BOXER  WAR.     Douglas,  323-360;    Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  VI,  203-206;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  435-441. 

—  (5)  PROGRESS  OF  CHINA.     Reinsch,  World  Politics,  85-195 ;    Douglas, 
256-284;    Encyclopedia  Britannica,  VI,   207-209;    Robinson  and  Beard, 
Readings,  II,  441-444.  —  (6)  RUSSIAN  ABOLITION  OF  SERFDOM.    Hazen, 
655-661;    Seignobos,  Europe  Since  1814,  603-608;    Rambaud,  History  of 
Russia,  III,   212-228;    Robinson    and    Beard,  Readings,  II,  345-352.— 
(7)  ABSOLUTE  GOVERNMENT  AND  NIHILIST  PLOTS.    Hazen,  666-672;  Rob- 
inson and  Beard,  Development,  II,  275-280 ;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXIII, 
905,  XIX,  686-688;   Rose,  Development  of  Modern  Nations;  Rambaud  and 
others,  The  Case  of  Russia,  257-292.  —  (8)  ECONOMIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
RUSSIA.     Robinson  and  Beard,  Development,  II,  280-281 ;   Skrine,  Expan- 
sion of  Russia,  313-321 ;    Ogg,  Social  Progress  in  Contemporary  Europe, 
119-221.  —  (9)  RUSSIAN    EXPANSION    IN    ASIA.     Robinson    and    Beard, 
Development,  II,  262-264;    Rambaud  and  others,  The  Case  of  Russia,  57- 
135  ;   Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  354-359.  —  (10)  TRANS-SIBERIAN 
RAILWAY.     Goodrich,  Russia  in  Europe  and  Asia,  ch.  ix;    Beveridge,  The 
Russian   Advance,   chs.    vi-vii.  —  (n)  CAUSES   OF   THE   RUSSO-JAPANESE 
WAR.     Hazen,    699-700;     Douglas,   409-424;     Asakawa,   Russo-Japanese 
Conflict,  1-64;    Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  444-445.  —  (12)  THE 
SIEGE    OF    PORT    ARTHUR.     Encyclopedia    Britannica,    XXVI,    926-928; 
Villiers,  Port  Arthur:    Three  Months  with  the  Besiegers.  —  (13)  BATTLE  OF 
THE  SEA  OF  JAPAN.     Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXVI,  930;    Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  445-446.  —  (14)  THE  MUKDEN  CAMPAIGN.     Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica,  XXVI,  929-930;   McCormick,  The  Tragedy  of  Russia,  I, 
chs.  xxxiv,  II,  xxxix.  —  (15)  THE  TREATY  OF    PORTSMOUTH.     Hershey, 
International  Law   and  Diplomacy  of  the  Russo-Japanese    War,  ch.  xiii; 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XV,  250-251. 

General  Reading.  —  Douglas,  Europe  and  the  Far  East,  is  the  best  single 
book  to  the  opening  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  The  article  in  the  En- 
cyclopedia Britannica  on  the  Russo-Japanese  War  is  a  good  brief  account 
of  that  struggle.  Good  books  on  China  are  A.  H.  Smith,  Chinese  Char- 
acteristics, and  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese.  On  Japan  see  Griffis,  The 
Japanese  Nation  in  Evolution. 


CHAPTER   XXXVI 

A  WORLD  IN  REVOLUTION 

A.   THE  OVERTHROW  OF  ABSOLUTE  GOVERNMENTS 

SINCE  the  opening  of  the  twentieth  century  the  world  has 
progressed  at  a  rate  hitherto  unexampled  in  history.  Change 
has  crowded  fast  upon  change,  and  the  innovations  have  856.  Rapid 
been  fundamental  and  far-reaching  in  their  effects.  The  jJ 
movement  exhibits  itself  alike  in  the  fields  of  pure  and  fields 
applied  science,  of  economic  and  social  relations,  and  in  the 
organization  and  working  of  governments.  To  sketch  some 
of  these  recent  developments,  and  to  show  their  significance, 
is  the  purpose  of  this  and  the  following  chapter. 

The  disappearance  of  absolute  rule  from  the  world  is  one  of 
the  most  evident  changes  of  the  new  era.     In  Russia,  Turkey, 
Persia,   and  China,   revolutions  have  broken  out  which   857.  Fall  of 
have  swept  away,  or  are  in  process  of  sweeping  away,   a0^,!^_e 
their    former    absolute    governments.     The    movement  ments 
started  in  Russia,  where  it  may  be  considered  a  result  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  War. 

The  war  with  Japan  had  glaringly  revealed  the  corruption 
and  incompetence  of  the  absolute  rule  in  Russia.1     This  revela- 
tion naturally  led  to  a  revival  of  attempts  at  revolution.   858. 
In  the  early  months  of  1905,  widespread  industrial  and  RUl  ISIA : 
political  disturbances  broke  out,  in  which  even  the  stolid  revolution 
peasants  took  part.     On  the  one  side  were  political  assas-    (J9°5) 
sinations,  and  on  the  other  bloody  repression  by  Cossack  sol- 

1  It  was  found,  for  example,  that  grand  dukes  and  other  high  dignitaries  had 
shamelessly  stolen  the  funds  of  the  International  Red  Cross  Society,  which  had 
been  sent  to  Russia  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded. 

707 


yo8 


A  WORLD   IN   REVOLUTION 


diers.1  The  troubles  occurred  especially  at  St.  Petersburg, 
Odessa,  and  in  the  towns  of  Poland.  The  mobilization  of  new 
troops  for  the  war  led  to  frequent  outbreaks,  and  the  army  in 


REVOLUTIONARY  DEMONSTRATION  IN  ST.  PETERSBURG 

the  Far  East  was  reported  to  be  full  of  disaffection.     A  serious 
blow  came  when  the  crew  of  the  most  powerful  warship  of  the 

1  On  Sunday,  January  22,  1905,  a  disturbance  occurred  at  St.  Petersburg  which 
gave  the  name  "Red  Sunday"  to  that  day.  The  people  had  no  faith  in  the  Tsar's 
ministers  and  officers,  and  sought  humbly  to  lay  their  case  before  him  direct.  Ac- 
cordingly a  Russian  priest  named  Father  Gapon  tried  on  January  22  to  lead  a  vast 
body  of  unarmed  men,  women,  and  children  to  the  Tsar's  Winter  Palace  to  petition 
him  for  a  redress  of  their  grievances.  The  Cossacks  rode  among  them  and  tried  to 
disperse  them  with  their  whips,  and  when  this  failed  the  palace  guards  shot  and 
cut  them  down.  All  day  long  the  brutal  pursuit  continued.  Hundreds  of  the 
unresisting  people  were  killed,  and  thousands  wounded.  This  is  merely  a  sample 
of  what  went  on  in  many  places  at  many  different  times. 


RUSSIA 


709 


Black  Sea  fleet  mutinied,  slew  their  officers,  and  for  twelve  days 
terrorized  Odessa  and  other  ports,  while  the  crews  of  the  other 
vessels  refused  to  fire  upon  their  comrades.  In  view  of  this 
widespread  disaffection  the  government  was  forced  to  make 
some  concessions.  The  separate  constitution  of  the  grand  duchy 
of  Finland,  which  had  been  practically  annulled  since  1899,  was 
restored;  and  the  long  attempt  (since  1863)  to  force  Russian 
speech  upon  the  Poles  was  given  up. 

The  Tsar,  Nicholas  II  (1894-  ),  even  promised  to  call  to- 
gether an  elective  assembly,  or  Duma  (doo'ma).  Liberals  were 
bitterly  disappointed,  however,  at  the  ways  in  which  rep-  859.  A  gen- 
resentation  in  this  body  was  hedged  about,  at  the  lack  fl*ewn- 
of  independent  powers  given,  and  at  the  refusal  of  the  cessions 
Tsar  to  grant  their  demand  for  a  written  constitution.  But 
successful  revolt  by  force  of  arms  nowadays  is  almost  impos- 
sible, owing  to  the  large  armies  at  the  command  of  govern- 
ments, and  to  the  enormous  superiority  of  government  troops, 
due  to  their  discipline  and  the  possession  of  long-range  maga- 
zine rifles  and  machine  guns.  To  gain  their  point,  therefore, 
the  Russian  revolutionists  resorted  to  a  new  weapon,  designed 
to  fit  the  new  conditions.  This  was  a  "general  strike,"  —  that 
is,  an  almost  total  cessation  of  all  the  ordinary  and  necessary 
employments  of  life.  Railways  were  tied  up,  factories  closed, 
gas  and  electric  light  shut  off,  and  all  shops  closed  except  pro- 
vision stores.  The  success  of  such  a  movement  depends  on 
its  universality,  and  the  ability  of  the  strikers  to  hold  out  for 
a  considerable  time.  The  Russian  strike  of  1905  attained 
some  success.  The  Tsar's  police  could  brutally  butcher  his 
subjects  when  they  met  together  to  demand  liberty,  but  they 
could  not  set  going  the  halted  machinery  of  industry  and  com- 
merce. The  Tsar,  therefore,  was  forced  to  issue  new  decrees, 
which  granted  freedom  of  speech  and  of  religious  worship.  He 
also  declared  that  thenceforth  no  measure  should  become  law 
which  did  not  have  the  consent  of  the  elective  assembly.  But 
at  the  same  time  he  limited  the  powers  of  the  Duma  by 
transforming  an  existing  body  called  the  Council  of  the  Empire, 


7io  A  WORLD   IN   REVOLUTION 

composed  of  persons  appointed  by  the  crown,  into  an  upper 
house,  without  whose  consent  no  measure  passed  by  the  Duma 
could  take  effect. 

The  Duma  met  for  the  first  time  in  1906.     It  demanded 

(i)  a  general  pardon  for  political  offenses,  (2)  universal  suffrage, 

860.  Four       (3)  a  responsible  ministry,  and  (4)  the  compulsory  sale 

Dumas^6  of  lancls  to  tlie  Peasants-  On  account  of  the  radical 
(1906-1912)  character  of  its  members  and  of  their  demands,  it  was  soon 
dissolved.  A  second  Duma  was  called  together  early  in  1907. 
This  also  proved  too  radical  for  the  Tsar's  government,  and  it 
was  dissolved  after  sitting  three  months.  Warfare  then  fol- 
lowed between  the  terrorists  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  reaction- 
aries on  the  other.  The  advantage  rested  with  the  latter.  By 
arbitrarily  changing  the  election  law  and  excluding  the  radical 
leaders  of  the  earlier  bodies,  the  Tsar  in  November,  1907,  got 
together  a  third  Duma  of  much  more  moderate  type.  It  was 
called  the  "Landlords'  Duma,"  because  it  was  almost  exclu- 
sively under  the  influence  of  this  class.  Even  this  body  voted 
to  reject  the  title  "autocrat"  as  applied  to  the  Tsar,  and  at 
times  displayed  in  other  ways  an  independent  spirit.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1912,  the  term  of  the  third  Duma  expired,  and  new 
elections  were  held.  As  a  result  of  the  interference  of  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  elections,  the  fourth  Duma  was  even  more  con- 
servative than  its  predecessor. 

In  1911  the  chief  minister  of  the  government  was  assassinated, 

after  having  published  (by  the  mere  authority  of  the  Tsar)  a 

861   Slight     *aw  wnicn  had  not  been  passed  by  the  two  chambers  of 

results  of       the  assembly.     Doubtless  such  lurking  dangers  as  this 

constitute  one  reason  for  not  discontinuing  the  Dumas 

entirely,  and  relapsing  into  the  complete  absolutism  of  former 

days.     Liberals  are  grievously  disappointed  at  the  slow  progress 

which  the  movement  for  constitutional  government  is  making. 

But,  as  one  of  the  Tsar's  ministers  remarked,  "To  jump  from 

the  sixteenth  century  to  the  twentieth  is  not  easy,  especially 

with    twenty-eight    unassimilated    and    illiterate    nationalities 

within  the  empire."     It  is  evident  that  the  absolutism  of  the 


TURKEY  711 

Tsars  is  at  an  end,  but  the  exact  nature  of  the  government  which 
will  take  its  place  remains  undetermined. 

The  second  country  to  feel  the  wave  of  revolt  against  abso- 
lute government  was  Turkey.  As  in  Russia,  the  Liberal  move- 
ment in  Turkey  was  of  long  standing.  The  Sultan  862. 
Abdul-Hamid  II  had  granted  a  constitution  at  the  begin-  Revoiuti0n 
ning  of  his  reign,  in  1876 ;  but  after  two  sessions  of  the  prepared 
Turkish  Parliament,  that  body  was  dismissed  and  the  constitu- 
tion suspended.  The  Turkish  government  remained  a  despot- 
ism of  the  worst  sort.  Modern  improvements,  such  as  the 
telephone,  were  forbidden  on  the  ground  that  they  might  be 
used  to  aid  conspiracies.  A  strict  censorship  was  maintained 
over  all  printed  matter,  whether  issued  in  or  imported  into  the 
country.  Government  .spies  were  everywhere.  In  the  latter 
part  of  his  reign  the  Sultan  retired  more  and  more  behind  the 
triple  wall  of  his  palace,  and  left  the  government  to  swarms  of 
greedy  and  self-seeking  ministers.  The  more  Liberal  elements 
among  the  European  Turks,  who  are  largely  of  Slavic  blood, 
thereupon  organized  a  vast  secret  society,  with  headquarters  at 
Paris.  They  styled  themselves  the  Young  Turks,  took  for  their 
password  "  Freedom,"  and  aimed  at  modernizing  and  liberaliz- 
ing Turkey.  They  had  their  agents  among  civilians,  in  the 
customhouses,  and  among  the  police.  The  Armenians,  Greeks, 
and  other  subject  Christians  threw  in  their  lot  with  the  Young 
Turks.  The  leaders  of  the  revolution  realized  the  hopelessness 
of  uprisings  of  the  people  against  governments  supported  by 
modern  armies,  and  refrained  from  armed  insurrection.  Finally 
the  army  itself,  because  of  misgovernment  and  arrears  in  its 
pay,  was  won  over  to  the  cause.  The  movement  thus  became 
a  national  one,  with  one  of  its  objects  expressed  in  the  phrase 
"  Turkey  for  the  Turks." 

When  all  was  ready  the  word  to  revolt  was  given,  in  July, 
1908.     From   Albania   to   Bagdad,   from   Adrianople   to  863.  The 
Yemen,  there  was  a  united  response.     The  Sultan  was  carried  out 
obliged  to  restore  the  constitution  of  1876,  which  provided   (1908-1909) 
for  (i)  security  of  personal  liberty  and  property,  (2)  freedom 


712 


A  WORLD   IN   REVOLUTION 


of  the  press,  (3)  the  abolition  of  torture,  (4)  equality  of  Moham- 
medan and  Christian  subjects,  (5)  a  Parliament  of  two  houses, 
and  (6)  the  responsibility  of  ministers  to  Parliament.  In  April, 
1909,  the  Sultan  made  a  last  desperate  effort  to  regain  power 
by  stirring  up  a  counter  revolution.  This  was  carried  on  by 
his  palace  guards  and  a  few  loyal  regiments  at  the  capital.  It 
was  aided  by  a  carefully  fanned  hatred  of  old-fashioned  Turks 
for  the  new  equality  of  Christians.  For  a  time  the  attempt  was 


YOUNG  TURKS  MARCHING  ON  CONSTANTINOPLE 

successful.  But  within  a  few  days  the  well-disciplined  troops 
controlled  by  the  Young  Turk  party  fought  their  way  into 
Constantinople,  and  bombarded  the  palace  into  surrender.  On 
April  27,  1909,  Abdul-Hamid  II  was  deposed,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  younger  brother  (Mohammed  V),  who  by  Mohammedan 
law  was  heir  apparent  in  preference  to  the  Sultan's  own  children. 
The  task  of  the  Young  Turks  was  made  more  difficult  by 
the  facts  that  Bulgaria  seized  this  occasion  to  throw  off  its 
vassalage  to  Turkey,  and  that  Austria  now  definitely  incor- 
porated Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  which  had  been  hers  to  ad- 
minister since  1878  (§  825).  The  efforts  of  the  other  Powers, 


TURKEY 


713 


however,  prevented  war  over  these  questions,  and  Turkey  was 
prevailed  upon  to  accept  money  compensation. 

The  work  of  reconstructing  Turkey  by  assimilating  the  dif- 
ferent racial  and  religious  elements,  and  establishing  constitu- 
tional government,  is  exceedingly  difficult.     It  was  ham-  g6     Diffi_ 
pered  by  dissensions  among  the  Young  Turks  themselves,   cuity  of  re- 
who  are  divided  into  a  radical  party  which  opposes*  graft 
and  corruption  and  favors  the  subject  races,  and  a  conserva- 


construction 


MOHAMMED  V  RETURNING  FROM  TAKING  THE  OATH  OF  OFFICE 

live  party  which  holds  more  selfish  and  less  enlightened  views. 
Several  high  Turkish  officials  have  been  assassinated  as  a  re- 
sult of  party  quarrels.  Moreover,  foreign  warfare,  which  was 
averted  in  1909,  came  two  years  later ;  and  crushing  blows  were 
dealt  to  Turkish  pride  and  prestige  by  the  loss  of  Tripoli  to  Italy 
in  1912,  and  by  the  disastrous  Balkan  War  of  1912-1913,  which 
cost  her  almost  the  whole  of  her  remaining  European  possessions 
(§§  830-83  2) .  It  is  possible  that  the  loss  of  the  distant  province  of 


7  14  A  WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 

Tripoli,  and  of  the  uneasy  Balkan  districts,  may  prove  in  the  end 
an  advantage  to  Turkey.  More  and  more  the  government  will 
be  forced  to  rely  on  its  Asiatic  provinces.  Although  Mohamme- 
danism is  the  state  religion,  and  the  Sultan  is  the  head  (caliph) 
of  that  faith,  only  about  one  third  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  lost 
European  provinces  are  Mohammedans.  In  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Mchammedans  outnumber  all  other 
sects  taken  together.  The  Turks  there  are  a  vigorous  and 
robust  race,  and  form  a  compact  mass  of  many  million  in- 
habitants. Asia  Minor  contains  great  mineral  wealth,  and 
other  as  yet  undeveloped  resources.  If  the  tasks  of  political 
reconstruction,  of  industrial  development,  and  of  education  are 
seriously  undertaken,  a  revived  Turkey  may  arise  which  will 
be  all  the  stronger  for  being  freed  from  religious  conflicts  with 
its  subjects,  and  from  the  resulting  political  control  by  the 
European  Powers.  At  all  events  it  looks  as  if  the  revolution 
of  1908-1909  has  produced  a  permanent  overthrow  of  the  ab- 
solute monarchy.  We  are  perhaps  justified  in  looking  forward 
to  the  slow  strengthening  of  Turkish  constitutional  government, 
becoming  more  Liberal  and  enlightened  witli  the  lapse  of  time. 
In  Persia  also  the  opening  years  of  the  century  saw  a  revolu- 
tion which  overthrew  the  old  absolutism.  In  part  this  was 
865.  due  to  discontent  with  the  extravagance  and  misgovern- 


Revohition     ment  of  ^  ^^  (as  tne  k^g  was  called),  and  in  part  it 

effected         was  due  to  the  example  of  Russia.     The  movement  took 

(1906-1909)   shape  in  1905,  when  a  demand  was  made  for  representa- 

tive government.     In  1906  a  constitution  was  granted,  with  a 

Parliament  composed  of  representatives  of  the  various  classes. 

In  January,  1907,  the  old  Shah  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  who  adopted  a  reactionary  policy.  Organizing  a  body 
of  troops  under  Russian  officers,  he  sought  to  arrest  the  leaders 
of  Parliament;  and  when  this  attempt  was  resisted,  he  bom- 
barded the  Parliament  house.  A  revolt  followed  in  a  number 
of  the  provinces.  The  success  which  this  movement  had, 
together  with  pressure  from  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  finally 
forced  the  Shah,  in  May,  1909,  to  restore  the  constitution. 


PERSIA,   CHINA  715 

The  revolt  still  continued,  and  in  July  the  revolutionists  suc- 
ceeded in  entering  the  Persian  capital,  Teheran  (te-h'ran'). 
The  Shah  took  refuge  in  the  Russian  legation.  The  revolution- 
ists thereupon  declared  him  deposed,  and  seated  upon  the 
throne  his  thirteen-year-old  son. 

Russia  and  England  had  long  possessed  rival  commercial 
and  financial  interests  in  Persia.     They  took  advantage  of  the 
weakness  of  the  country  to  come,  to  an  agreement  (in  866.  Rus- 
1907),  by  which  Russia  was  to  have  the  chief  influence  sian  *nd 
in  northern  Persia,  and  Great  Britain  was  to  hold  a  simi-  designs  on 
lar  position  in  the  south  (§  848).     Russia  evidently  wishes,  Persia 
by  prolonging  disorder  in  Persia,  to  pave  the  way  for  the  an- 
nexation of  the  northern  part.     Great  Britain,  by  her  acquies- 
cence, gains  Russia's  consent  to  her  declared  policy  of  shutting 
out  any  other  European  country  from  securing  a  footing  on  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  so  threatening  the  British  possession  of  India. 
The  outcome  of  this  situation  may  be  the  ultimate  partition  of 
Persia,  as  Poland  was  partitioned  more  than  a  century  ago. 

The  last  and  most  amazing  instance  of  revolution  against 
absolute  government  was  one  which  broke  out  in  China  in  1911. 
It  was  directed  against  the  Manchu  dynasty,  which  so  867. 
long  had  misruled  that  country.  The  looting  of  Peking  p^g^s  of 
by  Europeans  during  the  suppression  of  the  Boxer  rising  awakening 
(§  845),  and  the  humiliating  neglect  of  Chinese  wishes  and  in- 
terests in  the  great  war  between  Russia  and  Japan  (§§  850-854), 
had  taught  their  lesson.  Powerful  and  enlightened  men, 
filled  with  enthusiasm  for  Western  institutions,  came  into  power 
and  put  in  execution  far-reaching  reforms.  The  army  was  re- 
modeled on  Western  lines.  Energetic  steps  were  taken  to  put 
down  the  manufacture,  importation,  and  use  of  opium.  The 
centuries-old  system  of  examinations  for  office,  based  on  the 
works  of  Confucius  and  other  ancient  Chinese  writers,  was 
abolished.  A  modern  educational  system,  patterned  after  that 
of  Japan,  was  introduced.  Finally,  a  commission  was  ap- 
pointed to  visit  Europe  and  America,  and  to  report  what 
changes  should  be  made  in  the  Chinese  government. 


716 


A  WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 


As  a  result  of  the  work  of  this  commission,  an  edict  appeared 
in  1906  which  promised  a  parliamentary  constitution  for  China, 

868.  Prepa-    to  be  established  by  gradual  steps  within  nine  years, 
rations  for      ^he  movement  for  change  was  doubtless  helped  by  the 
tioT(^6~-     death  (in  November,  1908)  of  both  the  fierce  old  empress 
1910)  dowager  (§  845),  and  the  puppet  emperor  whom  she  had 

practically  dethroned.     A  boy  of  less  than  three  years  was  placed 

on  the  throne,  and  the  gov- 
ernment given  over  to  a 
regent.  Nine  years,  how- 
ever, proved  too  long  for 
the  Chinese  to  wait.  From 
many  sides  came  a  demand 
for  the  establishing  of  a 
Parliament  with  full  powers, 
at  an  earlier  date  than  was 
promised.  The  educated 
and  well-to-do  classes  took 
the  lead  in  the  movement, 
and  enthusiastic  meetings 
were  held  in  which  men  cut 
off  their  fingers  to  show 
their  earnestness.  The  gov- 
ernment at  last  promised 
that  the  Parliament  should 
meet  in  1913. 
Even  this  was  not  enough.  In  September,  1911,  armed 

rebellion  broke  out  in  central  China.     The  objects  of  the  move- 

869.  Man-     ment  were  declared  to  be :  (i)  to  overthrow  the  Manchus, 
thnmed'        (2)  to  make  clima  a  federal  republic,  and  (3)  to  secure 
(1911-1912)    honest  government.     To  guard  against  interference  by 

other  countries,  injury  to  foreigners  was  made  punishable  with 
death.  The  movement  spread  from  city  to  city,  from  province 
to  province.  Within  a  few  weeks  the  whole  of  South  China 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  revolutionists.  A  provisional  gov- 
ernment was  set  up  at  Nanking',  under  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen, 


DR.  SUN  YAT  SEN 


CHINA 


717 


the  enlightened  leader  of  the  revolt.  In  panic  the  regent 
then  put  at  the  head  of  affairs  a  moderately  Liberal  statesman, 
Yuan  Shih  Kai  (yoo-an'she'ki'),  whom  he  had  recently  dis- 
missed from  office.  A  pathetic  apology  for  the  misgovernment 
of  the  regency  was  issued  in 
the  name  of  the  boy  em- 
peror.1 At  the  same  time 
the  draft  of  a  constitution 
was  accepted  which  would 
have  made  China  a  constitu- 
tional monarchy,  under  a 
parliamentary  government. 

The  Manchus,  however, 
were  bitterly  hated,  and  it 
was  too  late  to  save  their 
monarchy.  The  generals  of 
the  imperial  army  themselves 
joined  in  a  memorial  advis- 
ing against  the  attempt  to 
retain  power  by  the  use  of 
force.  It  was  also  found 
impossible  to  borrow  the 
money  necessary  for  resist- 
ance. The  Manchu  imperial 

house  therefore  determined  to  resign  the  throne.     On  February 
12,  1912,  Yuan  Shih  Kai  was  given  authority  to  establish  a 

1  The  apology  reads  (in  part)  as  follows:  "I  have  reigned  for  three  years  and 
have  always  acted  conscientiously  in  the  interests  of  the  people ;  but  I  have  not 
employed  men  properly,  not  having  political  skill.  On  railway  matters  some  one 
whom  I  trusted  fooled  me,  and  thus  public  opinion  was  opposed.  When  I  urge 
reform  the  officials  and  gentry  seize  the  opportunity  to  embezzle.  When  old  laws 
are  abolished  high  officials  serve  their  own  ends.  Much  of  the  people's  money  has 
been  taken,  but  nothing  to  benefit  the  people  has  been  achieved.  People  are  grum- 
bling, yet  I  do  not  know ;  disasters  loom  ahead,  but  I  do  not  see.  All  these  things 
are  my  own  fault,  and  hereby  I  announce  to  the  world  that  I  swear  to  reform,  and, 
with  our  soldiers  and  people,  to  carry  out  the  constitution  faithfully,  modifying 
legislation,  developing  the  interests  of  the  people,  and  abolishing  their  hardships  — 
all  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  and  interests  of  the  people.  Old  laws  that  are  un- 
suitable will  be  abolished.  The  union  of  Manchus  and  Chinese,  mentioned  by  the 


YUAN  SHIH  KAI 


yi8  A  WORLD   IN   REVOLUTION 

provisional  republican  government,  and  to  confer  with  the 
revolutionary  government  at  Nanking.  The  result  of  the 
conference  was  that  Sun  Yat  Sen  patriotically  resigned  his 
office,  and  Yuan  Shih  Kai  was  elected  provisional  President 
of  the  "  Great  Republic  of  China."  The  little  emperor  and  the 
Manchu  princes  were  pensioned  off,  and  the  republic  was  left 
free  to  establish  itself  as  best  it  might. 

In  April,  1913,  the  Chinese  National  Assembly  (or  parlia- 
ment), met  for  the  first  time.     A  majority  of  its  members  were 
870  Meet-     enlightened  but  impractical  men,  who  shared  the  radical 
ing  and  dis-    opinions  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat  Sen.     The  first  act  of  the  As- 
theUNational  sembly  was  to  publish  a  declaration  that  "  the  hundreds 
Assembly       of  millions  of  the  Chinese  people  possess  the  authority  of 
the  state,"   and  that  the  representatives  of  the  people 
must   "give   expression    to    the   desires    and    voice    the   will 
of  the  people."     Yuan  Shih  Kai   favored   administrative   re- 
forms, and  was  the  author  of  the  decree  doing   away   with 
the  old  examination  system  of  China;    but  he  believed  that 
the  Chinese  people  were  not  ready  for  self-government.     He 
sought   to  shape   the  constitution  to  his  own  liking  and  to 
rule   as   autocratically   as   the   former    Manchu    government. 
An   ominous  note  was  struck,  soon  after  the  Assembly  met, 
by  the  murder  of  a  republican  general  whom  the  leaders  of 
the  Assembly  intended  to  make  prime  minister.     By  conclud- 
ing contracts  with  the  European  Powers  for  immense  loans, 
Yuan  greatly  strengthened  his  position.     Sun  Yat  Sen  and  his 
followers  were  confronted  with  the  necessity  of  choosing  be- 
tween accepting  Yuan's  authority  and  resisting  that  authority 
by  force  of  arms. 

They  chose  the  latter  alternative,  and  widespread  revolts 
broke  out  (in  July)  in  the  southern  provinces.  President  Yuan, 
however,  had  at  his  command  the  disciplined  troops  of  the 

late  emperor,  I  will  carry  out.  Even  if  all  unite,  I  still  fear  falling  ;  but  if  the  em- 
pire's subjects  do  not  regard  and  do  not  honor  fate,  and  are  easily  misled  by  out- 
laws, then  the  future  of  China  is  unthinkable.  I  am  most  anxious  day  and  night. 
My  only  hope  is  that  my  subjects  will  thoroughly  understand." 


CHANGES  IN   CONTINENTAL  EUROPE  719 

north,  the  Chinese  navy,  and  plenty  of  money  as  the  result  of 
foreign  loans.  The  revolts,  therefore,  were  easily  crushed. 
Yuan  by  force  and  bribery  extorted  from  the  Assembly  his 
election  as  pemnanent  President.  He  then  excluded  from  the 
Assembly  400  members  of  the  opposition  party,  and  finally 
suspended  the  Assembly,  announcing  that  it  would  be  re- 
placed by  an  administrative  council  "  to  act  until  Parliament 
is  reorganized  or  is  able  to  resume  its  sittings." 

Yuan  Shih  Kai  is  thus  left  (January,  1914)  in  complete  con- 
trol of  the  government,  with  the  tacit  support  of  Japan  and 
the  European  Powers.     What  the  ultimate  outcome  will  87I  Pros_ 
be  is  still  uncertain.     Here,  as  in  the  case  of  Turkey,  the  pects  of  the 
external  difficulties  as  well  as  the  internal  ones  are  very  RepubUc 
great.     Russia  has  encouraged  Chinese  Mongolia  —  whose  area 
is  half  as  great  as  that  of  the  whole  of  China  —  to  declare  its 
independence,  and  is  putting  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of  a 
reestablishment  of  Chinese   suzerainty  there.     Great  Britain 
seems  to  be  doing  the  same  in  Tibet.     Nevertheless,  if  Japan 
and  the  European  Powers  keep  their  hands  off  internal  affairs, 
there  is  a  chance  that  some  of  the  forms  of  self-government 
may  be  preserved,  and  that  gradually  the  republic  will  become 
a  reality.     If  this  is  the  outcome,  it  will  be  one  of  the  most 
stupendous  political  changes  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

B.   CHANGES  IN  THE  STATES  OF  CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 

While  other  nations  of  western  Europe  strengthened  them- 
selves in  the  last  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  through 
alliances  and  the  acquisition  of  territory  abroad,  Spain   g72.  Spain 
continued  to  decline.     One  reason  for  this  was  the  fact  aftcr  l87° 
that  she  was  long  weakened  by  party  struggles.     After  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Hohenzollern  candidate  for  the  Spanish  throne 
(§  77°)>  a  younger  son  of  the  king  of  Italy  accepted  the  crown 
(January,  1871).     But  at  the  end  of  two  years  he  resigned  the 
throne  in  disgust,  and  a  republic  was  proclaimed.     Wars  with 
royalists  of  rival  houses,  and  with  those  who  wished  a  federative 


720 


A  WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 


instead  of  a  consolidated  republic,  distracted  and  weakened  the 
country,  and  in  1875  the  monarchy  was  restored.  A  constitution 
with  representative  government  and  a  legislature  of  two  houses 
was  adopted  in  1876,  and  in  1890  manhood  suffrage  was  added. 
The  power  of  the  monarchy  rested  mainly  on  the  army,  which 
was  over-officered,  inefficient,  and  a  great  drain  on  Spanish 
finances.  Railways  and  industry  made  rapid  strides,  but  mainly 
through  foreign  enterprise.  The  mass  of  the  population,  though 
sound  and  honest,  remained  ignorant,  idle,  and  religiously 
intolerant.  In  1889,  68  per  cent  could  neither  read  nor  write, 
and  53  per  cent  were  without  occupation. 

The  remnants  of  Spain's  once  mighty  colonial  empire  were  a 
source  of  weakness  to  her  rather  than  of  strength.  The  cruelty 
873  Spanish  w^tn  which  an  insurrection  was  being  put  down  in  Cuba, 
American  led  in  1898  to  war  with  the  United  States.  Admiral 
1  9  Dewey  at  Manila,  and  Admirals  Sampson  and  Schley  at 
Santiago,  crushed  the  Spanish  fleets;  and  Spain  was  forced  to 
sue  for  peace.  The  terms  agreed  upon  included  the  giving  up  of 
Cuba  (which  shortly  became  an  independent  republic),  and  the 
cession  of  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines  to  the  United  States. 
The  acquisition  of  the  Philippines  brought  the  United  States 
more  directly  into  Far  Eastern  questions,  and  increased  her  im- 
portance in  "world  politics"  —an  importance  based  also  on 
the  "American  invasion"  of  many  European  fields  of  industry. 
For  Spain  the  Spanish  American  War  marked  the  practical 
disappearance  of  the  vast  colonial  empire  which  she  had  pos- 
sessed at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century.  If  the  oppor- 
tunity afforded  by  its  loss  is  used  to  carry  through  the  much 
needed  Liberal  reforms  at  home,  and  to  align  Spain  with  the 
progressive  countries  of  western  Europe,  this  war  will  prove  for 
her  a  blessing  in  disguise.  Her  present  king  (Alfonso  XIII) 
is  an  enlightened  and  progressive  monarch,  but  it  is  difficult  to 
wipe  out  the  results  of  ages  of  misgovernment.  Spain  continues 
to  be  an  intolerant,  illiterate,  and  backward  country.  Agricul- 
ture there  is  less  productive  now  than  under  the  Roman  Empire, 
in  some  districts  the  plows  being  mere  pointed  sticks  shod 


CHANGES  IN   CONTINENTAL  EUROPE  721 

with  iron.  Aside  from  industrial  improvement,  the  problem 
which  seems  to  be  of  most  immediate  concern  is  that  of  separat- 
ing church  and  state,  and  removing  the  influence  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  from  politics. 

In  the  recent  history  of  France,  the  most  important  event 
was  the  ending  of  the  religious  Concordat  (§631)  and  the  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state.     Ever  since  the  establishing  874.  Oppo- 
of  the  Third  Republic,  its  relations  with  the  Catholic  sitionto 
Church  had  been  strained.     By  1900  the  number  of  nuns  church  in 
in  France  had  increased  from  14,000  to  75,000 ;   the  monks  Fr«nce 
numbered  about   190,000;  and  the  property  of  the  religious 
orders  had  grown  to  twentyfold  what  it  was  in  1850.     Most 
of  the  religious  orders  were  engaged  in  teaching  and  preaching, 
and  it  was  charged  that  their  influence  was  exerted  against 
the  Republic.     One  French  statesman  went  so  far  as  to  say: 
'"  Clericalism  is,  in  fact,  to  be  found  at  the  bottom  of  every  agita- 
tion  and   every  intrigue  from  which  Republican  France  has 
suffered  during  the  last  thirty-five  years."     On  the  other  hand, 
it  should  be  noted  that  many  of  those  who  attacked  the  church 
were  hostile  to  the  whole  Christian  religion,  regarding  it  as  an 
obstacle  in  the  way  of  progress  and  of  civilization. 

The  Dreyfus  affair  (§  735)  brought  to  a  head  the  opposition 
to  the  political  activity  of  Catholic  churchmen.     In  1901-1904 
" Association  laws"  were  passed  which  closed  the  greater  875.  Reii- 
number  of  the  religious   (Catholic)  establishments,   and  Ration*880" 
caused  the  expulsion  of  the  teaching  and  preaching  orders  dissolved 
of  clergy.     This  policy  was  vehemently  denounced  by  Catholics 
as  persecution,  and  as  an  infringement  of  the  liberty  of  Catholic 
parents  to  have  their  children  educated  in  Catholic  schools. 

As  it  proved,  this  step  was  only  the  prelude  to  a  greater 
revolution,  —  the  complete  separation  of  church  and  state.     In 
1905,  France  passed  a  law  which  put  an  end  to  the  Con-  876.  Sepa- 
cordat,  dating  from  the  days  of  Napoleon  I  (§  631),  under  churcVand 
which  bishops  and  parish  priests  were  named  and  paid  by  state 
the  state.    The  state  salaries  to  Catholic  clergy,  Protestant  min- 
isters, and  Jewish  rabbis  are  all  to  cease  after  the  death  of  those 


722 


A  WORLD  IN   REVOLUTION 


who  are  now  receiving  such  pay.  The  cathedrals,  churches,  etc., 
continue  to  be  the  property  of  the  state  (as  they  have  been  since 
1789),  but  arrangements  are  made  by  which  the  Catholic  Church 
may  use  them.  The  Pope  declared  himself  unalterably  opposed 
to  these  laws,  and  much  difficulty  and  some  rioting  were  en- 
countered in  putting  them  into  execution.  But  the  measures 
apparently  have  behind  them  a  permanent  majority  of  the 
French  people ;  and  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  together 


DEMONSTRATION  BY  CATHOLICS  IN  PARIS 

with  the  removal  of  all  religious  influence  from  education,  may 
be  taken  as  an  accomplished  fact  in  French  history. 

Another  recent  change  of  some  importance  was  'the  separation 
of  Norway  from  Sweden.     In  1815  the  two  countries  had  been 

877.  Sepa-     united  as  separate  countries  under  the  same  king  (§  659). 

ration  of        Their  peoples,  however,  are   dissimilar   in   many   ways. 

and  Sweden  Despite  the  king's  veto  (which  was  merely  a  suspensive 

(1905)  one)  Norway  abolished  the  Norwegian  nobility.     Dissen- 

sions followed  over  Norwegian  demands  for  a  place  of  equal 
importance  with  Sweden  on  the  seal  of  state,  for  a  separate 


CHANGES  IN  CONTINENTAL   EUROPE  723 

flag,  and  for  a  Norwegian  governor  over  Norway.  These  de- 
mands, after  long  resistance,  were  granted.  Then  came  a 
demand  that  the  Norwegians  be  allowed  to  have  consuls  of 
their  own  to  care  for  Norway's  commercial  interests,  which  are 
much  more  important  than  those  of  Sweden.  This  conflict 
dragged  on  for  years.  Finally,  in  1905,  the  Norwegian  Storthing 
(stor'ting;  parliament)  declared  the  union  between  the  two 
countries  dissolved  —  a  step  ratified  by  368,200  votes  against 
184,  in  a  plebiscite  taken  in  August,  1905.  King  Oscar  of 
Sweden  was  deeply  hurt  by  this  action  of  his  Norwegian  sub- 
jects. He  decided  to  let  them  go  in  peace,  however,  and  a 
treaty  of  separation  was  soon  ratified.  The  Norwegian  Stor- 
thing then  chose  as  king  Prince  Charles  of  Denmark,  who  was 
crowned  in  June,  1906,  as  King  Haakon  VII. 

Portugal  is  the  only  state  in  western  Europe,  since  the  open- 
ing of  the  twentieth  century,  in  which  a  revolution  has  been 
effected  by  armed  force.  Almost  a  century  earlier,  upon  878.  Portu- 
the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  it  had  been  restored  to  the  rule  g^^.re 
of  its  former  sovereign ;  but  for  some  years  he  continued  (1910) 
to  reside  in  the  Portuguese  colony  of  Brazil,  to  which  he  had  fled 
in  1807  (§  644).  When  he  was  forced  to  return  by  threatened 
revolution  at  home,  Brazil  declared  itself  an  independent 
empire  under  the  rule  of  his  son  (1822). 1  By  the  grant  of  a 
" constitutional  charter"  in  1826,  Portugal  became  nominally  a 
constitutional  monarchy.  But  throughout  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  subject  to  civil  wars  and  violent  political  struggles, 
in  which  questions  of  absolutism  and  liberalism  were  mere 
cloaks  for  the  selfish  designs  of  corrupt  politicians.  The  climax 
to  these  struggles  came  in  1908,  when  the  king  and  crown  prince 
were  assassinated  in  the  streets  of  Lisbon. 

Under  Manuel  II,  the  second  son  of  the  deceased  king,  the 
government  was  no  better.  In  1910  the  long-delayed  revolution 
came.  In  recent  elections  the  republicans  had  doubled  the 
number  of  their  representatives  in  the  Parliament.  Having 

1  In  1893  the  Empire  of  Brazil,  which  was  the  only  independent  monarchy  ever 
really  established  in  the  New  World,  became  by  revolution  the  Republic  of  Brazil. 


724  A  WORLD   IN   REVOLUTION 

won  over  to  their  cause  certain  regiments  of  soldiers  in  Lisbon, 
they  began  a  revolt  (October,  1910).  Bands  of  citizens  and 
sailors  joined  them.  In  the  midst  of  the  fighting  two  battle- 
ships in  Lisbon  harbor  opened  fire  on  the  royalists,  and  enabled 
the  republicans  to  triumph.  The  king  fled  in  his  motor  car,  and 
ultimately  found  refuge  in  England.  A  republic  was  established, 
with  a  president  at  its  head  but  royalist  attempts  at  a  restora- 
tion are  frequent.  As  a  first  installment  of  Liberal  reform,  the 


PART  OF  THE  REVOLUTIONARY  FORCES  IN  LISBON 
The  wall  shows  marks  of  cannonading. 

new  republic  confiscated  the  property  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  enacted 'that  there  shall  be  religious  freedom,  with  separa- 
tion of  church  and  state  as  in  France.  This  has  naturally 
made  the  Catholic  clergy  bitterly  hostile  to  the  republic.  The 
wealthier  classes  went  into  exile,  voluntary  or  enforced.  There 
was  much  industrial  distress,  and  strikes  have  been  frequent. 
The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  success  of  the  new  government, 
perhaps,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  probably  80  per  cent 
of  the  Portuguese  cannot  read  and  write.  Serious  dangers  still 
confront  the  new  government,  and  it  cannot  yet  be  said  to  have 
solidly  established  itself. 


RECENT  CHANGES  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  725 

C.   RECENT  CHANGES  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN 

In  no  country  of  Europe  have  more  rapid  and  important 
changes  taken  place    in  recent    years  than  in  Great  Britain. 
Like  the  changes  of  the  nineteenth  century,  these  have  879.  Rapid 
been  effected  by  peaceful  methods  and  not  by  armed  ^^social' 
revolt.     In  their  nature  also  they  are  largely  a  continua-  changes 
tion  of  the  work  of  the  earlier  period. 

The  reign  of  Edward  VII  (§  804)  lasted  until  1910,  when 
he  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  George  V.  After  the 
retirement  of  Lord  Salisbury  (in  1903),  the  Conservative  880.  Liber- 
party  continued  in  office,  under  Mr.  Bal'four  as  prime  ^Vower™*1 
minister,  until  the  close  of  1905.  The  Liberals  were  then  (1905) 
restored  to  power  for  the  first  time  in  ten  years.  A  general 
election  in  1906  gave  the  Liberals  the  largest  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons  possessed  by  any  party  since  1832.  They 
proceeded  —  first  under  Mr.  Campbell-Bannerman,  and  then 
under  Mr.  Asquith,  as  prime  minister  —  to  pass  in  quick  succes- 
sion a  series  of  social  and  political  reforms. 

Among  their  social  reforms  two  stand  out  as  especially  im- 
portant. The  first  of  these  was  the  Old  Age  Pensions  Act, 
passed  in  1908.  Its  object  was  to  lessen  the  suffering  of  881.  Pen- 
trie  aged  poor  by  granting  a  pension  of  five  shillings  ^J^^ 
($1.25)  a  week  to  all  persons  over  seventy  years  of  age  acts  (1908, 
whose  income  did  not  exceed  $157  a  year.  The  second  I«>") 
was  the  National  Insurance  Act,  passed  in  191 1.  This  provided 
(i)  for  compulsory  insurance  against  sickness  for  the  entire 
working  population  whose  incomes  were  below  $130  a  year, 
and  for  voluntary  insurance  for  those  whose  incomes  were 
between  $130  and  $800 ;  and  (2)  for  insurance  against  unemploy- 
ment in  certain  specified  trades.  About  half  of  the  cost  is 
borne  by  the  workmen  themselves;  the  remainder  is  divided 
between  the  government  and  the  employers.  Both  of  these 
acts  may  be  said  to  be  patterned  after  Bismarck's  legislation 
for  the  working  classes  in  Germany  (§  779) ;  and  both  were 
bitterly  opposed  by  the  Conservatives  on  the  ground  that 


726  A  WORLD   IN   REVOLUTION 

they  were  socialistic  and  tended  to  pauperize  the  working 
classes. 

In  a  parliamentary  system  of  government  there  is  an  accurate 
balancing  of  expenditures  and  income  through  the  preparation 
882.  The        each  year  of  what  is  called  the  "budget."     The  estimated 
strug6le  of     expenditures  for  the  year  are  carefully  calculated,   and 
1909  taxes  are  proposed  sufficient  to  meet  these.     Because  of 

the  Old  Age  Pensions  Act  it  was  necessary  for  the  Liberal 
government  to  provide  a  considerably  increased  revenue  in  the 
budget  for  1909.  Mr.  Lloyd  George,  the  Cabinet  minister 
who  had  charge  of  the  treasury  department,  proposed  to  get 
this  increased  revenue  by  a  series  of  taxes  which  were  very 
distasteful  to  the  Conservatives.  The  general  plan  of  his 
budget  was  to  take  the  burdens  of  taxation  from  the  shoulders 
of  the  poor,  and  put  them  on  those  of  the  rich.  In  addition, 
the  price  of  liquor  licenses  was  increased  with  a  view  to  pro- 
moting temperance;  and  provision  was  made  for  taxing  what 
is  called  the  " unearned  increment"  in  land  values.  "If  land 
goes  up  in  the  future  by  hundreds  and  thousands  an  acre, 
through  the  efforts  of  the  community,"  said  Lloyd  George,  "the 
community  will  get  20  per  cent  of  that  increment." 1 

1  In  England  the  greater  part  of  the  land  is  owned  by  a  few  great  landlords,  in 
whose  families  it  is  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation.  The  owners  often 
refuse  to  sell  land,  and  merely  lease  it  to  those  who  wish  to  use  it  for  agricultural 
purposes  or  to  build  on  it  in  cities.  This  whole  land  system  is  now  attracting  the 
attention  of  reformers.  In  one  of  his  speeches  Lloyd  George  said :  "Who  ordained 
that  the  few  should  have  the  land  of  Britain  as  a  perquisite?  Who  made  ten 
thousand  people  the  owners  of  the  soil,  and  the  rest  of  us  trespassers  in  the  land  of 
our  birth  ?  Who  is  responsible  for  the  scheme  of  things  whereby  a  man  is  engaged 
through  life  in  grinding  labor  to  win  a  bare  and  precarious  subsistence  for  himself, 
and,  at  the  end  of  his  days,  when  claiming  at  the  hands  of  the  community  he  served 
a  poor  pension  of  eight  pence  a  day,  can  only  get  it  through  a  revolution,  while 
another  man  who  does  not  toil  receives  every  hour  of  the  day,  every  hour  of  the 
night,  more  than  his  poor  neighbor  receives  in  a  whole  year  of  toil?  Where  did 
the  table  of  that  law  come  from  ?  Whose  finger  inscribed  it  ?  These  are  the  ques- 
tions that  will  be  asked.  The  answers  are  charged  with  peril  for  the  order  of  things 
the  peers  represent;  but  they  are  fraught  with  rare  and  refreshing  fruit  for  the 
parched  lips  of  the  multitude  who  have  been  treading  the  dusty  road  along  which 
the  people  have  marched  through  the  dark  ages  which  are  now  merging  into  the 
light." 


RECENT  CHANGES  IN  GREAT   BRITAIN  727 

This  budget  precipitated  the  greatest  political  struggle  in 
England  since  the  Reform  agitation  in  1832.     The  powers  of 
the  House  of  Lords  over  financial  legislation  had  steadily  883.  The 
decreased;   it  was  admitted  that  they  could  no  longer  b??.?? 

*  °        passed 

amend  "money  bills,"  and  for  many  years  there  had  been '  (1910) 

no  instance  of  their  rejecting  a  budget.  Nevertheless  the  House 
of  Lords  in  1909  refused  to  pass  the  Lloyd  George  budget.  The 
government,  which  had  an  undiminished  majority  in  the  Com- 
mons, was  thus  forced  to  dissolve  Parliament  and  appeal  to 
the  people.  In  the  elections  (held  in  January,  1910)  the  Liberal 
majority  was  considerably  reduced,  but  their  alliance  with  the 
Irish  and  Labor  parties  still  left  them  in  undisputed  control  of 
the  Commons.  The  " revolutionary  budget"  was  then  passed 
by  the  Lords,  and  Lloyd  George's  proposals  became  law. 

Even  before  the  budget  struggle,  the  Liberals  had  become 
convinced  that  it  was  necessary  to  "mend  or  end"  the  House 
of  Lords  (§  802).  That  House  since  the  reign  of  George  884  The 
III  was  overwhelmingly  Conservative.  When  the  Con-  Lords*  veto 
servative  party  was  in  power  the  Lords  never  failed  to  a 
pass  the  government's  bills,  even  when  as  distasteful  to  them  as 
was  the  Reform  Act  of  1867.  But  when  Liberals  were  in  power 
the  Lords  often  mangled  or  threw  out  the  most  important 
measures.1  This  course  led  the  House  of  Commons,  in  1907, 
to  pass  a  resolution  that  "it  is  necessary  that  the  power  of  the 
House  of  Lords  to  alter  or  reject  bills  passed  by  tie  House  of 
Commons  should  be  so  restricted  by  law  as  to  secure  that, 
within  the  limits  of  a  single  Parliament,  the  final  decision  of 
the  Commons  shall  prevail."  The  question  was  whether  the 
House  elected  by  the  people,  or  the  non-elected  hereditary 
House,  should  prevail  in  the  government.  The  rejection  of  the 

1  Since  1006  the  Lords  had  rejected  an  Education  bill,  intended  to  repeal  a  recent 
Conservative  law  by  which  Church  of  England  schools  were  supported  by  the 
state  but  controlled  by  the  church ;  a  Plural  Voting  bill,  whose  object  was  to  limit 
each  man  to  one  vote,  no  matter  in  how  many  constituencies  he  possessed  the 
qualification ;  and  a  Licensing  bill,  designed  in  part  to  promote  temperance.  Many 
wealthy  brewers  and  distillers  have  been  made  peers,  and  "the  Beerage  and  the 
Peerage"  (as  the  Liberals  phrase  it)  usually  act  together. 


728  A  WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 

budget  by  the  Lords  now  determined  the  Liberals  to  use  all  their 
resources  to  enact  the  above  resolution  into  law. 

For  a  time  the  death  (in  May,  1910)  of  King  Edward  VII 
delayed  the  struggle.     An  attempt  to  find  a  solution  by  a  con- 
gg     The       ference  between  leading  Liberals  and  Conservatives  failed. 
Parliament     In  a  new  election,  held  in  December,  1910,  the  Lords  put 
Act  of  191 1     forwarci  a  counter  proposal  to  reform  their  House  so  as 
to  make  it  mainly  an  elective  and  ex-officio  body,  instead  of 
an  hereditary  one.     The  people,  however,  declared  in  favor 
of  the  Liberal-Labor-Irish  alliance  by  almost  the  same  majority 
as  in  January.     After  protracted  and  violent  debates,  the  Parlia- 
ment Bill,  as  it  was  called,  then  passed  the  Commons  and  went 
to  the  Lords.     The  king  had  already  promised  his  ministers 
to  create  enough  peers,  if  necessary,  to  carry  their  measure 
through   the   upper  house  (§  789).     The  announcement  that, 
if  the  Lords  continued  to  resist  the  will  of  the  people,  their  body 
would  be  swamped  by  the  creation  of    500  new  peers,  broke 
down  their  opposition,  and  secured  the  passage  of  the  Parliament 
Bill  (August,  1911).     As  in  1832,  an  actual  creation  of  peers  was 
Dicey,  Law     not  necessary ;  the  mere  threat  to  create  them  was  sufn- 
of  the  Con-      cient.     This  crisis  again  proved  that  "the  prerogatives 
of  tlxe  crown  kave  become  the  privileges  of  the  people," 
and  must  be  used  even  against  the  aristocracy  to  enforce  the 
popular  will.     The  chief  provisions  of  this  important  act  were 
the  following :  — 

1.  A  money  bill  (such  as  the  budget)  must  be  passed  by  the  Lords 

within  one  month  after  it  reaches  them,  or  it  becomes  a  law 
without  their  consent.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
decides  whether  a  bill  is  a  money  bill  or  not. 

2.  A  bill  other  than  a  money  bill  may  become  a  law  without  their 

consent  on  its  third  rejection  by  the  Lords  —  provided  it  has 
been  passed  by  the  Commons  in  three  successive  sessions,  and 
two  years  have  elapsed  between  its  first  introduction  there  and 
its  passage  the  third  time. 

3.  Five  years  was  substituted  for  seven  years  as  the  maximum  dura- 

tion of  Parliament. 


RECENT   CHANGES  IN   GREAT   BRITAIN 


729 


The  effect  of  this  act  is  to  reduce  the  Lords  to  the  position 
of  a  distinctly  subordinate  House.  The  enemies  of  the  measure 
said  that  it  would  establish  "single-chamber  government." 
What  reforms,  if  any,  will  be  made  in  the  composition  of  the 
House  of  Lords  now  that  its  powers  are  reduced,  and  how  govern- 
ment under  the  new  plan  will  work,  remain  to  be  seen. 

By  another  measure,  payment  of  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons  was  provided  for.     The  Labor  representatives  in 
Parliament  had  for  some  time  received  salaries  from  their  886  Pa  _ 
trade-unions,  but  a  recent  decision  of  the  courts  had  denied  ment  of 
to  the  unions  the  right  to  use  their  funds  for  this  purpose.   members 
To  overcome  the  difficulty  caused  by  this  decision,  Mr.  Asquith's 
government  carried  through  a  measure  by  which  all  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons  now  receive  pay  from  the  national 
treasury,  at  the  rate  of  $2000  a  year.     Thus  the  British  con- 
stitution is  made  still  more  democratic,  by  enabling  poor  men 
to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons  without  outside  aid. 

Since  the  passage  of  the  Parliament  Act  of  1911,  it  becomes 
possible  for  the  Liberals  and  their  radical  allies  to  pass  many 
measures  which  hitherto  the  opposition  of  the  Lords  per-  gg7  Fur_ 
sistently  blocked.  Among  the  measures  which  they  pro-  ther  Liberal 
pose  to  enact  into  law  are  the  following :  Home  Rule  for  * 
Ireland  (§  802) ;  disestablishment  of  the  Anglican  Church  in 
Wales ;  a  new  Education  Act,  in  which  the  control  of  the  Anglican 
Church  will  be  reduced  and  greater  justice  done  to  dissenters ; 
and  the  abolition  of  plural  voting,  —  that  is,  of  the  right  of  a 
rich  man  to  vote  in  as  many  places  as  he  has  the  required  prop- 
erty qualification.  With  the  latter  provision  was  planned  a 
new  Parliamentary  Reform  Act,  which  would  not  only  make 
a  new  distribution  of  seats  so  as  to  make  the  representation 
agree  more  nearly  with  the  distribution  of  population,  but  would 
also  extend  the  suffrage  to  all  adult  males  not  disqualified  by  in- 
sanity or  conviction  of  crime.  A  Home  Rule  bill  has  already 
(1913)  twice  been  passed  by  the  Commons  and  rejected  by  the 
Lords,  Its  passage  for  the  third  time  (when  it  will  become  law) 
may  be  expected  in  1914;  but  the  Conservatives  threaten  to 


73° 


A  WORLD  IN  REVOLUTION 


cause  revolt  in  Ulster  (the  Protestant  part  of  Ireland)  to  pre- 
vent its  going  into  effect.  Some  progress  has  also  been  made 
with  the  rest  of  the  Liberal  program. 


LLOYD  GEORGE  SPEAKING  ON  THE  DISESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  CHURCH 
IN  WALES 

Whether  the  acts  passed  by  the  Liberals  will  include  "votes 
for  women"  remains  to  be  seen.1  The  general  subject  of  the 
888.  "  Votes  emancipation  of  women  and  the  rise  of  a  demand  for 
for  Women"  woman  suffrage  will  be  treated  in  a  later  section  (§  902). 
Here  we  need  only  note  that  about  1906  the  "suffragettes" 
(as  they  are  called  in  England)  adopted  new  "militant"  tactics, 
which  have  brought  the  movement  into  greater  prominence. 
Acting  on  the  principles  of  the  Irish  obstructionists  (§  800), 
they  have  interrupted  public  speakers,  broken  windows  in 
government  buildings,  set  fire  to  buildings,  destroyed  the  con- 
tents of  mail  boxes,  and  otherwise  sought  to  attract  attention 
to  their  demands.  At  various  times  they  have  secured  favorable 

1  Women  in  Great  Britain  already  vote  in  all  except  parliamentary  elections. 
The  British  Parliament,  however,  combines  the  powers  both  of  our  Congress  and 
our  State  legislatures. 


RECENT    CHANGES  IN  GREAT   BRITAIN 


731 


votes  in  the  House  of  Commons ;  but  these  have  failed  to  result 
in  the  passage  of  a  law.  The  present  Liberal  government  is 
divided  on  the  question.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely,  however, 
that  within  a  very  short  time  the  women  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  will  have  the  same  voting  rights  as  the  men. 

The  chief  constructive  policy  of  the  Conservatives  in  recent 
years  has  been  Tariff  Reform.     By  this  is  meant  a  return  to 
the  policy  of  protective  tariffs  in  use  before  1846.     British  889.  Con- 
agriculture  has  suffered  from  the  free  importation  of  grain  servatives 
from  the  United  States,  Argentina,  and  other  lands ;  and  «  Tariff 
British   manufacturers  begin  to  feel   the  effects  of   the  Reform" 
rapid  industrial  growth  of  Germany  and  the  United  States. 
The  chief  argument  used  by  the  protectionists,  however,  is  that 
their  policy  will  enable  the  mother  country  to  bind  more  closely 
to  herself  the  great  self-governing  colonies,  by  giving  their 
products  a  tariff  preference  in  British  markets.    This  imperial- 
istic reason  is  the  one  which  chiefly  influenced  the  father  of  the 
movement,  Mr.  Joseph  Chamberlain  (Colonial  Secretary  from 
1895  to  1900).     In  the  struggle  over  the  budget  in  1909  and  1910 
the  Conservatives  put  forward  their  policy  of  Tariff  Reform  in 
opposition  to  the  Liberal  policies.     They  were  not  able,  however, 
to  convert  a  majority  of  the  electors  to  their  way  of  thinking. 

Another  policy  strongly  advocated  by   the   Conservatives, 
and  more  moderately  by  the  Liberals,  is  that  of  increasing  naval 
armaments.     For  a  number  of  years  the  industrial  and  ^  Naval 
political    rivalry  between    Germany   and    Great   Britain  rivalry  with 
has  been  keen ;  and  Germany  has  been  accused  of  wishing 
to  build  up  her  colonial  empire  by  forcibly  despoiling  Great 
Britain  of  a  portion  of  hers.1    Color  has  been  given  to  this 

1  "It  is  not  true,"  says  Lavisse,  "that  the  development  of  material  interests 
promotes  peace.  Commerce  as  the  messenger  of  peace  is  a  mythological  character. 
In  its  origin  it  was  brigandage ;  in  ancient,  medieval,  and  modern  times  it  occa- 
sioned wars.  Men  fought  on  the  Baltic  for  herring,  and  on  all  the  seas  for  spices. 
In  our  day  the  growth  of  industries  creates  the  question  of  foreign  markets,  which 
in  turn  brings  the  interests  of  states  into  conflict.  Commercial  rivalry  and  rancor 
thus  strengthen  national  hatred."  —  Lavisse,  General  View  of  the  Political  History 
of  Europe,  163. 


732  A  WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 

charge  by  the  strenuous  and  persistent  efforts  which  Germany 
is  making  to  build  up  a  navy  rivaling  that  of  England.  All 
parties  in  Great  Britain  agree  that,  because  of  the  insular 
character  of  their  country  and  her  wide  empire,  the  control  of 
the  sea  is  a  matter  of  life  and  death  for  her.  Consequently, 
recent  years  have  seen  both  countries  straining  every  financial 
nerve,  and  heaping  loan  upon  loan  and  tax  upon  tax,  in  the 
race  to  build  larger,  better,  and  a  greater  number  of  warships. 
Statesmen  of  each  country  protest  peaceful  intentions.1  It  is 
difficult,  however,  to  see  any  other  outcome  to  the  situation  ex- 
cept war,  unless  the  burden  of  preparation  for  war  brings  saner 
views  and  a  cessation  of  naval  rivalry. 

D.  THE  HAGUE  PEACE  CONFERENCES  AND  THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONALISM 

Out  of  the  widened  area  of  European  political  interests, 
and  the  rapidly  increasing  burden  of  military  and  naval  arma- 

891.  First  ments,  has  come  a  strengthening  of  the  movement  for 
internationalism.  In  its  present  form  the  movement 

(1899)  dates  from  the  First  Peace  Conference,  which  assembled 

at  The  Hague  (the  Dutch  capital)  in  1899.  It  was  called  by 
the  Tsar  of  Russia  (i)  to  discuss  "the  terrible  and  increasing 
burden  of  European  armaments,"  and  (2)  to  consider  the  possi- 
bility of  settling  international  disputes  by  arbitration  instead  of 
by  war.  Besides  the  delegates  of  the  European  Powers,  there 
were  present  representatives  from  the  United  States,  Mexico, 
China,  Japan,  Persia,  and  even  Siam.  The  proposal  that  each 
country  should  agree,  for  a  fixed  period,  not  to  increase  its  exist- 
ing military  and  naval  forces  was  abandoned  because  of  the 
opposition  of  the  German  military  delegate.  With  reference 

1  For  example,  the  German  Secretary  of  the  Admiralty  declared  (in  February, 
1913):  "We  do  not  intend  to  enter  into  competition  with  England.  We  have 
always  insisted  that  we  are  not  aiming  at  a  navy  as  large  as  the  English  navy.  We 
had  to  choose  between  giving  by  means  of  a  sufficiently  strong  navy  an  adequate 
protection  to  our  growing  trade  and  to  our  industry,  or  standing  always  hat  in  hand. 
We  chose  the  former  course." 


THE  HAGUE  PEACE   CONFERENCES  733 

to  arbitration,  however,  the  movement  was  more  successful. 
In  spite  of  German  opposition,  an  international  court  for  that 
purpose  was  formed,  and  its  principles  and  procedure  established. 
The  Hague  Tribunal  is  not  a  permanent  court,  in  the  sense  that 
it  is  a  court  which  is  always  in  existence.  It  is  rather  a  panel  of 
judges,  from  which  at  any  time  a  court  can  be  formed  for  the 
trial  of  a  case  submitted  to  it  by  the  countries  concerned.  The 
new  tribunal  was  soon  made  a  living  reality  by  the  submission  of 
several  troublesome  cases,  which  ordinary  diplomacy  had  failed 
to  settle.  Its  creation  stands  as  a  marked  event  in  recent 
history,  and  a  pronounced  step  in  the  growth  of  that  spirit  of 
World  Statehood  which  we  call  New  Internationalism. 

Problems  growing  out  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and  the 
enormous  increase  of  military  and  naval  burdens  in  all  countries, 
led  to  the  Second  Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague,  in  1907.  892.  Secon, 
The  preliminary  steps  to  this  were  taken  by  President  confer 
Roosevelt  of  the  United  States,  but  out  of  deference  to  (1907) 
the  Tsar  the  latter  was  allowed  to  issue  the  formal  call.  The 
number  of  countries  represented  in  the  Second,  Conference  was 
nearly  double  that  in  the  first,  and  its  work  was  more  important. 
It  framed  many  new  rules  relating  to  neutrality  and  the  con- 
duct of  war,  and  greatly  improved  international  law  on  these 
subjects.  No  agreement,  however,  could  be  arrived  at  in  favor 
of  compulsory  arbitration  between  countries.  With  reference 
to  the  limitation  of  armaments,  it  merely  reaffirmed  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  First  Conference  that  it  was  "highly  desirable  to  see 
the  governments  take  up  the  serious  study  of  the  question." 
Great  Britain  took  the  lead  in  urging  limitations  of  armaments; 
the  opposition  to  it  was  led  by  Russia  and  Japan,  for  reasons 
growing  out  of  their  recent  war,  and  by  Germany  and  Austria, 
whose  reasons  are  not  so  obvious.  A  Third  Conference  was 
provided  for,  which  is  expected  to  meet  in  1915.  It  is  possible 
that  its  sessions  may  be  crowned  with  greater  success  in  these 
respects  than  the  two  former  ones. 

In  spite  of  the  somewhat  disappointing  outcome  of  the  Con- 
ferences so  far  held,  the  movement  is  of  very  great  interest. 


734  A  WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 

Friends  of  peace  hope  that  these  meetings  will  lead  to  measures 

which  are  destined  to  end  war  and  to  unite  all  mankind  in  in- 

893.  im-        ternational  brotherhood.     "Each  Conference,"  said  Mr. 

portance         Root,  the  American  Secretary  of  State,  "will  inevitably 

of  the  Peace 

Confer-          make  further  progress,  and  by  successive  steps  results 

ences  mav  be  accomplished  which  have  formerly  appeared  im- 

possible. The  achievements  of  the  two  Conferences  justify  the 
belief  that  the  world  has  entered  upon  an  orderly  progress 
through  which,  step  by  step,  in  successive  Conferences,  —  each 
taking  the  work  of  its  predecessor  as  its  point  of  departure,  — 
there  may  be  continual  progress  toward  making  the  practice 
of  civilized  nations  conform  to  their  peaceful  professions"  The 
ultimate  result  may  be  the  establishing  of  those  relations  be- 
tween countries  which  were  foreseen  by  the  English  poet  Tenny- 
son, when  he  dreamed  that  — 

"The  war-drum  throbbed  no  longer,  and  the  battle-flags  were  furled 
In  the  Parliament  of  Man,  the  Federation  of  the  World." 

IMPORTANT  DATES 

1899.   First  Hague  Peace  Conference. 

1905.   Separation  of  church  and  state  in  France. 

Norway  separated  from  Sweden. 

Beginning  of  a  revolution  in  Russia. 
1907.   Second  Hague  Peace  Conference. 

1908-1909.   Successful  revolution  in  Turkey;    constitutional  govern- 
ment established. 

1909.  Persia  gains  a  constitutional  government. 

1910.  A  revolution  in  Portugal  establishes  a  republic. 

1911.  Veto  of  the  House  of  Lords  ended  in  Great  Britain. 
1911-1912.  Revolution  in  China;  a  republic  proclaimed. 


TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  (i)  Compare  the  relative  importance  for  the  world's 
history  of  the  events  of  the  days  of  Pericles,  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  the 
present  time.  (2)  How  do  you  account  for  the  wave  of  revolution  which 
has  swept  over  the  world  recently  ?  (3)  Was  the  defeat  of  Russia  by  Japan 
the  cause  or  merely  the  occasion  for  the  Russian  revolution  ?  (4)  Why  has 


TOPICS   AND    REFERENCES 


735 


the  cause  of  constitutional  government  made  so  little  progress  there? 
(5)  In  what  ways  was  it  easier  to  produce  a  successful  revolution  in  Turkey 
than  in  Russia?  What  obstacles  were  there  in  the  case  of  Turkey  that 
were  wanting  in  Russia  ?  (6)  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  course  of  Russia 
and  England  with  reference  to  Persia?  (7)  What  connection  is  there  be- 
tween the  victory  of  Japan  over  Russia  and  the  Chinese  revolution  ? 

(8)  Why  does  the  idea  of  a  republic  in  China  seem  stranger  than  one  in  France  ? 

(9)  What  is  the  present  situation  in  China?     (10)  What  motives  led  to  the 
separation  of  church  and  state  in  France  ?     (n)  Was  the  action  of  the  king 
of  Sweden  in  letting  Norway  secede  wise  or  unwise?     Why?     (12)  What 
effect  will  the  establishing  of  a  republic  in  Portugal  perhaps  have  on  Spain  ? 
(13)  If  you  were  English,  would  you  have  been  a  Liberal  or  a  Conservative 
in  the  recent  struggles  ?     (14)  What  is  your  opinion  of  the  budget  of  1909  ? 
(15)  Which  do  you  think  better  for  Great  Britain,  the  limitation  of  the 
power  of  the  House  of  Lords,  or  the  reform  of  that  body  as  proposed  by  the 
Conservatives,  leaving  its  powers  as  they  were  ?     (16)  What  arguments  can 
be  advanced  for  and  against  the  payment  of  members  of  Parliament? 
(17)  Do  you  think  women  should  have  the  right  to  vote?     (18)  Do  you 
think  the  methods  of  the  "militant  suffragettes"  have  helped  or  hindered 
their  cause?     (19)  If  you  were  English,  would  you  be  for  or  against  "tariff 
reform"?     Why?     (20)  Is  Great  Britain  or  Germany  chiefly  responsible 
for  their  naval  rivalry?     (21)  Sum  up  in  your  own  words  what  the  Hague 
Conferences  have  done  for  the  cause  of  international  peace. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  THE  RUSSIAN  REVOLUTION.  Hazen,  Europe 
Since  1815,  ch.  xxxi ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Development  of  Modern  Europe, 
II,  283-301;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXIII,  908-911;  Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  371-391 ;  Pares,  Russia  and  Reform;  Nevinson,  The 
Dawn  in  Russia;  Martin,  The  Future  of  Russia;  Walling,  Russia's  Message. 
—  (2)  REVOLUTION  IN  TURKEY.  Hazen,  636-644 ;  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Readings,  II,  403-405 ;  Barton,  Daybreak  in  Turkey;  Buxton,  Turkey  in 
Revolution;  Abbott,  Turkey  in  Transition.  —  (3)  PERSIA.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  XXI,  244-245 ;  Browne,  The  Persian  Revolution  of  1905-1909; 
Shuster,  The  Strangling  of  Persia.  —  (4)  REVOLUTION  m  CHINA.  A.  J 
Brown,  The  Chinese  Revolution;  Cantlie,  Sun  Yat  Sen  and  the  Awakening  of 
China;  Dingle,  China's  Revolution,  1911-1912.  —  (5)  RECENT  HISTORY  OF 
SPAIN.  Hazen,  564-575;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXV,  563-569.  — 
(6)  SEPARATION  OF  CHURCH  AND  STATE  IN  FRANCE.  Hazen,  364-371 ;  Rob- 
inson and  Beard,  Development,  166-172;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II, 
223-232 ;  Galton,  Church  and  State  in  France,  201-268.  —  (7)  SWEDEN  AND 
NORWAY.  Hazen,  595-600;  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXVI,  213-214; 
XIX,  810-815.  —  (8)  THE  PORTUGUESE  REPUBLIC.  International  Yearbook, 
1910,  599-600,  1911,  582-584.  —  (9)  RECENT  SOCIAL  REFORMS  IN  GREAT 
BRITAIN.  Hazen,  513-517;  Ogg,  Social  Progress  in  Contemporary  Europe, 


736  A   WORLD   IN  REVOLUTION 

264-279;  Hayes,  British  Social  Politics.  —  (10)  VETO  OF  THE  LORDS  ABOL- 
ISHED. Ogg,  Governments  of  Europe,  106-116;  Hayes,  British  Social  Poli- 
tics.—  (n)  THE  HAGUE  PEACE  CONFERENCES.  Hazen,  728-736;  Robinson 
and  Beard,  Readings,  463-466 ;  Hull,  The  Two  Hague  Conferences. 

General  Reading.  —  See  Oscar  Browning,  A  History  of  the  Modern  World, 
2  vols.  (1913),  for  some  of  the  topics  of  this  chapter.  The  annual  surveys 
published  in  the  Statesman's  Yearbook,  the  International  Yearbook,  the 
Annual  Register,  and  the  Britannica  Yearbook,  are  the  chief  sources  for 
recent  history.  See  also  the  indexes  to  periodical  literature,  such  as  Poole's 
Index,  the  Cumulative  Index,  etc.  For  keeping  up  with  current  history, 
such  publications  as  The  Outlook,  The  Independent,  and  (above  all)  the  weekly 
edition  of  the  London  Times  are  valuable.  Carlton  Hayes's  British  Social 
Politics  is  composed  of  many  valuable  speeches  and  documents  of  the  period 
1906-1912. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 
SCIENCE   AND    SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

A.  THE  ADVANCE  OF  SCIENCE 

IN  no  branch  of  human  activity  did  the  nineteenth  century 
show  greater  advance  than  in  natural  science;    and  nowhere 
does  the  twentieth  century  promise  more  startling  de-  894-  Science 
velopments  than  in  this  field.     We  have  seen  how  the  JJJJjJ^1111 
growth  of  science  in  the  eighteenth  century  profoundly  century 
altered  man's  conception  of  the  universe,  and  set  him  to  search- 
ing for  the  "natural  laws"  by  which  it  is  governed.     Since  then 
—  by  patient  observation  and  experimentation,  and  by  the  in- 
vention of  apparatus  more  and  more  delicately  exact  —  scientists 
have  added  enormously  to  our  body  of  knowledge.     At  the  same 
time  they  have  advanced  scientific  theories  which  have  revolu- 
tionized our  conceptions  of  life  and  of  the  universe. 

Probably  the  most  fundamental  idea  which  nineteenth-century 
science  gave  to  the  world  was  that  of  evolution.    This  theory 
teaches  that  all  things  have  come  into  their  present  form  895.  DarwiB 
by  a  process  of  modification  extending  through  unnum-  ^eoryeof 
bered  millions  of  years.     The  almost  universal  acceptance  evolution 
of  this  theory  to-day  is  largely  the  result  of  the  studies  of  Charles 
Darwin   (1809-1882).    After  more  than  twenty  years  of  re- 
search on  plant  and  animal  life,  he  set  forth  the  results  of  his 
studies,  in  1859,  in  a  book  entitled  The  Origin  of  Species  by 
Means  of  Natural  Selection.     Many  more  plants  and  animals, 
he  argued,  come  into  existence  every  year  than  can  possibly 
find  food,  or  even  room  to  live,  on  the  earth.     Consequently 
there  is  always  going  on,  among  members  of  the  same  species 
and  among  different  species,  a  desperate  struggle  for  existence. 
No  two  individuals,  however,  even  of  the  same  species,  are 

737 


738  SCIENCE  AND   SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

exactly  alike.  Therefore  it  is  the  individuals  and  the  species 
which  are  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  which  they  find 
themselves,  that  survive  and  transmit  their  peculiar  qualities 
to  their  descendants.  This  weeding  out  of  the  unfit,  Darwin 
called  natural  selection;  he  also  applied  to  it  the  term  "  the 
survival  of  the  fittest."  Darwin  argued  that  it  was  through  the 


DARWIN 


preservation  and  accumulation  in  this  way  of  individual  varia- 
tions that  new  species  of  plants  and  animals  arise.  In  similar 
ways  he  accounted  for  the  development  of  the  higher  animals 
and  plants  from  simple  one-celled  organisms  like  the  amoeba. 


THE  ADVANCE   OF   SCIENCE 


739 


Investigators  since  Darwin's  time  have  added  to  the  evidence 
which  he  brought  forward,  and  have  modified  his  theory  in 
several  directions.  The  idea,  however,  that  all  things  have 
come  to  their  present  state  by  a  process  of  evolution,  remains 
unshaken.  Says  the  philosopher  and  historian,  John  Fiske : 
"  There  is  no  more  reason  for  supposing  that  this  conclusion 
will  ever  be  gainsaid  than  for  supposing  that  the  Copernican 
astronomy  will  sometime  be  overthrown." 

In  the  special  fields  of  medicine  and  surgery  the  germ  theory 
of  disease  has  been  as  revolutionary  in  its  effects  as  the  theory 
of  evolution  has  been  on  the  progress  of  science  in  general.  8g6  Germ 
Within  the  past  fifty  years  it  has  been  proved  conclusively  theory  of 
that  practically  all  contagious  and  infectious  diseases  — 
together  with  the  blood  poisoning  which  used  so  frequently 
to  follow  surgical  operations  —  are  caused  by  minute  organ- 
isms, commonly  known  as  bacteria.  These  microscopic,  one- 
celled  bodies  are  everywhere  about  us;  and  under  favorable 
conditions  of  heat,  moisture,  and  food  supply  they  multiply 
with  enormous  rapidity.  For  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  bubonic 
plague,  diphtheria,  lockjaw,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  and  a 
number  of  other  diseases,  the  special  organism  which  causes 
the  disease  has  been  identified.  It  has  been  discovered,  more- 
over, that  certain  diseases  are  almost  invariably  spread  in  some 
one  particular  way  —  as  yellow  fever  and  malaria  by  the  bites 
of  mosquitoes,  bubonic  plague  by  fleas  carried  on  rats,  typhoid 
fever  by  impure  milk  or  water,  and  tuberculosis  through  the 
dried  sputum  of  persons  suffering  from  that  disease. 

Knowledge  of  the  cause  enables  physicians  to  treat  those 
diseases  more  intelligently.  Remedies  called  "antitoxins"  have 
been  found  to  counteract  the  "toxins"  or  poisons  formed  by  the 
organisms  which  produce  diphtheria,  lockjaw,  and  some  other 
diseases ;  and  the  search  for  similar  remedies  continues.  The 
germ  theory  also  enables  men  to  take  better  precautions 
to  prevent  the  spread  of  disease.  Everywhere  strict  quaran- 
tine laws  are  now  passed,  and  measures  are  taken  to  improve 
sanitation,  especially  in  the  cities.  Aseptic  surgery  has  greatly 


740  SCIENCE  AND   SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

decreased  the  danger  in  operations.  Immunity  from  certain 
diseases  —  notably  smallpox  —  is  secured  by  vaccination. 
Medical  progress  in  recent  years,  indeed,  is  so  great  that  we  may 
look  forward  with  confidence  to  a  time  when  man's  war  on  all 
contagious  diseases  will  be  as  successful  as  his  battle  with  yellow 
fever  in  Cuba  and  with  malaria  in  Panama,  where  these  diseases 
were  practically  wiped  out  in  the  first  decade  of  the  century. 

Comparatively  few,  however,  of  the  hundreds  of  varieties 
of  bacteria  which  swarm  the  earth,  the  air,  and  the  water,  are 

897.  Useful    harmful  to  mankind.     On  the  contrary,  life  on  this  planet 
bacteria         would  soon  cease  were  it  not  for  bacteria.     These  minute 

organisms  are  the  agents  in  carrying  on  the  process  of  putre- 
faction or  decay,  —  which  is  nature's  means  of  disposing  of  dead 
organisms  and  waste  organic  matter,  and  of  bringing  their  ele- 
ments into  new  combinations.  Our  knowledge  of  this  fact  is  now 
made  use  of  in  the  sewerage  systems  of  many  cities.  Bacteria 
are  responsible  also  for  the  fermentation  (souring)  of  milk  and 
of  fruit  juices,  and  so  play  an  important  part  in  butter-  and  cheese- 
making,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  vinegar  and  wine.  In  the 
form  of  yeast  they  are  essential  to  bread-making.  By  means 
of  these  tiny  organisms,  also,  such  plants  as  peas  and  beans  are 
enabled  to  seize  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  (which  otherwise 
they  could  not  do)  and  thus  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
The  scientific  application  of  bacteriology  to  agriculture  and  other 
forms  of  industry,  indeed,  is  just  beginning.  The  whole  subject 
of  making  this  microscopic  organic  life  serve  man's  purpose 
offers  a  most  interesting  and  profitable  field  for  research. 

Progress  in  physics,  too,  has  kept  pace  with  that  in  biology. 
Electricity   was   known    to    the    ancient    Greeks,    and    was 

898.  Prog-     experimented   with  by  several   seventeenth-  and    eight- 
physics  and    eenth-century   scientists,   including   Benjamin   Franklin, 
chemistry       In   the    nineteenth  century  electrical   science  advanced 

rapidly.  The  invention  of  the  electric  telegraph  was  mainly 
the  work  of  an  American,  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse,  whose  first 
attempts  date  from  1835.  Two  Englishmen  worked  out  and 
patented  inventions  of  their  own  for  the  same  purpose  at  a 


THE   ADVANCE  OF  SCIENCE  741 

slightly  later  date.  In  1858  a  submarine  cable  was  laid  to  con- 
nect Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  This  soon  broke, 
however,  and  it  was  not  until  1866  that  it  became  possible  to 
send  telegraphic  messages  regularly  between  the  Old  World 
and  the  New.  Alexander  Bell,  an  American,  invented  the 
telephone  in  1876.  The  electric  light  is  also  an  American  in- 
vention, C.  F.  Brush  having  invented  the  arc  light  in  1878,  and 
Thomas  A.  Edison  the  incandescent  light  in  1879.  One  of 
the  earliest  electric  street  cars  was  exhibited  at  Paris  in  1881. 
Still  more  recently  have  come  the  discovery  of  the  "  X-rays," 
which  penetrate  substances  opaque  to  rays  of  light  (discovered 
by  a  German,  Rontgen,  in  1895);  and  the  "Hertzian  waves" 
(also  discovered  by  a  German,  Hertz,  in  1887).  As  a  result  of 
the  latter  discovery  the  Italian  Marconi  developed  in  1896 
his  system  of  wireless  telegraphy. 

Chemistry  also  advanced  rapidly  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
Only  a  few  of  its  useful  applications  can  here  be  noted.  Gas  was 
first  applied  to  lighting  purposes  in  London  in  1816.  Friction 
matches  were  first  produced  on  a  commercial  scale  in  Great 
Britain  about  1833,  before  that  time  fire  being  usually  ob- 
tained by  striking  a  piece  of  flint  against  steel.  Photography 
began  in  1839  with  the  "daguerrotype,"  named  from  its  French 
inventor,  Daguerre  (da-gar7) •  Among  other  useful  applications 
of  chemistry  may  be  named  the  production  of  chemical  fer- 
tilizers, beet  sugar,  aniline  (coal-tar)  dyes,  chemical  medicines, 
wood-pulp  paper,  and  aluminum.  The  canning  of  food  was  in- 
troduced early  in  the  nineteenth  century  by  a  Frenchman  named 
Appert.  Chemistry  has  given  us  new  and  more  powerful  ex- 
plosives, such  as  nitroglycerin  (1847),  dynamite  (1864),  and 
smokeless  powder  (first  invented  in  1870).  The  shattering 
power  of  the  first  two  of  these  has  greatly  aided  quarrying, 
tunneling,  and  other  blasting  operations ;  it  also  gives  to  revo- 
lutionists and  criminals  a  new  and  terrible  weapon. 

The  progress  of  physics  and  chemistry  brought  with  it  a  clearer 
understanding  of  the  nature  of  light,  of  electricity,  and  of  the 
ether.  The  discovery  of  radium  (1898)  has  forced  scientists  to 


742 


SCIENCE   AND    SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 


899.  The 

gasoline 
engine,  the 
automobile, 
and  the 
aeroplane 


question  some  ideas  once  universally  accepted,  —  such  as  the 
nature  and  indestructibility  of  matter,  and  the  transmutation  of 
force.  In  the  field  of  pure  physics  we  seem  on  the  eve  of  great 
discoveries,  the  nature  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  forecast. 

The  advance  of  scientific  engineering  produced  (about  1876) 
a  new  type  of  engine  —  the  gas  or  "internal  combustion" 
engine  —  whose  subsequent  development  transformed  lo- 
comotion. The  gas  engine  is  run  by  the  direct  explosion 
in  its  cylinders  of  a  gas,  such  as  the  vapor  of  gasoline.  It 
is  now  used  for  hundreds  of  purposes,  —  in  the  home,  on 
the  farm,  and  in  the  factory.  Its  most  common  appli- 
cation is  in  the  automobile,  which  was  first  made  practicable 
about  1894.  Since  then  motor  cars  have  developed  so 


ZEPPELIN  AIRSHIP  (Germany) 

rapidly  that  in  large  cities  horse-drawn  vehicles  are  now  the 
exception. 

The  gasoline  motor  has  also  enabled  man  to  begin  the  con- 
quest of  the  air.  The  first  dirigible  airship  driven  by  a  gaso- 
line motor  was  constructed  in  Germany  in  1897.  Since  then 


THE  ADVANCE  OF  SCIENCE 


743 


the  German  government  has  built  larger  and  ever  larger  air- 
ships, until  it  now  possesses  an  aerial  fleet  of  which  each  vessel  is 
capable  of  flying  hundreds  of  miles  and  carrying  a  dozen  or  more 
men.  The  first  practicable  motor-driven  aeroplane  (that  is,  a 
machine  without  gas 
bags  to  sustain  its 
weight)  was  construc- 
ed  by  a  Frenchman 
(Santos-Dumont)  in 
1906.  The  chief  credit 
for  developing  the 
aeroplane,  however, 
belongs  to  two  Ameri- 
cans, Wilbur  and  Or- 
ville  Wright,  who 
made  the  first  success- 
ful demonstration  of 
their  "biplane"  at 
Fort  Myer,  Virginia,  in 
September,  1908.  In 
both  the  Italian-Turk- 
ish War  and  the  Bal- 
kan War  aeroplanes 
were  successfully  em- 
ployed for  scouting 
purposes.  It  is  confi- 
dently predicted  that 

yet  larger  uses  for  them,  as  well  as  for  dirigible  airships,  will  be 
found  both  in  war  and  in  peace.     Aerial  navigation  may  prove 
as  epoch-making  in  the  world's  history  as  the  application  of 
steam  to  industry  in  the  eighteenth  century,  or  the  inven-  H  s  wa_ 
tion  of  gunpowder,  the  compass,  and  the  printing  press  Uams^m 
at  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.     A  writer  on  the  his-  BrillltttriM 
tory  of  science  predicts  that  the  conquest  of  the  air  will   (nth  ed.), 
lead  to  "the  emergence  of  humanity  from  the  insular- 
ity of   nationalism  to  the  broad   view   of   cosmopolitanism" 


AEROPLANE   (Farman  Biplane) 


744  SCIENCE  AND   SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

—  an  end  to  which  The  Hague  Conferences  and  other  influences 
are  already  tending. 

B.  POPULAR  GOVERNMENT  AND  SOCIAL  JUSTICE 

A  significant  feature  of  the  opening  years  of  the  twentieth 
century  is  the  growing  passion  for  "social  justice."     The  nine- 
poo.  Ideals     teenth  century  was  chiefly  occupied  in  achieving  the  first 
of  equality      demand  of  the  French  revolutionists, — namely,  political 
ternity  Liberty.     The  ideals  of  Equality  of  opportunity  and  the 

brotherhood  of  man  (Fraternity)  are  still  far  from  realization. 
The  changed  conditions  of  society  which  have  resulted  from  the 
Industrial  Revolution  are  now  forcing  upon  the  world  the  con- 
sideration of  the  steps  by  which  these  ideals  also  may  be  attained. 
The  idea  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  —  which  a  hundred 
years  ago  was  repudiated  by  the  reactionary  Powers  responsible 
Exten-   ^or  Napoleon  Bonaparte's  overthrow  —  is  now  accepted 
sionofthe      in  almost  all  progressive  countries,  however  imperfectly 
it  may  be  carried  out.     But  certain  questions  still  remain  : 
Who  are  the  people  ?  and  How  are  they  to  make  their  will  effective  ? 
In  answering  the  first  of  these  questions,  the  tendency  is  to  ex- 
tend the  voting  franchise  to  every  adult  male  citizen  of  sane 
mind,  who  is  unconvicted  of  crime.     In  many  countries  also  a 
movement  is  rapidly  growing  to  extend  the  franchise  still  further 
by  giving  it  to  women. 

The  Industrial  Revolution,  with  its  factory  system,  brought 
women  —  whether  for  good  or  for  ill  —  into  the  industrial  world 
902.  Move-    alongside    of    men.     Woman's  increasing    economic  im- 
woman'1'        portance   has  helped  to  free   her  from  the  legal  restric- 
suffrage         tions  which  in  most  countries,  until  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  subjected  her  person  and  her  property  either  to 
her  husband  or  to  her  father.     Opportunities  for  education 
have  been  opened  to  her;  and  educational  equality,  together 
with  growing  legal   and  economic  equality,  have  created  the 
demand   for   political   equality.     In   Australia,    New  Zealand, 
Finland,  and  a  number  of  states  of  the  United  States,  women 


POPULAR   GOVERNMENT  AND   SOCIAL  JUSTICE        745 

have  been  granted  the  right  to  vote  in  all  elections  on  the  same 
terms  as  men.  In  many  other  countries  —  among  them  Eng- 
land, Norway,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland  —  they  vote  under 
certain  restrictions,  or  in  certain  elections  only.  In  the 
twentieth  century  the  movement  has  grown  with  surprising 
rapidity.  The  stimulus  applied  to  the  movement  by  the 
"militant  methods"  of  the  English  " suffragettes "  (§  888)  may 
be  a  partial  explanation  of  this  development. 

The  overthrow  of  the  last  absolute  governments  has  been 
described  in  previous  sections.  To-day,  in  all  the  civilized 
countries  of  the  world,  the  people  share  in  the  government  903-  The 
of  the  state  by  electing  representatives  to  act  for  them.  Referendu 
They  are  no  longer  satisfied,  however,  to  allow  their  rep-  and  Recall 
resentatives  the  large  freedom  of  action  which  representatives 
formerly  possessed.  The  demand  is  now  arising  for  direct  con- 
trol by  the  people  over  all,  or  almost  all,  departments  of  the 
government.  Methods  for  securing  this  control  have  been 
worked  out  most  fully  in  the  Republic  of  Switzerland.  They 
are  known  as  the  Initiative  and  the  Referendum.  By  the 
Initiative,  if  50,000  Swiss  voters  desire  the  passing  of  a  certain 
law,  they  may  require  their  proposal  to  be  submitted  to  a  vote 
of  the  people;  and  if  the  proposal  is  adopted  by  a  majority 
of  the  voters  it  becomes  law  without  the  consent  of  the  Federal 
Parliament.  The  .Referendum  supplements  the  Initiative  by 
requiring  that  any  law  passed  by  the  Parliament  must,  upon 
demand  of  30,000  voters,  be  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratifica- 
tion or  rejection. 

These  Swiss  institutions,  in  whole  or  in  part,  have  been 
adopted  in  Australia,  and  in  many  states  and  cities  of  the 
United  States.  In  the  United  States  a  third  feature  has,  in 
some  places,  been  added  —  the  Recall  of  elective  officers.  This 
means  that,  on  petition  of  a  specified  per  cent  of  the  voters,  an 
official  may  at  any  time  be  compelled  to  submit  himself  and  his 
administration  to  the  judgment  of  the  voters  in  a  new  election. 
If  upheld,  he  retains  office  to  the  end  of  his  term ;  if  not  upheld, 
he  turns  over  the  government  at  once  to  his  elected  successor. 


746  SCIENCE  AND   SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION 

In  Great  Britain,  and  in  all  countries  which  have  the  cabinet 
system  of  government,  the  "  appeal  to  the  country  "  —as  for 
example  in  1910  on  the  question  of  the  budget  —  is  essentially 
a  referendum  and  recall.1 

The  Initiative,  the  Referendum,  and  the  Recall  are  considered 

by  many  persons  to  be  the  best  answers  thus  far  found  to  the 

Woodrow        important  question,  How  are  the  people  to  make  their 

Wilson.  wjn  effective  in  popular  governments?     "Back  of  all  re- 

Freedom,         form,"  says  President  Woodrow  Wilson,  "lies  the  method 

228-229          of  getting  it.     Back  of  the  question,  What  do  you  want  ? 

lies  the  question  —  the  fundamental  question  of  all  government 

—  How  are  you  going  to  get  it  ?     How  are  you  going  to  get  public 

servants  who  will  obtain  it  for  you  ?     How  are  you  going  to  get 

genuine  representatives  who  will  serve  your  interests,  and  not 

their  own  or  the  interests  of  some  special  group  or  body  of  your 

fellow-citizens  whose  power  is  of  the  few  and  not  of  the  many  ? 

These  are  the  queries  which  have  drawn  the  attention  of  the 

whole  country  to  the  subject  of  the  direct  primary,  the  direct 

choice  of  their  officials  by  the  people,  without  the  intervention 

of  the  nominating  machine  [convention] ;  to  the  subject  of  the 

direct  election  of  United  States  Senators;  and  to  the  question 

of  the  Initiative,  Referendum,  and  Recall." 

Allowing  for  inevitable  differences  growing  out  of  differences 
in  political  organization,  the  same  questions  are  being  raised 
in  the  more  progressive  countries  of  Europe  also. 

Another  vital  question  to  which  present-day  conditions  are 

forcing  us  to  give  new  answers    is,   What  are   the  functions 

904.  En-        of  government  ?    or  more  briefly,  What  shall  the  govern- 

tions  of  the"  ment>  ^°  ?     ^ne  early  nineteenth-century  answer  to  this 

government    question  was,  Laissez  faire,  —  "Let  things  alone."    This 

policy  did  a  good  work  in  helping  to  break  down  outgrown 

medieval  restrictions  on  manufactures  and  commerce,  and  on 

1The  Lords  proposed  in  1910  that  all  measures  on  which  the  two  Houses  of 
Parliament  could  not  agree  should  be  submitted  to  a  referendum  of  the  people. 
The  Liberals  strongly  opposed  this  proposal,  on  the  ground  that  the  Lords  could 
thus  at  any  time  put  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  the  trouble  and 
expense  of  a  new  election,  without  themselves  being  in  any  way  inconvenienced. 


POPULAR   GOVERNMENT   AND   SOCIAL  JUSTICE      747 

freedom  of  thought,  of  speech,  and  of  individual  action.  But 
the  hideous  results  of  unrestrained  competition,  as  seen  in  the 
factories  and  mines  of  the  early  nineteenth  century,  and  in  the 
poorer  quarters  of  most  cities  to  the  present  day,  compelled 
governments  to  abandon  the  laissez  faire  theory.  More 
and  more  the  state  has  been  obliged  to  intervene  in  behalf  of 
the  less  fortunate  members  of  society.  The  functions  of  gov- 
ernment have  thus  been  extended  to  include  hundreds  of  duties 
which  formerly  were  thought  to  lie  within  the  province  of  private 
individuals  and  private  associations.1  In  most  progressive 
governments  of  to-day  either  the  central  government  or  the 
provincial  and  city  governments  have  assumed  the  responsibility 
for  public  education.  Free  schools  are  provided,  ranging  from 
the  elementary  schools  to  the  university.  Public  libraries  and 
museums  have  been  opened,  and  in  Germany  almost  every 
important  city  has  its  municipal  or  state  theater.  Many  Eu- 
ropean and  American  cities  meet  the  need  for  recreation  by  sup- 
plying public  playgrounds  and  parks,  and  providing  free  con- 
certs in  these  at  certain  seasons  in  the  year.  A  board  of  public 
health,  with  control  over  city  hospitals,  dispensaries,  and  gen- 
eral sanitation,  forms  a  department  of  most  state  and  city 
governments.  Pure  food  and  drug  laws  regulate,  for  the  safety 
of  the  public,  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  these  necessary  ar- 
ticles. Most  modern  cities,  also,  have  building  laws  designed  to 
protect  their  inhabitants  against  the  dangers  of  fire  and  accident. 
In  addition,  many  cities  undertake  to  improve  the  housing  of 

1  Leaders  of  the  Democratic  party  in  the  United  States,  which  was  originally  a 
party  of  "strict  construction"  and  laissez  faire,  have  come  to  see  this,  equally  with 
members  of  other  parties.  "I  feel  confident  that  if  Jefferson  were  living  to-day," 
says  President  Woodrow  Wilson,  "  he  would  see  what  we  see :  that  the  individual 
is  caught  in  a  great  confused  nexus  of  all  sorts  of  complicated  circumstances,  and 
that  to  let  him  alone  is  to  leave  him  helpless  as  against  the  obstacles  with  which 
he  has  to  contend  ;  and  that,  therefore,  law  in  our  day  must  come  to  the  assistance 
of  the  individual.  It  has  come  to  his  assistance  to  see  that  he  gets  fair  play ;  that 
is  all,  but  that  is  much.  Without  the  watchful  interference,  the  resolute  interfer- 
ence of  the  government,  there  can  be  no  fair  play  between  individuals  and  such 
powerful  institutions  as  the  trusts.  Freedom  to-day  is  something  more  than  being 
let  alone.  The  program  of  a  government  of  freedom  must  in  these  days  be  positive, 
not  negative  merely."  —  Woodrow  Wilson,  The  New  Freedom,  p.  284. 


748  SCIENCE  AND   SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

the  poor,  either  by  regulations  concerning  privately  owned 
resident  property,  or  (as  in  London,  Liverpool,  and  elsewhere) 
by  constructing  and  managing  model  tenements,  which  are 
rented  at  moderate  rates.  Municipal  ownership  or  control  of 
what  are  called  public  utilities  is  gradually  but  surely  increasing. 
There  are  few  large  cities  now  which  do  not  own  and  operate 
one  or  more  of  the  following  utilities:  waterworks,  gas  and 
electric  plants,  street  railways,  and  the  like.  In  Germany, 
France,  Italy,  and  Russia  the  steam  railways  (either  wholly 
or  in  part)  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  government.  In 
England  the  telephone  and  telegraph  systems,  together  with  a 
parcel  post  and  postal  savings  banks,  are  managed  by  the  post- 
office  department  of  the  central  government.  In  our  own 
country  the  parcel  post  and  postal  savings  banks  have  recently 
been  introduced. 

Since  the  decay,  dating  from  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
of  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  medieval  church  govern- 
905.  The  ments  have  usually  recognized  their  obligation  to  care 
war  on  for  the  aged  and  infirm  poor.  Both  England  and  Ger- 
many, as  we  have  seen  (§§  779,  881),  now  have  provisions 
also  for  old  age  pensions  and  for  state  insurance  against  sickness 
and  disability.  France,  Austria,  Belgium,  Italy,  and  the  Scan- 
dinavian countries  have  passed  similar  laws.  In  practically  all 
these  countries,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  there  are  now 
laws  which  grant  workingmen  a  more  just  compensation  in  case 
of  accidents  suffered  in  their  employments.  The  problem  of 
unemployment  is  also  being  dealt  with  both  through  state  in- 
surance (as  in  Great  Britain)  and  through  the  creation  of  labor 
exchanges  and  employment  bureaus,  both  public  and  private, 
which  seek  to  bring  together  employers  in  need  of  labor  and 
workmen  in  need  of  employment.  In  certain  trades  (such  as 
the  so-called  "  sweated  trades  "  —garment  making,  cardboard- 
box-making,  etc.),  in  which  starvation  wages  have  been  paid, 
Great  Britain  has  established  minimum  wages  enforced  by  law ; 
and  the  same  principle  has  been  proposed  to  apply  to  all  women's 
wages.  Under  some  governments  too  pensions  are  provided 


THE  SPREAD   OF  SOCIALISM  749 

for  poor  widows  with  minor  children  dependent  upon  them; 
and  also  (notably  in  Great  Britain)  they  make  provision  for 
furnishing  meals  to  destitute  children  attending  the  public 
schools.  Thus  in  manifold  ways  governments  to-day  are  seek- 
ing to  combat  the  misery  arising  from  the  appalling  poverty  in 
which  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  poor  live  in  our  great  cities. 
They  are  also  searching  out  and  trying  to  remedy  —  so  far  as 
they  are  remediable  —  the  causes  of  this  poverty;  for  it  is 
realized  that  no  state  can  permanently  prosper  in  which  from 
one  quarter  to  one  third  of  its  inhabitants  are  unable  to  provide 
themselves  with  the  bare  necessities  of  decent  living.  The 
more  hopeful  statesmen,  indeed, '  look  forward  (with  Lloyd 
George  of  England)  to  a  time  "  when  poverty  with  its  wretched- 
ness and  squalor  will  be  as  remote  from  the  people  as  the 
wolves  which  once  infested  the  forests." 

C.  THE  SPREAD  OF  SOCIALISM 

Those  who  oppose  the  extension  of  the  functions  of  govern- 
ment described  in  the  preceding  sections,  do  so  usually  on  the 
ground  that  these  measures  are  "  socialistic. "  The  real  Socialists, 
on  the  other  hand,  while  they  regard  these  measures  as  steps  in 
the  right  direction,  consider  them  wholly  inadequate  for  the 
solution  of  the  modern  problems  of  society.  They  claim  that 
the  cause  of  poverty,  and  of  most  of  the  ills  of  the  modern  world, 
is  to  be  found  in  the  unequal  and  unjust  distribution  of  wealth. 
And  in  their  view  the  only  remedy  for  these  conditions  is  a 
complete  reorganization  of  society. 

The  rise  of  socialism  has  been  touched  upon  in  a  previous 
section  (§  710).     Modern  Socialists  regard  most  of  the  early 
writers  on  this  subject  as  impractical   dreamers.    The  Qo6  Pres_ 
founder  of  the  present-day  international  Socialist  party  ent-day 
was  the  German  writer,  Karl  Marx,  who  published  his  s 
great  work  entitled  Capital  in  1867.     Marx  maintained  that 
labor,  in  the  broadest  sense  of  the  term,  is  the  source  of  all 
wealth ;    and  that  the  laborers  —  that  is,  artisans,  engineers, 


750  SCIENCE   AND   SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

superintendents,  teachers,  authors,  artists,  etc.  —  should  re- 
ceive the  whole  net  product  of  labor.  That  they  do  not  do  so, 
he  held,  is  because  capital  —  in  the  form  of  machinery,  build- 
ings, land,  mines,  etc.  —  is  in  the  hands  of  ^  a  comparatively 
small  class,  who  derive  very  large  incomes  from  its  use,  without 
themselves  taking  part  in  the  work  of  production.  The  owner- 
ship of  capital  (the  means  of  production)  ought  therefore,  he 
argued,  to  be  transferred  from  private  hands  to  the  state.  Then 
the  state  should  itself  operate  all  industries,  for  the  benefit  of 
the  people.  Marx  believed  that  the  whole  course  of  history 
tended  to  this  outcome.  He  predicted  that  as  capital  became 
more  and  more  concentrated  in  the  hands  of  the  few,  and  the 
working  class  become  correspondingly  larger,  the  antagonism 
between  the  two  classes  (capitalists  and  laborers)  would  result 
in  a  class  war.  He  looked  forward  to  this  as  the  means  for 
establishing  government  ownership  of  capital,  and  the  resulting 
management  by  the  government  of  all  forms  of  production. 

Socialist  political  parties,  founded  on  these  ideas,  have  arisen 
in  Germany,  France,  England,  Italy,  Austria,  Russia,  and  the 
907.  Recent  United  States.  Some  groups  of  Socialists  reject  in  part 
Socialist  the  doctrines  of  Marx,  especially  the  notion  of  an  inevi- 
table class  war.  Even  those  who  do  not  reject  this  urge  the 
employment  of  the  gradual  and  peaceful  methods  of  education 
and  legislation  as  one  means  of  bringing  about  the  social  reor- 
ganization which  they  desire.  The  Socialist  parties  which  take 
an  active  part  in  politics  have  made  great  gains  in  recent  years. 
In  Germany,  in  1912,  they  polled  4,238,000  votes,  —  the  largest 
popular  vote  of  any  party  in  that  election,  —  and  elected  no 
out  of  the  397  members  of  the  Reichstag.  In  France,  though 
the  Socialists  are  weakened  by  divisions  within  their  own  ranks, 
their  various  groups  (taken  together)  in  1910  elected  356  out  of 
584  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In  the  elections  in 
Great  Britain,  in  1910,  the  Labor  party  (which  has  adopted  a 
Socialist  platform)  returned  42  members  to  Parliament.  In  the 
United  States,  in  1911,  more  than  400  Socialists  were  holding 
elective  offices  —  federal,  State,  and  municipal.  The  greatest 


TOPICS   AND   REFERENCES  751 

Socialist  victory,  however,  has  been  won  in  Australia,  where  in 
1910  the  Labor  party  (Socialist)  secured  entire  control  of  the 
federal  government. 

It  is  evident  from  this  account  that  the  movement  for  "social 
justice"  is  making  great  progress.     The  condition  of  the  poor 
and  the  downtrodden  is  already  better  than  at  any  time  908.  Pros 
since    the   beginning   of   the   Industrial    Revolution.     If  ^afbet- 
means  can  be  found  whereby  the  ill  effects  of  this  great  terment 
change  in  industry  can  be  wiped  out,  while  retaining  its  enor- 
mous benefits,  we  may  expect  to  see  the  material  condition  of 
mankind  as  a  whole  raised  to  a  higher  level  than  has  ever  been 
attained  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

In  the  opinion  of  many  serious  thinkers,  however,  this  improve- 
ment of  man's  material  lot  is  not  likely  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  adoption  of  the  Socialist  program,  but  will  probably  come 
through  a  gradual  betterment  of  conditions  under  the  present 
system. 

TOPICS  AND  REFERENCES 

Suggestive  Topics.  —  What  is  the  chief  difference  between  the  methods 
by  which  modern  science  increases  knowledge  and  those  of  the  medieval 
scholastics?  (2)  State  in  your  own  words  the  theory  of  evolution.  Why 
is  it  important?  (3)  Compare  the  benefits  conferred  on  mankind  by  the 
advance  of  medicine  and  surgery  in  recent  years  with  those  produced  by  the 
Industrial  Revolution.  (4)  Name  some  inventions  in  use  to-day  which 
were  unknown  when  your  parents  were  children.  (5)  Does  extension  of  the 
franchise  always  produce  better  government  ?  Name  some  instances  to  the 
contrary.  (6)  On  what  grounds  might  extension  of  the  franchise  be  justi- 
fied in  cases  where  it  does  not  improve  the  government  ?  (7)  Would  giving 
the  ballot  to  women  be  wise  or  unwise  ?  Why  ?  (8)  What  applications  of 
the  ideas  underlying  the  initiative  and  referendum  have  been  made  in  our 
governments?  (9)  What  tests  should  be  applied  in  determining  whether 
the  government  should  undertake  new  functions,  such  as  postal  savings 
banks,  etc.  ?  (10)  Is  the  cause  of  poverty  to  be  found  more  in  the  failure 
of  mankind  to  produce  enough  goods  for  the  world's  consumption,  or  in 
unequal  distribution  of  the  goods  produced  ?  (i  i)  Name  some  of  the  means 
suggested  for  reducing  or  abolishing  poverty.  (12)  Would  socialism  be  a 
good  or  a  bad  thing  for  the  world  ?  Give  your  reasons.  (13)  How  do  you 
account  for  the  recent  growth  of  socialistic  parties  in  Europe,  Australia, 


752  SCIENCE  AND   SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION 

and  America?  (14)  Compare  the  rapidity  of  changes  in  government, 
society,  and  knowledge  in  the  past  hundred  years  with  the  rate  of  change  in 
preceding  centuries.  (15)  Is  this  rapidity  of  change  likely  to  keep  up 
indefinitely?  Give  your  reasons. 

Search  Topics.  —  (i)  DARWIN  AND  EVOLUTION.  Encyclopedia  Britan- 
nica, 840-843 ;  Wallace,  The  Progress  of  the  Century,  3-29 ;  Robinson  and 
Beard,  Readings,  II,  507-513.  —  (2)  PASTEUR  AND  THE  GERM  THEORY 
OF  DISEASE.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  892-894.  —  (3)  DEVELOPMENT  OF 
MEDICINE  AND  SURGERY.  The  Progress  of  the  Century,  173-214,  232-261.  — 
(4)  PROGRESS  IN  PHYSICS.  The  Progress  of  the  Century,  308-328.  —  (5) 
WIRELESS  TELEGRAPHY.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXVI,  529-541.— 
(6)  MOTOR  VEHICLES.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XVIII,  914-930.  —  (7) 
THE  CONQUEST  OF  THE  AIR.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  I,  260-270,  X, 
516-519.  —  (8)  WOMAN  SUFFRAGE.  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  XXVIII, 
782-788;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  474-478;  Congressional 
Record,  for  June  13,  1913  (a  petition  to  congress,  reciting  the  history  of 
woman  suffrage  in  Europe  and  America).  —  (9)  THE  INITIATIVE  AND 
REFERENDUM  IN  SWITZERLAND.  Ogg,  Social  Progress  in  Europe,  ch.  xiv; 
Ogg,  Governments  of  Europe,  430-434;  Vincent,  Government  in  Switzerland; 
Deploige,  The  Referendum  in  Switzerland.  —  (10)  ARGUMENTS  FOR  GOV- 
ERNMENT OWNERSHIP  OF  PUBLIC  UTILITIES.  Howe,  The  British  City.  — 
(n)  ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  PUBLIC  OWNERSHIP.  H.  R.  Meyer,  Municipal 
Ownership  in  Great  Britain.  —  (12)  SOCIALISM.  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Development  of  Modern  Europe,  II,  396-400 ;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Read- 
ings, II,  487-497;  Bliss,  Cyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,  1131-1135;  H.  G. 
Wells,  New  Worlds  for  Old,  chs.  i-iv,  xv ;  Ely,  Socialism,  Its  Strength  and 
Weaknesses.  —  (13)  ARGUMENTS  AGAINST  SOCIALISM.  Robinson  and  Beard, 
Development,  II,  402-404;  Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings,  II,  497-505; 
Bliss,  Clyclopedia  of  Social  Reform,  1147-1149;  Ely,  Socialism,  Its  Strength 
and  Weaknesses;  Schaeffle,  The  Impossibility  of  Socialism.  —  (14)  THE 
SPREAD  OF  SOCIALISM.  Ogg,  Social  Progress,  ch.  xxii. 

General  Reading.  —  A.  R.  Wallace  (and  others),  The  Progress  of  the  Cen- 
tury; The  Nineteenth  Century,  A  Review  of  Progress;  Wallace,  The  Wonder- 
ful Century,  Its  Successes  and  Failures.  In  addition,  see  the  yearbooks 
and  indexes  to  periodical  literature. 


APPENDIX:   LIST   OF   BOOKS   SUITABLE   FOR  A 
HIGH   SCHOOL   LIBRARY 

The  prices  given  are  the  list  prices,  which  in  most  instances  are  subject 
to  a  discount.  For  further  titles  see  the  New  England  History  Teachers' 
Association,  Syllabus  of  History  for  Secondary  Schools  (Heath  &  Co.)  and 
Historical  Sources  in  Schools  (Macmillan).  Many  excellent  small  volumes 
are  published  in  the  Home  University  Library  (Holt  &  Co.).  This  list  does 
not  include  encyclopedias. 

Adams,  G.  B.,  Civilization  during  the  Middle  Ages.     Scribners,  N.Y.      $2.50. 

Adams,  Growth  of  the  French  Nation.     Macmillan,  N.Y.     $1.25. 

Airy,  O.,  The  English  Restoration  and  Louis  XIV .  ('  Epochs.")  Long- 
mans, N.Y.  $1.00. 

Anderson,  F.  M.,  Constitutions  and  Other  Select  Documents  Illustrative  of  the 
History  of  France,  1789-1901.  H.  W.  Wilson  Co.,  Minneapolis.  $2.50. 

Andrews,  C.  M.,  Historical  Development  of  Modern  Europe.  (From  1815  to 
1897.)  Putnams,  N.Y.  $2.75. 

Archer,  T.  A.,  and  Kingsford,  C.  L.,  The  Crusades.  ("Nations.")  Put- 
nams, N.Y.  $1.50. 

Balzani,  Ugo,  The  Popes  and  the  Hohenstaufen.  ("Epochs  of  Church 
History.")  Longmans,  N.Y.  $.80. 

Beard,  Charles  A.,  An  Introduction  to  the  English  Historians.  Macmillan, 
N.Y.  $1.60. 

Beesly,  E.  S.,  Queen  Elizabeth.     ("English  Statesmen.")     Macmillan,  N.Y. 

$-75- 
Bryce,  James,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire.     (Revised  ed.)     Macmillan,  N.Y. 

$1.50. 
Cesaresco,  Countess  E.  M.,  The  Liberation  of  Italy,  1815-1870.     Scribners, 

N.Y.     $1.75. 

Cesaresco,  Cavour.     ("Foreign  Statesmen.")     Macmillan,  N.Y.    $.75. 
Cheyney,  E.  P.,  Industrial  and  Social  History  of  England.    Macmillan,  N.Y. 

$1.40. 

Cheyney,  Readings  in  English  History.     Ginn,  Bost.    $1.80.     • 
Cornish,  F.  W.,  Chivalry.     Macmillan,  N.Y.    $1.25. 
Cox,  G.  W.,  The  Crusades.     ("Epochs.")     Longmans,  N.Y.    $1.00. 
Crdghton,M.,  The  Age  of  Elizabeth.    ("Epochs.")    Longmans,  N.Y.    $1.00. 
Davis,  H.  W.  C.,  Charlemagne.     ("Heroes.")     Putnams,  N.Y.    $1.50. 


2  APPENDIX 

Duncalf,  F.,  and  Krey,  A.  C.,  Parallel  Source  Problems  in  Medieval  History. 

Harper,  N.Y.     $1.10. 

Eginhard,  Charlemagne.     Am.  Book  Co.,  N.Y.     $.30. 
Emerton,  E.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Ginn,  Bost. 

$1.12. 

Emerton,  Medieval  Europe.     Ginn,  Bost.     $1.50. 

Fling,  F.  M.,  Source  Problems  on  the  French  Revolution.    Harper,  N.Y.    $1.10. 
Froissart,  Chronicles.    (G.  C.  Macaulay's  edition.)   Macmillan,  N.Y.   $1.25. 
Fyffe,  C.  A.,  History  of  Modern  Europe.     (Popular  ed.)     Holt,  N.Y.     $2.75. 
Gardiner,  S.  R.,  Students'  History  of  England.    Longmans,  N.Y.     $3.00. 
Gardiner,  Puritan  Revolution.     ("Epochs.")     Longmans,  N.Y.     $1.00. 
Gardiner,  Thirty  Years'  War.     ("Epochs.")     Longmans,  N.Y.     $1.00. 
Gasquet,  F.  A.,  English  Monastic  Life.     Benziger  Bros.,  N.Y.     $2.00. 
Grant,  A.  J.,  The  French  Monarchy,  1483-1789.     ("  Cambridge  Historical 

Series.")     Putnams,  N.Y.     $2.25. 
Green,  J.  R.,  Short  History  of  the  English  People.     Am.  Book  Co.,  N.Y. 

$1.20. 

Green,  History  of  the  English  People.     4  vols.     A.  L.  Burt,  N.Y.    $3.40. 
Hale,  E.,  The  Fall  of  the  Stuarts.     ("Epochs.")     Longmans,  N.Y.     $1.00. 
Harrison,   F.,   William  the  Silent.     ("Foreign   Statesmen.")     Macmillan, 

N.Y.     $.75. 
Hassall,  A.,  The  Balance  of  Power,  1715-1789.     ("Periods.")     Macmillan, 

N.Y.     $1.60. 

Hazen,  C.  D.,  Europe  since  1815.     Holt,  N.Y.     $3.00. 
Headlam,  J.  W.,  Bismarck.     ("Heroes.")     Putnams,  N.Y.     $1.50. 
Henderson,  E.,  Short  History  of  Germany.     2  vols.  in  i.     Macmillan,  N.Y. 

$2.50. 

Hobson,  J.  A.,  The  Evolution  of  Modern  Capitalism.     Scribners,  N.Y.    $1.50. 
Rollings,  Mary  A.,  Europe  in   Renaissance  and  Reformation,  1453-1660. 

("Six  Ages.")     Macmillan,  N.Y.     $.90. 
Hume,  M.  A.  S.,  Spain,  its  Greatness  and  Decay,  1479-1788.    ("  Cambridge 

Historical  Series.")     Putnams,  N.Y.     $1.50. 
Johnson,  A.  H.,  Europe  in  the  Sixteenth  Century,  1494-1598.     ("Periods.") 

Macmillan,  N.Y.     $1.75. 
Johnson,     The  Age  of  the  Enlightened  Despot,  1660-1789.     ("Six  Ages.") 

Macmillan,  N.Y.     $.90. 

Johnston,  C.,  and  Spencer,  C.,  Ireland's  Story.     Houghton,  Bost.     $1.40. 
Johnston,  H.  H.,  A  History  of  the  Colonization  of  Africa  by  Alien  Races. 

("  Cambridge  Historical  Series.")     Putnams,  N.Y.     $1.50. 
Johnston'  R.  M.,  The  French  Revolution.     Holt,  N.Y.     $1.25. 
Johnston,  Napoleon,  A  Short  Biography.     Holt,  N.Y.     $1.25. 
Kendall,  Elizabeth  K.,  Source-Book  of  English  History.     Macmillan,  N.Y. 

$.80. 


APPENDIX  3 

Kerr,  P.  H.  and  A.  C.,  The  Growth  of  the  British  Empire.  Longmans  N  Y 
$-50. 

Kirkup,  T.,  History  of  Socialism.     Macmillan,  N.Y.    $2,25. 

Kitchin,  G.  W.,  History  of  France.     3  vols.     Oxford,  N.Y.     $7.80. 

Lane-Poole,  Stanley,  Saladin.     ("Heroes.")     Putnams,  N.Y.    $1.50. 

Lavisse,  E.,  The  Youth  of  Frederick  the  Great.  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  Chic. 
$1.50. 

Lees,  Beatrice  A.,  The  Central  Period  of  the  Middle  Ages,  1273-1453.  ("Six 
Ages.")  Macmillan,  N.Y.  $.90. 

Lindsay,  T.  M.,  Luther  and  the  German  Reformation.  Scribners,  N.Y. 
$1.25. 

Lindsay,  History  of  the  Reformation.     2  vols.     Scribners,  N.Y.     $5.00. 

Lodge,  Eleanor  C.,  The  End  of  the  Middle  Age,  1273-1453.  ("Six  Ages.") 
Macmillan,  N.Y.  $.90. 

Lodge,  R.,  The  Close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  1273-1494.  ("Periods.")  Mac- 
millan, N.Y.  $1.75. 

Lodge,  Richelieu.     ("Foreign  Statesmen.")     Macmillan,  N.Y.     $.75. 

Longmans,  F.W.,  Frederick  the  Great.   ("Epochs.")  Longmans,  N.Y.  $1.00. 

Lowell,  E.  J.,  The  Eve  of  the  French  Revolution.     Houghton,  Bost.     $2.00. 

Marriott,  J.  A.  R.,  The  Remaking  of  Modern  Europe,  1789-1878.  ("Six 
Ages.")  Macmillan,  N.Y.  $.90. 

Masterman,  J.  H.  B.,  The  Dawn  of  Medieval  Europe.  ("Six  Ages.") 
Macmillan,  N.Y.  $.90. 

Mathews,  S.,  The  French  Revolution.    Longmans,  N.Y.     $1.25. 

Milman,  H.  H.,  History  of  Latin  Christianity.     4  vols.     Doran,  N.Y.    $6.00. 

Montague,  F.  C.,  Elements  of  English  Constitutional  History.  Longmans, 
N.Y.  $1.25. 

Moran,  T.  F.,  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  English  Government.  Long- 
mans, N.Y.  $1.20. 

Morris,  E.  E.,  The  Age  of  Queen  Anne.  ("Epochs.")  Longmans,  N.Y. 
$1.00. 

Morris,  The  Early  Hanoverians.     ("Epochs.")     Longmans,  N.Y.     $1.00. 

Motley,  J.  L.,  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.     3  vols.     Harper,  N.Y.     $2.50. 

Munro,  D.  C.,  A  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.     Appleton,  N.Y.     $.90. 

Munro,  D.  C.,  and  Sellery,  G.  C.,  Medieval  Civilization.     Century  Co.,  N.Y. 

$2.00. 

Ogg,  F.  A.,  Source-Book  of  Medieval  History.     Am.  Book  Co.,  N.Y.     $1.50. 
Ogg,  Social  Progress  in  Contemporary  Europe.     Macmillan,  N.Y.     $1.50. 
Ogg,  The  Governments  of  Europe.     Macmillan,  N.Y.    $3.00. 
Oman,  C.  W.  C.,  The  Dark  Ages,  476-918.     ("Periods.")     Macmillan,  N.Y. 

$1.75- 

Perkins,  J.  B.,  France  under  Mazarin,  with  Sketch  of  Administration  of 
Richelieu.  2  vols.  Putnams,  N.Y.  $4.00. 


4  APPENDIX 

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Phillips,  W.  A.,  Modern  Europe,  1815-1899.  ("Periods.")  Macmillan,  N.Y. 
$1.60. 

Ploetz,  C.,  Epitome  of  Ancient,  Medieval,  and  Modern  History.  Hough  ton, 
Bost.  $3.00. 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  Readings  in  European  History.  2  vols.  Ginn,  Bost. 
$3.00. 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  and  Beard,  C.  A.,  Development  of  Modern  Europe.  2  vols. 
Ginn,  Bost.  $3.10. 

Robinson  and  Beard,  Readings  in  Modern  European  History.  2  vols.  Ginn, 
Bost.  $2.90. 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  and  Rolfe,  H.  W.,  Petrarch,  the  First  Modern  Scholar  and 
Man  of  Letters.  Putnams,  N.Y.  $2.00. 

Rose,  J.  H.,  The  Life  of  Napoleon  I.     2  vols  in  i.     Macmillan,  N.Y.     $3.00. 

Seebohm,  F.,  The  Era  of  the  Protestant  Revolution.  ("Epochs.")  Long- 
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Seignobos,  C.,  The  Feudal  Regime.     Holt,  N.Y.     $.50. 

Shepherd,  W.  R.,  Historical  Atlas.     Holt,  N.Y.     $2.50. 

Skrine,  F.  H.  B.,  Expansion  of  Russia,  1815-1900.  ("  Cambridge  Historical 
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Smith,  Munroe,  Bismarck  and  German  Unity.     Lemcke,  N.Y.     $1.00. 

Stephens,  H.  M.,  History  of  the  French  Revolution.  2  vols.  Scribners,  N.Y. 
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Stephens,  W.  R.  W.,  Hildebrand  and  His  Times.  ("Epochs  of  Church 
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Stille^  C.  J.,  Studies  in  Mediaval  History.     Lippincott,  Phila.     $2.00. 

Stillman,  W.  J.,  The  Union  of  Italy,  1815-1895.  ("  Cambridge  Histori- 
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Symonds,  J.  A.,  A  Short  History  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy.     Holt,  N.Y. 

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Thatcher,  O.  J.,  and  Schwill,  F.,  Europe  in  the  Middle  Age.     Scribners,  N.Y. 

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Tout,  T.  F.,  The  Empire  and  the  Papacy,  918-1273.     ("Periods.")     Mac- 

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Wakeman,  H.   O.,   The  Ascendancy  of  France,   1598-1715.     ("Periods.") 

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Walker,  W.,  The  Reformation.     Scribners,  N.Y.     $2.00. 
Wallace,  A.  R.,  and  others,  The  Progress  of  the  Century.     Harpers,  N.Y. 

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Woodward,  W.  H.,  Short  History  of  the  Expansion  of  the  British  Empire, 

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Wylie,  J.  H.,  The  Council  of  Constance  to  the  Death  of  John  Hus.  Long- 
mans, N.Y.  $2.00. 


INDEX 


Diacritic  marks:  a  as  in  late;  a  as  in  fat;  a  as  in  far;  a  as  in  last;  a  as  in  care;  a  as  in 
fall;  cA  as  in  chasm;  f  as  in  ice;  e  as  in  me;  &  as  in  met,  berry;  6  as  in  there;  e  as  in  term; 
g  as  in  gem;  g  as  in  go;  G,  German  ch;  I  as  in  ice;  I  as  in  tin;  I  as  in  police;  K,  German  ck; 
N,  the  French  nasal;  6  as  in  note;  o  as  in  not;  6  as  in  son;  6  as  in  for;  o  as  in  do;  u  as  in 
tune;  ii  as  in  nut;  u  as  in  rude  (  =  P);  u,  French  u;  y  as  in  my;  $  as  in  lady.  Single  italic 
letters  are  silent. 


Aachen  (a/ Ken),  Charlemagne's  capital, 
37 ;  sacked  by  Northmen,  45. 

Abbot,  93. 

Abdul-Hamid  II  (ab-dool-ha-med') , 
711,  712. 

Ab'elard,  Peter,  189. 

Aboukir  (a-boo-ker7)  Bay,  battle  of, 
SIQ- 

Absolute  governments,  fall  of,  see 
Liberalism. 

Absolution,  84. 

Abyssin'ia,  690;  war  with  Italy,   617. 

Aca'dia,  ceded  to  England,  394. 

Acre  (a'ker),  captured,  150,  154. 

Addison,  Joseph,  author,  428. 

Aden  (a'den),  British  possession,  669. 

Ad-ri-an-o'ple,  Visigoths  at,  13-15 ;  taken 
by  Turks,  284 ;  taken  by  Bulgarians, 
682,  683. 

Adrianople,  treaty  of,  572. 

Ae-ge'an  Islands,  684. 

Aeroplane,  743. 

Afghanistan',  700. 

Africa,  exploration  of,  687 ;  partition 
of,  685-690. 

Agincourt  (a-zhaN-koor7),  battle  of,  252. 

Agriculture,  influence  of  monks,  93 ; 
Mohammedan,  134;  medieval  Euro- 
pean, 170-173,  202-207;  modern 
changes  in,  55O-552- 

Aids,  feudal,  60. 

Air-ship,  742. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  (aks-la-sha-pel') ,  Char- 
lemagne's capital,  37. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of  (1748),  441. 

Al'aric,  king  of  Visigoths,  15. 

Albania,  684. 

Albert  II,  Emperor,  269. 


Albigenses  (al-bi-jen'sez),  199,  229. 

Alcuin  (al'kwin),  36. 

Alexander  I,  of  Russia,  529,  534-536; 
in  Holy  Alliance,  568. 

Alexander  II,  of  Russia,  589,  699-700. 

Alexander  III,  of  Russia,  700. 

Alexander  III,  Pope,  118. 

Alexander  V,  Pope,  291. 

Alexander  VI,  Pope,  294-296. 

Alexandria,  bombarded,  680. 

Alex'ius  Comne'nus,  Emperor,  140,  142. 

Alfonso  XIII,  of  Spain,  720. 

Alfred  the  Great,  of  England,  49-51. 

Alge'ria,  annexed  to  France,  573. 

Allo'dial  estates,   56. 

Alps,  geography  of,  4. 

Al-sace',  added  to  France,  376;  ceded 
to  Germany,  630. 

Alsace-Lorraine'  question,   675,  676. 

Alva  (al'va),  duke  of,  360-370. 

Amain  (a-mal'fe),  commercial  center, 
182. 

America,  discovered  by  Northmen,  48; 
English  colonies  in,  405 ;  colonial 
wars  in,  447,  454-458;  revolt  of 
English  colonies,  460;  Spanish  pos- 
sessions, 282,  570. 

Amiens  (a-myaN'),  cathedral  at,  203- 
206. 

Amiens,  peace  of,  522. 

Amsterdam,  defended  against  France, 
390. 

Anagni  (a-nan'ye),  Pope  captured  at, 
236. 

A-nam',  French  possession,  695. 

Ancient  History,  review  of,  10. 

An'gevin  kings  of  England,  212 

Angles,  settle  in  Britain,  15,  48. 


INDEX 


Anglicans,  411. 

Anglo-Saxon    Chronicle,    50. 

Anjou  (aN-zhoo'),  united  with  English 
crown,  212. 

Anjou,  Charles  of,  126. 

Annals,  8. 

An'nates,  denned,  89. 

Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of  France,  384. 

Anne  of  England,  426. 

Antioch  (an'ti-Sk),  taken  by  crusaders, 
142 ;  crusaders'  state,  145,  149. 

Ant'werp,  commercial  center,  183,  367. 

Apennines  (ap'en-nlnz),  6. 

Apper/',  Francois,  inventor,  741. 

Apprentices,  in  guilds,  182. 

Aqui'nas,  Thomas,  195. 

Aq-ui-taine',  acquired  by  English  king, 
212,  250;  lost  to  France,  256. 

Arabi   (a-ra'be),   680,   681. 

Arabian  civilization,  134—136. 

Arabian  science,  135. 

Aragon  (ar'a-gon),  281,  283;  con- 
quests in  Italy,  266. 

Arc,  Joan  of,  253—256. 

ArcAan'gel,  434. 

Archbishops,  88. 

Architecture,  202-207,  311;  Byzan- 
tine, 37,  153. 

A'rianism,  16. 

Aristotle  (arTs-tdt-'l),  135,  194. 

Arkwright,  Richard,  inventor,  555. 

Arma'da,  Spanish,  352. 

Armaments,  increase  of  (near  end  of 
igth  century),  675. 

Armed  Neutrality  of  the   North,  461. 

Armed  peace,  675. 

Armenian  massacres,  680. 

Arms  and  armor,  medieval,  164,  243, 
245- 

Army,  see  Military. 

Arques  (ark),  castle  of,  160. 

Art,  medieval,  201—207 ;  Renaissance, 
300-313. 

Artois  (ar-twa'),  held  by  duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, 264. 

Asia  Minor,  714. 

As'quith,  prime  minister,  725. 

Assembly,  French,  see  National  As- 
sembly. 

Assembly  of  Notables,  French,  481. 

Assignats  (a-sen'ya),  493. 

Assize  of  Arms,  English,  213. 

Astronomy,  308. 

At'tila,  leader  of  Huns,  15. 


Augsburg  (ouks'boorK),  commercial 
center,  156,  183;  population  in  Thirty 
Years'  War,  378. 

Augsburg,  Religious  Peace  of,  334 ;  con- 
firmed, 376. 

Augsburg  Confession,  333. 

Augustin'ian    friars,    323. 

Augustus,  Emperor,  12. 

Aus'terlitz,  battle  of,  528. 

Australia,  colonization  of,  462 ;  gov- 
ernment, 665;  aids  British,  671; 
socialism  in,  750. 

Austria,  rise  of,  267,  270,  335-336; 
gains  from  War  of  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, 394,  395 ;  alliance  with  France 
(1756),  448;  in  Seven  Years'  War, 
448-450;  annexes  part  of  Poland, 
463,  464;  reforms  of  Joseph  II, 
475 ;  exchanges  possessions  in  Italy, 
530;  wars  with  Napoleon,  516-517, 
521,  528,  534,  538;  an  empire,  532; 
make-up  of,  603;  Revolution  of 
1848,  601-605;  possessions  in  Italy, 
607,  608,  610—616;  in  German  Con- 
federation, 620-623  ;  war  with  Prus- 
sia (1866),  625;  in  Triple  Alliance, 
676;  in  Concert  of  Great  Powers, 
677. 

Austria-Hungary,  after  1849,  605—607. 

Austrian  Succession,  War  of,  445—447. 

Automobile,  742. 

Avars  (a'varz),  in  800,  23. 

Avignon  (a-ven-yoN'),  papacy  at,  236, 
288-292. 

Azof  (a'zof),  added  to  Russia,  433,  436. 

Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church, 
236,  285. 

Bacon,  Roger,  195,  309. 

Bacon,  Sir  Francis,  353;  quoted,  195. 

Bacte'ria,  739—740. 

Ba'den,  531,  626,  631. 

Bag-dad',  Mohammedan  center,  134, 
136. 

Ba-la-kla'va,   battle  of,   589. 

Balance  of  Power,  383,  392,  443. 

Bal'four,  prime  minister,  725. 

Bal'kan  Mountains,  6. 

Balkan  War  (1912-1913),  682-685,  7*3- 

Ball,  John,  273-274. 

Baltic  Sea,  a  "secondary  Mediter- 
ranean," 4. 

Bank  of  France,  522  ;  of  England,  546. 

Baptism,  sacrament  of,  83. 


INDEX 


Barbarism,  10. 

Barebone's  Parliament,  416. 

Ba'ri,  taken  by  Normans,  69. 

Baron,  rank  in  feudal  system,  58. 

Basel  (ba'zel),  council  of,  293. 

Bas-tuV,  fall  of,  489- 

Bata'vian   Republic,   509—510,    530. 

Battle,  trial  by,  62. 

Bava'ria,  stem  duchy,  99;  made  an 
electorate,  376 ;  in  War  of  Spanish 
Succession,  393 ;  in  War  of  the  Aus- 
trian Succession,  445;  made  a  king- 
dom, 530,  531 ;  alliance  with  North 
German  Confederation,  626;  in 
German  Empire,  630-632. 

Ba-yonne7,  an  English  possession,  251, 
256. 

Beaconsfield,  earl  of  (Disraeli),  648- 
650,  644. 

Becket,  Thomas,  215-216. 

"Beggars"  of  the  Netherlands,  360-370. 

Begging  friars,  95. 

Belfry,  city,  178. 

Belgium,  annexed  to  France,  500,  517; 
annexed  to  Holland  (Netherlands), 
543;  independent,  575-576 ;  acquires 
Kongo  colony,  688;  see  also  Nether- 
lands. 

Bell,  Alexander,  741. 

Benedict,  Saint,  92. 

Benedictine  monks,  92—94. 

Ben'e-fice,  55,  56. 

Benefit  of  clergy,  82 ;  in  England,  216. 

Ben -gal',  conquered  by  British,  457. 

BeVgen,  station  of  Hanseatic  League, 
185. 

Berlin,  population  in  Thirty  Years' 
War,  378;  burned  (1760),  449; 
taken  by  Napoleon,  528 ;  Revolution 
of  1848  in,  621. 

Berlin,  Congress  of  (1878),  678;  (1884- 
1885),  688. 

•Berlin  decree,  532. 

Bermudas,  British  possession,  669. 

Bern,  Swiss  city,  272. 

Bernadot/e',  of  Sweden,  533. 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (clar-vo'),  Saint, 
190. 

Bill  of   Rights,   423,   424. 

Bishops,  87;   in  feudal  system,  58. 

Bis'marck,  Otto  von,  623-635 ;  in  Con- 
gress of  Berlin,  678. 

Black  Death,  246. 

Black  Prince,  244,  247,  250. 


Black  Sea,  war  vessels  in,  589,  677. 

Blanche  of  Castile,  232. 

Blen'Adm,  battle  of,  393. 

Blucher  (blii'Ker),  540. 

Boccaccio  (bok-ka'ch6),  305,  306. 

Boers  (bqrz),  666,  667. 

Bohe'mia,  a  Slavic  country,  100;  sub- 
ject to  Empire,  103  ;  under  the  Lux- 
emburgs,  268 ;  electorate,  268 ;  heresy 
in,  292 ;  joined  to  Austria,  335-336 ; 
Reformation  in,  357 ;  revolt  of  1618, 
373  ;  reforms  of  Joseph  II,  475  ;  Revo- 
lution of  1848,  604,  605. 

Bo'he-mond,  crusader,  141. 

Bokhara  (bo-Ka'ra),  700. 

Boleyn,  Anne,  345,  346. 

Bologna  (bo-lon'ya),  University  of, 
192,  193,  196. 

Bombay',  English  at,  456. 

Bo'na-parte,  Jerome,  530. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  530,  533. 

Bonaparte,  Louis,  530. 

Bonaparte,    Napoleon,  see   Napoleon. 

Bon'iface  VIII,  Pope,  128,  235,  236. 

Bordeaux  (bor-do'),  an  English  pos- 
session, 251,  256. 

Bor'gia  family,  294. 

Borodi'no,  battle  of,  536. 

Boroughs,  represented  in  Parliament, 
223-224,  641-644. 

Bosnia  (boz'ni-a),  acquired  by  Austria, 
678. 

Boswell  (boz'well),  James,  428. 

Bosworth  (boz'worth)  Field,  battle  of, 
280. 

Botany  Bay,  settled,  462. 

Bo'tAa,  General,  667. 

Boulogne  (boo-lon'),  Napoleon  at, 
527,  528. 

Bpttr'bon,  House  of,  362,  363  ;  Spanish, 
392;  of  Naples,  530,  543. 

Bourgeois,  Bourgeoisie  (boor-zhwa', 
boor-zhwa-ze'),  468,  583- 

Bouvines  (boo-ven'),  battle  of,  123, 
217,  229. 

Boxer  War,  698. 

Boycott,  in  Ireland,  651. 

Boyne,  battle  of  the,  424. 

Bramante  (bra-man'ta),  311. 

Bran'den-burg,  electorate,  268;  in 
Thirty  Years'  War,  374~376;  union 
with  Prussia,  437~43Q- 

Brazil,  723. 

Breitenfeld  (brl'ten-felt),  battle  of,  374- 


8 


INDEX 


Brem'en,  185,  631. 

Brenner  Pass,  5. 

Bretigny  (bre-ten-ye'),  peace  of,  242. 

Brigkt,  John,  647. 

Brill,  capture  of,  370. 

Britain,  conquered  by  Angles  and 
Saxons,  15,  48. 

British  Empire,  founding  of,  453-462; 

'  extent   and  government,    661-671. 

British  Isles,  in  800,  23. 

Browning,  Robert,  654. 

Bruce,  David,  241. 

Bruges  (briizh),  commercial  center, 
183;  station  of  Hanseatic  League, 
185;  belfry  of,  178. 

Brunswick  (brunz'wick) ,  duchy  of,  121, 
631. 

Brush,  C.  F.,  741. 

Brussels,   manufacturing   town,   367. 

Buck'ing-Aam,  duke  of,  406,  407,  408. 

Budget  struggle  of  1909  in  Great 
Britain,  726,  727. 

Building  laws,  747. 

Bulga'ria,  in  800,  23 ;  conquered  by 
Eastern  Empire,  132;  conquered  by 
Turks,  284 ;  self-governing,  679 ;  inde- 
pendent, 712;  war  with  Turkey 
(1912-1913),  682-684;  trouble  with 
allies,  684-685. 

Bulls,  papal,  denned,  89. 

Bundesrat  (boon'des-rat),  632. 

Bunyan,  John,  420. 

Burghers,  rise  of,  174. 

Burg&'ley,  Lord,  348. 

Burgun'dian  party,  in  France,  251,  252, 
253,  256. 

Burgundians,  settle  in  Rhone  valley,  15. 

Bur'gundy,  added  to  the  Empire,  103. 

Burgundy,  Charles  the  Bold  of,  264. 

Burgundy,  French  dukes  of,  251,  252, 
255,  264. 

Burgundy,  Mary  of,  265. 

Burke,  Edmund,  opinion  of  the  French 
Revolution,  501. 

Bur'ma,  669. 

Burns,  Robert,  428. 

Byron,  Lord,  654,  571. 

By-zan'tine  architecture,  37,  153. 

Byzantine  Empire,  23;  see  Eastern 
Empire. 

Cabinet  government  in  England,  rise  of, 
425,  427;  present  British  Cabinet, 
655-660,  746. 


Ca'diz,  Drake  at,  352. 

Caesar,  Julius,  12;  calendar,  354. 

Cahiers  (ka-ya'),  486. 

Cal'ro,  Mohammedan  center,  134,  135. 

Calais  (ka-le'),  taken  by  English,  245 ; 

lost,  347. 

Calcutta,  English  at,  456,  457. 
Calderon  (cal-da-ron'),  author,  380. 
Calendar,  reform  of    the,  354;    French 

Revolutionary,  504. 
Ca'liphs,  1 8,  136. 
Cal'vin,  John,  342-343. 
Cambo'dia,  695. 
Cam^'bell-Ban'nerman,  prime  minister, 

725- 

Camperdown',  battle  of,  518. 

Campo  For'mio,  treaty  of,  517,  531. 

Canada,  French  colony,  387,  455 ;  ceded 
to  England,  458;  aids  British,  671; 
government,  661-665. 

Canal  building,  560. 

Cannon,  244,  256. 

Canon  law,  82,  197. 

Ca-nos'sa,  Emperor  and  Pope  at,  109. 

Canterbury,  archbishop  of,  88. 

Can-t6n',  Chinese  port,  694. 

Ca-nute',  king  of  Denmark  and  Eng- 
land, 71. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope  (Cape  Colony),  389, 
543,  665-667. 

Cape  St.  Vincent,  battle  of,  518. 

Ca-pef,  Hugh,  41,  227. 

Capetians  (ca-pe'shanz),"  42 ;  kings  of 
France,  227. 

Capitalists,  560,  564;  socialist  theory 
of,  749-750. 

"Capit'ularies"  of  Charlemagne,  33. 

Cap'pel,  battle  of,  341. 

Car-bo-na'n,  569. 

Cardinals,  91. 

Car-nof,  504,  511,  520. 

Carolingians,  20,  41—42. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  6. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  inventor,  556. 

CastuV,  rise  of,  281,  283 ;  in  Hundred 
Years'  War,  250. 

Castles,  as  places  of  deposit  and  de- 
fense, 53;  description  of  castles,  160- 
163,  165,  167;  in  England,  212,  213. 

Cathedral  chapter,  88. 

Cathedral  schools,  188. 

Cathedrals,  denned,  87 ;  description, 
202-207,  231. 

Catherine,  wife  of  Henry  V,  252,  253. 


INDEX 


Catherine  de'  Medici  (da  med'e-che), 
queen  of  France,  361. 

Catherine  of  Aragon,  wife  of  Henry 
VIII,  345- 

Catherine  II,  of  Russia,  437,  463,  474. 

Catholic  emancipation,  in  Great  Britain, 
640. 

Catholic  League,  in  France,  362. 

Catholics,  see  Reformation,  Church, 
Pope. 

Catholics,  in  England,  404,  420,  422, 640. 

Cau'casus  Mountains,  6. 

Cavalier  Parliament,  419. 

Cavaliers,  411. 

Cavour  (ca-voor'),  Count,  608-616. 

Caxton,  William,  344. 

Celibacy  of  the  clergy,  82,  103,  105,  333. 

Celts,  211. 

Censorship  of  the  press,  356,  469,  603 ; 
in  Turkey,  711. 

Cervan'tes,  380. 

Cevennes  (sa-ven'),  6. 

Ceylon',  389,  522,  543,  669. 

Chamber  of  Deputies,  present  French, 
596. 

Cham'ber-lam,  Joseph,  651,  731. 

Chambord  (shaN-bor'),  count  of,  595. 

Champagne  (sham-pan7),  count  of,  fiefs, 
58. 

Champagne,  county  of,  234. 

Charlemagne  (shar'le-man),  place  in 
history,  27;  wars,  27,  30;  revives 
empire  in  the  West,  30,  31 ;  corona- 
tion of,  31;  portrait,  32;  govern- 
ment of,  33-35;  fosters  education 
and  arts,  36 ;  old  age  and  death,  38 ; 
appearance  and  character,  39;  de- 
scendants of,  40-42. 

Charles  IV,  Emperor,  268. 

Charles  V,  Emperor,  genealogy,  283 ; 
portrait,  327;  dominions,  327; 
elected  Emperor,  327;  and  Luther, 
328;  wars  with  France,  332;  wars 
with  Turks,  333 ;  war  with  Protes- 
tants, 334;  abdicates,  335. 

Charles  VI,  Emperor,  445. 

Charles  of  Anjou.  king  of  Sicily,  126. 

Charles  I,  of  England,  406-415;  char- 
acter, 406;  arbitrary  government  of, 
408;  civil  war,  412;  execution  of, 
415- 

Charles  II,  of  England,  415,  419-421; 
foreign  policy,  420,  389,  390. 

Charles  IV,  of  France,  237. 


Charles  V,  the  Wise,  of  France,  250. 

Charles  VI,  of  France,  251—252. 

Charles  VII,  of  France,  253-256,  263. 

Charles  VIII,  of  France,  266. 

Charles  IX,  of  France,  361. 

Charles  X,  of  France,  573-575. 

Charles  II,  of  Spain,  391,  392. 

Charles  XII,  of  Sweden,  434-436. 

Charles  Albert,  of  Piedmont,  611. 

Charles  Martel',  20,.  21. 

Charles  the  Bald,  41. 

Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy, 
264. 

Charles  the  Fat,  Emperor,  41,  46. 

Charter,  Great,  218. 

Charter  of  Liberties,  of  Henry  I  of  Eng- 
land, 212. 

Charters  of  towns,  177. 

Chateau  Gaillard  (sha-to'  ga-yarO,  161, 
162;  captured,  229. 

Chat'/zam,  earl  of,  455. 

Chemistry,  307,  470,  741. 

China,  early  history,  694;  opening  up 
of,  695,  715;  war  with  Japan,  696; 
saved  from  dismemberment,  697 ; 
Boxer  War,  698 ;  relations  with  Rus- 
sia, 701,  702,  704;  recent  revolution 
in,  715-719. 

Chivalry,  163,  164. 

Christianity,  and  the  Roman  Empire, 
12 ;  extent  of  territory  in  800,  22,  23 ; 
factor  in  medieval  civilization,  24 ; 
see  Church,  etc. 

Chronicles,  8. 

Chrysolo'ras,  306. 

Church,  medieval,  79—97 ;  power  of, 
70-81;  clergy,  81-96;  sacraments, 
83  ;  organization,  85 ;  democracy  of, 
92  ;  monastic  orders,  92-96 ;  general 
summary,  96 ;  restricts  feudal  war- 
fare, 63  ;  and  the  universities,  193  ; 
in  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries, 
103 ;  investiture  conflict,  104,  107— 
ii i ;  Great  Schism,  290-292;  great 
church  councils,  290-294 ;  in  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  288; 
Reformation,  321-358;  Counter  Ref- 
ormation, 353-357  ;  censorship  of 
printing,  356;  in  French  Revolution, 
492  ;  in  France,  522,  721 ;  and  modern 
education,  633  ;  in  Germany,  633  ;  in 
Portugal,  724. 

Church  councils,  91,  290-294. 

Church  festivals,  85. 


10 


INDEX 


Church  law,  80,  82,  197. 

Cis-al'pine  Republic,  517,  527. 

Cities,  rise  of,  174-176 ;  charters  of,  177 ; 
in  Italy,  116-120,  176,  299-301 ;  mod- 
ern governments,  747-748. 

City  life,  medieval,  174-185;  influence 
of  crusades,  156. 

Civil  War,  in  England,  412. 

Civilization,  origin  of,  i,  12;  medieval, 
24,  25 ;  Arabian,  134-136. 

Clarkson,  Thomas,  645. 

Clement  VII,  Avignon  Pope,  200,  292. 

Clergy,  81—96 ;  regular,  92 ;  education 
of,  1 88;  in  eighteenth  century,  469. 

Cle/i-cis  La'i-cos,  235. 

Clerks  (clergy),  82. 

Clermont,  Council  of,  140. 

Clermont,  Fulton's  steamboat,  563. 

Clive,  Robert,  ^in  India,  457. 

Clo'vis,  king  of  the  Franks,  19. 

Cluny,  order  of,  94. 

Cobden,  Richard,  647. 

Code  Napoleon  (na-po-la-oN'),  523,548. 

Code  of  Justinian,  16. 

Col-bed',  finance  minister,  386. 

CSl'et,  John,  317,  344. 

Coligny  (co-len'ye),  Gaspard  de,  361, 
362. 

Co-logne',  in  Hanseatic  League,  185 ; 
cathedral,  206;  archbishop  of,  elec- 
tor, 268. 

Colonization,  in  America,  282,  387,  389, 
405,  664 ;  in  Asia,  389,  456,  668,  695, 
697,  700-701  ;  in  Africa,  389,  573,  666, 
681,  685—690  ;  in  Australia,  462,  665  ; 
see  English  Colonies,  French  Colonies, 
etc. 

Columbus,  Christopher,  282. 

Column  Vendome  (vaN-dom'),  529,  593. 

Commerce,  medieval,  182—185;  influ- 
ence of  crusades,  156. 

Committee  of  Public  Safety,  504-509. 

Commons,  House  of,  224,  279;  repre- 
sentation in,  641—645 ;  payment  of 
members,  729. 

Commonwealth,  in  England,  415. 

Communes,  medieval,  177. 

Compass,  mariner's,  309. 

Compurgation,  trial  by,  61. 

Concert  of  the  Great  Powers,  677. 

Concordat  between  papacy  and  France, 
522,  721. 

Concordat  of  Worms,  in. 

Conde  (coN-da'),  prince  of,  361. 


Condottiere  (con-dot-tyar'a),  in  Renais- 
sance in  Italy,  302. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  532. 

Confirmation,  sacrament  of,  83. 

Conrad  II,  Emperor,  102. 

Conrad  III,  Emperor,  149. 

Conservatives,  in  Great  Britain,  644, 
648. 

Constance,  Council  of,  291-293. 

Constance,  treaty  of,  120. 

Con'stan-tlne  the  Great,  Emperor,  13; 
forged  Donation  of,  90,  91. 

Constantinople,  capital  of  Eastern  Em- 
pire, 16;  in  eleventh  century,  132, 
133;  crusaders  at,  142;  sacked  by 
crusaders,  152  ;  Latin  Empire  of,  153 ; 
reconquered  by  Greeks,  153;  taken 
by  Turks,  154,  155,  285;  Revolution 
of  1909  in,  712. 

Constitutional  Charter,  of  France,  572. 

Consubstantiation,  341 . 

Consulate,  French,  521. 

Continental  System,  Napoleon's,   532- 

534- 

Convention,  National,  French,  498—511. 
Convention    Parliament,    of    England, 

419. 

Cook,  Captain  James,  462. 
Copenhagen,    bombarded    by    British, 

533- 

Coper'nicus,  308. 
Cor-day',  Charlotte,  500. 
Cor-de-lters'  Club,  498. 
Cor'dova,    Mohammedan  center,    134, 

135- 

Corn  Laws,  in  England,  646. 
Corneille  (cor-na'y'),  author,  399. 
Corsica,  annexed  to  France,  514. 
Cossacks,  702. 
Costume,  medieval,  167. 
Council  of  Blood,  in  Netherlands,  369. 
Councils,  Church,  91,  290-294. 
Count  Pal'atine,  268,  372,  391. 
Counter  Reformation,  353~357,  373- 
Countess  Matilda  of  Tuscany,  106. 
Counts,  Prankish,  34 ;  in  feudal  system, 

57,  58. 

Coup  d'etat  (coo  da-ta'),  of  Louis  Na- 
poleon, 585. 

Courtrai  (koor-tre'),  battle  of,  234. 
Courts,  English,  reformed  by  Henry  II, 

214,  215. 
Cranmer,    archbishop   of    Canterbury, 

345-347- 


INDEX 


II 


Cre"cy  (kra-se'),  battle  of,  243-245. 

Crete,  680,  684. 

Cri-me'an  War,  587-589. 

Crompton,  Samuel,  inventor,  556. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, 412;  general,  413-416;  Lord 
Protector,  416-417. 

Cromwell,  Richard,  418. 

Crossbow,  243,  245. 

Crown  colonies  of  Great  Britain,  669. 

Crusades,  138-158;  causes  of,  138; 
crusaders,  139,  140;  First  Crusade, 
140;  conquests  organized,  145 ;  dura- 
tion of  crusades,  148 ;  Second  Crusade, 
149;  Third  Crusade,  149;  Fourth  Cru- 
sade, 152;  Children's  Crusade,  154; 
the  last  crusades,  154;  why  the  cru- 
sades ended,  155;  results  of  the  cru- 
sades, 155;  Albigensian  Crusade,  199. 

Cuba,  independent,  720;  freed  from 
yellow  fever,  740. 

Culture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  188-208. 

Cumberland,  duke  of,  639. 

Cures  (ku-ra'),  476. 

Curfew,  179. 

Custozza  (koos-tod'za),  battle  of,  611. 

Cyprus,  conquered  by  crusaders,  150; 
British  possession,  678,  669. 

Czar,  title,  433. 

Czechs  (chfiks),  604. 

Da-gwerre',  inventor,  741. 

Damascus,  Mohammedan   center,  134. 

Dane 'law,  50,  51. 

Danes  (Northmen),  in  England,  40-51, 

7i- 

Dan'te,  304—306. 

Dan 'ton,  498,  499,  504;  execution,  507. 
Danube  River,  6,  589. 
Danzig  (dan'tsiic),  in  Hanseatic  League, 

185. 

Dark  Age,  denned,  9. 
Darwin,  Charles,  737. 
Dau'phin,  title  of,  249. 
Dauphine  (do-fe-na'),  249. 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  by  Charles 

II,  420. 
Declaration    of    the    Rights    of    Man, 

French,  491. 
Decretals,    papal,    defined,    89;     False 

Decretals,  90. 
Defender  of  the  Faith,  origin  of  title, 

344- 
De-foe',  Daniel,  author,  428. 


Delegations,  in  Austria-Hungary,  606. 

De-meme'  of  a  lord,  169. 

Democracy,  growth  of,  565. 

Denmark,  organized,  51 ;  war  with 
Hanseatic  League,  185;  Reforma- 
tion in,  358 ;  in  Thirty  Years'  War, 
373;  war  with  Sweden  (1700),  434; 
alliance  with  France  (1807),  533; 
loses  Norway,  543 ;  loses  Sleswick- 
Holstein,  624. 

Deputies  on  mission,  French,  505,  506. 

De  Rwy'ter,  Admiral,  390. 

Diaz  (de'as),  Bartholomew,  282. 

Di-dero^,   author,   473 . 

Digest  of  Justinian,  16. 

Diocese,  denned,  87. 

Directory,  French,  510,  511,  519—521. 

Disease,  germ  theory  of,  739. 

Dispensations,  papal,  defined,  89. 

Dispensing  power,  of  English  kings,  420, 
422,  423. 

Disraeli  (dlz-ra'ii),  Benjamin,  648-650, 
644- 

Dissenters,  in  England,  420,  640. 

Divine  right  of  kings,  384. 

Domestic  system  of  industry,  555,  559. 

Dom'inic,  Saint,  95. 

Dominicans,  95,  200. 

Donation  of  Constantine,  90,  91. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  352. 

Drama,  origin  of,  85. 

Dresden  (drez'den),  battle  of,  538. 

Dress,  medieval,  167. 

Dreyfus  (dra-fiisO  Affair,  597. 

Dual  Alliance,  676. 

Duke,  rank  in  feudal  system,  58;  in 
Germany,  99. 

Duma  (doo'ma),  709,  710. 

Dunbar',  battle  of,  415. 

Dupleix  (du-pla/),  French  governor, 
456,  457- 

Duquesne  (du-kan'),  Fort,  455,  456. 

Dii'rer,  artist,  313,  315,  32. 

Dutch,  366;   see  Holland. 

Dyeing,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  167. 

Dynamite,  invented,  741. 

Earl,   rank  in  feudal   system,   58;    in 

England,  74. 

East  India  Company,  456,  457,  669. 
East  Roumelia  (roo-me'li-a),  679. 
Eastern  Church,  79. 
Eastern  Empire,  origin  of,   13 ;    under 

Justinian,  16;  in  800,  23;  in  eleventh 


12 


INDEX 


century,  132 ;  threatened  by  Turks, 
140;  partly  conquered  by  Venice, 
153;  attacked  by  Turks,  155,  284; 
fall  of  the,  284. 

Eastern  Question,  587,  677,  680,  685. 

Eck,  Dr.  John,  325. 

Economics,  science  of,  473. 

Ecumenical  councils,  91. 

Edes'sa,  crusaders'  state,  145,  149. 

Ed'ison,  Thomas  A.,  inventor,  741. 

Education,  medieval,  36,  188—194; 
modern  public,  747. 

Edward  I,  of  England,  210-220. 

Edward  II,  221. 

Edward  III,  221 ;  claim  to  French 
throne,  237-238 ;  war  with  France, 
241—245,  250;  death  of,  277. 

Edward  IV,    280. 

Edward  V,   280. 

Edward  VI,  346. 

Edward  VII,  653,  725,  728. 

Edward  the  Confessor,  71. 

Egbert,  king  of  Wessex,  48. 

Eginhard  (a/gin-hart),  39. 

Egypt,  conquered  by  Mohammedans, 
18;  attacked  by  crusaders,  154; 
Napoleon  in,  518-520;  British  rule 
in,  680,  681,  668. 

Elba,  annexed  to  France,  527  ;  Napoleon 
at,  539. 

El^e  River,  7. 

Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  212. 

Electors  (of  the  Empire),  268-269,  426. 

Electricity,  740-741. 

El'i-ot,  Sir  John,  409. 

Elizabeth,  of  England,  347—353. 

Elizabeth,  of  Russia,  437. 

Emigres  (a-me-gra/),  490,  493,  494,  496. 

Emperor  (and  Empire)  of  the  West,  30- 
33;  revival  under  Otto  I,  102; 
investiture  conflict,  104,  107—111; 
struggle  with  papacy,  107-128; 
method  of  election,  114,  268;  weak- 
ness, 238,  260,  379;  constitution 
of  the  Empire  denned,  268;  Empire 
dissolved,  532;  title  cheapened  by 
Napoleon,  525;  see  names  of  Em- 
perors. 

Ems  dispatch,  627. 

Encyclopedia,  French,  473. 

Enghien  (aN-gaN'),  duke  of,  524. 

England,  settled  by  Angles  and  Saxons, 
48;  seven  kingdoms  of,  48;  Danes 
(Northmen)  in,  49-51,  44,  71; 


Norman  conquest  of,  71-76;  early 
local  government  in,  73;  feudal 
system  in,  74;  serfdom  in,  169, 
273-276;  cities  in,  175;  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  211-226;  reforms  of 
Henry  II,  213-216;  fief  of  papacy, 
122,  217;  rise  of  Parliament,  221- 
226;  local  government  in,  222; 
Hundred  Years'  War,  241 ;  rise  of 
modern  state,  272—281 ;  Black  Death 
in,  273;  Peasants'  Revolt  in,  273— 
276;  increase  of  Parliament's  power, 
278;  Wars  of  the  Roses,  270-280; 
new  monarchy  of  the  Tudors,  280; 
Reformation  in,  344-353,  358;  dis- 
solution of  the  monasteries,  345; 
war  with  Spain  (1588),  352;  wars 
with  Louis  XIV,  388-395 ;  war  with 
Netherlands,  389-390;  gains  from 
War  of  Spanish  Succession,  394; 
constitutional  monarchy  in  (1603- 
1760),  403-427 ;  union  with  Scotland, 
403,  426;  colonies,  405,  456-458; 
civil  war  in,  412;  Commonwealth, 
415;  Restoration,  418-420;  "Glori- 
ous Revolution"  of  1688,  422-424; 
cabinet  government,  425,  427;  sum- 
mary of  history  in  seventeenth 
century,  428;  alliance  with  Prussia 
(1756),  448, 450 ;  struggle  with  France 
(1740-1763),  454-458;  in  India, 
456-458;  sea  power  of,  459;  see 
also  Great  Britain,  Parliament,  etc. 

English  Church,  and  Elizabeth,  348; 
Laudians  and  Puritans,  406,  408. 

English  colonies,  founded  in  America, 
405 ;  annexed  from  Holland,  389 ; 
struggle  with  French.  394,  447,  454- 
458 ;  in  India,  456—457 ;  American 
lost,  460—461 ;  in  Australia,  462, 
665;  in  South  Africa,  665-668;  in 
Egypt,  680,  668;  in  China,  695, 
697  ;  British  colonial  empire,  661-671. 

English  language,  76. 

English  literature,  353,  427,  428,  654. 

English  possessions  in  France,  212,  216, 
217,  229,  240,  250,  252,  256,  347. 

Enlightened  despots,  474. 

Epi'rus,  added  to  Greece,  680. 

Equality,  principle  of,  547. 

Erasmus  (e-raz'mus),  317—319;  atti- 
tude toward  the  Reformation,  331 ; 
in  England,  344. 

Er'icson,  Leif,  48. 


INDEX 


Escheat,  56. 

Estates-General,    French,     234,      263; 

meeting  in  1789,  481,  485. 
Etiquette,  under  Louis  XIV,  399. 
.Eu'cAa-rist,  sacrament  of,  84. 
Eugene  of  Savoy,  393. 
Eugene,  viceroy  of  Italy,  530. 
Eugenie    (u-zha-ne'),    of    France,    586, 

592. 

Euphrates  (u-fra'tez)  valley,  i,  n. 
Europe,   historical    importance    of,    i  ; 

geography   of,    1—7,    207 ;     mountain 

systems  of,  4;    river  systems  of,  6; 

geographical    units    of,    7;     hi    the 

year  800,   22. 

Evesham  (evz'am),  battle  of,  219. 
Evolution,  theory  of,  737. 
Ex'arcAate  of  Ravenna,   18. 
Ex-cheq'wer,  English,  213. 
Excommunication,  80. 
Extreme  unction,  sacrament  of,  84,  83. 
Eylau  (Ilou),  battle  of,  529. 

Fabliaux  (fa-ble-6'),  201. 

Factory  Act,  in  England,  646. 

Factory  system,  559,  560. 

Fairs,  medieval,  183;  modern  world's 
fairs,  587. 

Falconry  (faw'conry),  166. 

Falkland  (fawk'land)  Islands,  British 
possession,  669. 

False  Decretals,  90. 

Farming  of  taxes,  387. 

Fa-sho'da  incident,  689. 

Faubourgs  (fo-boor/),  178. 

Fa'vre,  Jules  (zhiil),  592. 

Fawkes,  Guy,  404. 

Fe'alty,  55,  60. 

Ferdinand  I,  Emperor,  335. 

Ferdinand  II,  Emperor,  372,  373,  375. 

Ferdinand,  of  Aragon,  281-284,  295; 
conquests,  266,  362. 

Ferdinand,  of  Austria,  605. 

Ferdinand  VII,  of  Spain,  569,  570. 

Feudal  government,  59-66. 

Feudal  obligations,  60. 

Feudal  system,  55—66;  origins,  53; 
vassalage,  55;  benefice  holding,  55; 
governmental  rights  under,  57;  as  a 
working  system,  58;  ranks  in,  58; 
feudal  obligations,  60;  courts  and 
modes  of  trial,  61 ;  warfare,  62 ;  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of,  64; 
duration  of,'  64 ;  causes  of  its  decline, 


68 ;  in  England,  74 ;  in  Palestine,  145 ; 
influenced  by  crusades,  157. 

Feudal  system,  Japanese,  695. 

Feudal  warfare,  62. 

Fief,  55,  56. 

Field  of  May,  35. 

Fielding,  Henry,  author,  428. 

Finland,  533,  543,  709. 

Finns,  in  800,  23. 

Fiske,  John,  opinion  of  evolution,  739. 

Fist-right,  64,  127. 

Flanders,  attacked  by  Philip  IV,  233, 
234;  alliance  with  England,  241; 
held  by  duke  of  Burgundy,  264;  in 
Empire,  266;  part  of  Netherlands, 
366 ;  see  Netherlands. 

Florence,  Savonarola  in,  295 ;  in  the 
time  of  the  Renaissance,  299-301,  313. 

Florida,  ceded  to  England,  458;  re- 
stored to  Spain,  461. 

Flushing,  capture  of,  370. 

FoN-te-nay',  battle  of,  40. 

Food,  in  Middle  Ages,  168,  185. 

Formo'sa,  696,  697. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  opinion  of  French 
Revolution,  501. 

France,  part  of  Carolingian  Empire,  41 ; 
raided  by  Northmen,  44—46;  feudal 
system  in,  64,  272,  491 ;  influence  of 
crusades,  157;  serfdom  in,  169;  cities, 
174,  176;  heresy  in,  198-200;  cul- 
ture in  southern  France,  199;  growth 
of  royal  domain,  227-228,  230,  240, 
264,  265;  in  the  Middle  Ages,  227- 
238 ;  under  Louis  LX,  233 ;  Estates- 
General,  234,  263,  481,  485;  under 
Philip  IV,  234,  236 ;  Valois  kings,  237 ; 
art  and  learning,  238;  Hundred 
Years'  War,  241-256;  Black  Death 
in,  246;  development  of  modern 
state,  262—266;  invasion  of  Italy, 
266 ;  Reformation  in,  358,  360—365  ; 
Huguenot  Wars,  361-365  ;  subjection 
of  the  nobility,  365 ;  in  Thirty  Years' 
War,  376;  under  Louis  XIV,  382- 
400;  colonies,  388,  454;  wars  of 
Louis  XTV,  388-395;  life  under 
Louis  XIV,  397-400 ;  sets  fashions  for 
Europe,  400;  in  War  of  Austrian 
Succession,  445-447 ;  alliance  with 
Austria  (1756),  448;  in  Seven  Years' 
War,  448-450 ;  under  Louis  XV,  453, 
477;  struggle  with  England  (1740— 
1763),  454-458;  sea  power  of,  459; 


INDEX 


war  with  Great  Britain  (1778-1782), 
461 ;  on  the  eve  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution, 467,  476—481 ;  misgovernment 
under  Louis  XV,  477  ;  Revolution  of 
1780-1795,  485-510;  Directory,  510, 
511,  519-521;  under  Napoleon,  521- 
541;  in  1815,  543-546;  restored 
Bourbons  in,  572;  in  Revolution  of 
1830,  574;  from  1830  to  1900,  578- 
598;  in  Revolution  of  1848,  581-583; 
in  Franco-Prussian  War,  592,  626- 
630 ;  present  constitution,  595 ;  after 
1871,  675;  in  Dual  Alliance,  676;  in 
Triple  Entente,  676;  in  Concert  of 
Great  Powers,  677;  possessions  in 
Africa,  690 ;  in  Indo-China,  695  ;  in 
China,  697 ;  separation  of  church  and 
state,  721 ;  socialism  in,  582,  583,  597, 
750 ;  see  also  French,  and  names  of 
rulers. 

Tranche  Comte  (fraNsh-koN-ta'),  held  by 
duke  of  Burgundy,  264;  added  to 
France,  390. 

Franchise,  extension  of,  744. 

Francis  I,  of  France,  360,  327 ;  war  with 
Charles  V,  332. 

Francis  I,  Emperor,  447. 

Francis  II,  Emperor,  521,  528;  becomes 
Francis  I  of  Austria,  532. 

Francis,  Saint,  95. 

Francis  Joseph,  of  Austria,  605,  607. 

Francis  Xavier  (zav'i-er),  Saint,  355. 

Francis'cans,  95,  200. 

Franco'nia,  stem  duchy,  99. 

Franconian  Emperors,  100. 

Franco-Prussian  War,  592,  626-630. 

Frankfort,  added  to  Prussia,  625. 

Frankfort  Parliament,  in  Germany,  622, 
623. 

Franks,  rise  of,  19-21 ;  alliance  with  the 
papacy,  21. 

"Franks,"  name  of  crusaders,  142. 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa,  Emperor,  114, 
116—121;  crusades  of,  149. 

Frederick  II,  Emperor,  122-126;  in 
crusade,  154. 

Frederick  III,  Emperor,  269. 

Frederick  I,  king  of  Prussia,  439. 

Frederick  II,  the  Great,  of  Prussia,  444- 
453  ;  wars  of,  445-450 ;  in  peace,  450- 
452;  government  of,  452;  an  "en- 
lightened despot,"  474. 

Frederick  the  Wise,  of  Saxony,  327, 
328. 


Frederick  William,  of  Prussia,  the 
"Great  Elector,"  438-439. 

Frederick  William  I,  king  of  Prussia, 
439-441,  444. 

Frederick  William  III,  of  Prussia,  528, 
538.  < 

Frederick  William  IV,  of  Prussia,  622. 

Free  trade,  473  ;  in  England,  646. 

French  Academy,  399. 

French  colonies,  in  America,  387  ; 
struggle  with  English,  394,  447,  454- 
458 ;  in  India,  456-457 ;  Napoleon's 
plans,  527 ;  in  Algeria,  573 ;  in 
Africa,  681,  689-690;  in  Asia,  695,  697. 

French  literature,  201,  399,  598. 

French  Revolution,  character  and  causes 
of,  467-481 ;  meeting  of  the  Estates- 
General,  485  ;  beginning  of  the  revo- 
lution, 488;  constitution  of  1791, 
492 ;  wars  with  foreign  countries, 
496-498,  500,  502,  505,  509,  510;  a 
republic  established,  499;  Reign  of 
Terror,  505-509 ;  review  of,  511 ;  per- 
manent results  of,  547-548. 

French  Revolution  of  1830,  574. 

French  Revolution  of  1848,  581-583. 

Frescoes,  310. 

Friars,  95. 

Friedland  (fret'lant),  battle  of,  529. 

Frois'sart's  Chronicles,  242. 

Ful'ton,  Robert,  inventor,  563. 

Galicia  (ga-llsh'i-a),   reforms  of  Joseph 

II,  475- 

Gal-i-le'o,  308. 

Ga'ma,  Vasco  da,  282. 

Gambet'ta,  Leon,  592,  629. 

Ga-ri-bal'di,  608,  609,  611,  614,  615. 

Ga-ronne'  River,  7. 

Gas  engine,  742. 

Gaul,  invaded  by  German  tribes,  15; 
conquered  by  Franks,  15,  19. 

Genealogical  Tables,  see  the  list  on 
page  xiii. 

General  council  of  the  church,  91,  290- 
294. 

General  strike,  709. 

Ge-ne'va,  Reformation  at,  342. 

Genoa,  trade  with  Palestine,  146; 
commercial  center,  156,  182,  183. 

Geographical  basis  of  European  his- 
tory, i. 

George  I,  of  Great  Britain,  427. 

George  II,  427,  455. 


INDEX 


George  III,  in  Seven  Years'  War,  450, 
458;  personal  rule,  458,  460,  461; 
descendants,  639. 

George  IV,  639,  640. 

George  V,  725. 

George,  Lloyd,  726,  727,  730,  747. 

Germ  theory  of  disease,  739. 

German  colonies,  688-689,  697. 

German  Confederation  of  1815,  543,  620. 

German  Empire  (of  1871),  630-636; 
constitution  of,  630;  industrial 
growth,  634;  armed  peace,  675;  in 
Triple  Alliance,  676;  in  Concert  of 
Great  Powers,  677 ;  African  colonies, 
688-689;  in  China,  697;  recent 
rivalry  with  Great  Britain,  731; 
socialism  in,  633,  635-636,  750. 

German  literature,  early,  201 ;  rise  of 
modern,  452,  329. 

German  tribes,  invade  Roman  Empire, 
13,  24;  character  of,  24;  idea  of 
law,  33;  invasions  of  the  Northmen, 
44-51- 

Germans,  in  Austrian  Empire,  603-605. 

Germany,  part  of  Carolingian  Empire, 
41;  raided  by  Northmen,  44; 
stem  duchies  in,  09;  invaded  by 
Hungarians,  99,  101 ;  Saxon  kings 
of,  100;  expansion  northeastward, 
101 ;  in  Holy  Roman  Empire,  102 ; 
Salian  Emperors  of,  102,  100;  under 
Henry  IV  (investiture  conflict), 
107—111;  Hohenstaufen  rulers  of, 
113,  115;  under  Frederick  I,  121; 
subdivided,  121,  124,  238,  379,  469; 
under  Frederick  II,  124;  Great 
Interregnum  in,  126;  influenced  by 
crusades,  157;  serfdom  in,  169; 
Hanseatic  League,  185;  rise  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  267-270;  constitution  of 
Empire,  268—269 .'  Reformation  in, 
321-336,  358;  Peasants'  Revolt 
in,  330-331 ;  Thirty  Years'  War, 
372-378;  subdivision  of,  379,  469; 
reorganized  by  Napoleon,  531 ;  in 
1813-1815,  537-539,  542-543;  after 
1815,  569;  in  1815—1905,  620-636; 
unification  of,  620-630;  see  German 
Empire;  also  Austria,  Prussia,  Ba- 
varia, etc. 

Ghibelline  (gib'el-in)  party,  115,  116, 
126. 

Gibbon  (gib'bon),  Edward,  author,  428. 

Gibraltar,  British  possession,  394,  669. 


Giotto  (jot'to),  310,  311,  315- 

Girondists  (ji-r6n'dists),  495,  .498- 
503 ;  fall  of,  503,  506. 

Glad'stone,  William  E.,  648-654,  644; 
opinion  of  colonies,  670. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon  (boo-yoN'),  cru- 
sader, 141,  145. 

Goethe,  author,  453. 

Golden  Bull,  268. 

Good  Parliament,  of  England,  278. 

Gordon,  General,  681. 

Gothic  style  of  architecture,  203- 
207. 

Goths,  see  Ostrogoths,  Visigoths. 

Government,  feudal,  50-66,  260-261 ; 
modern,  260-262 ;  fall  of  absolute 
government  in  twentieth  century, 
707 ;  extended  functions  of  modern 
government,  747. 

Gra-na'da,  Mohammedan  kingdom  in 
Spain,  281. 

Grand  Alliance,  567,  568,  570-571. 

Grand  Remonstrance,  411. 

GraN-soN',  battle  of,  265. 

Grave-lot/e',  battle  of,  629. 

Great  Britain,  kingdom  of,  426 ;  in  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession,  447; 
struggle  with  France  (1740-1763), 
454-458;  revolt  of  the  colonies 
in  America,  460;  wars  with  France 
and  Napoleon,  502,  517-520,  522, 
527-529,  532-535,  540-541,  546; 
gains  in  1815,  543 ;  public  debt  of, 
546;  sea  power,  546;  Industrial 
Revolution  in,  550-563 ;  canals  and 
railroads,  561 ;  in  Crimean  War,  587— 
589 ;  in  the  nineteenth  century,  638- 
675;  constitution,  655-661;  colo- 
nial empire,  661—671 ;  in  Triple 
Entente,  676;  in  Concert  of  Great 
Powers,  677;  in  Egypt,  680,  668; 
possessions  in  Africa,  689 ;  in  China, 
695;  in  Persia,  715;  recent  changes 
in,  725-732;  recent  rivalry  with 
Germany,  731 ;  socialism  in,  750. 

Great  Charter,  of  England,  218. 

Great  Commoner,  455. 

Great  Council,  of  England,  221. 

Great  Elector,  438. 

Great  Interregnum,  in  Germany,  126. 

Great  Powers,  677. 

Great  St.  Bernard  Pass,  5. 

Great  Schism  (sizm)  in  the  Church, 
290-292. 


i6 


INDEX 


Greece,  ancient  history,  1 2  ;  independent 
of  Turkey,  571-572;  enlarged  (1878), 
680;  war  with  Turkey  (1897),  680; 
war  with  Turkey  (1912-1913),  682- 
685. 

Greek  Church,  79. 

Greek  Empire,  69 ;  see  Eastern  Empire. 

Greek  fire,  133. 

Greek  language,  study  of,  306. 

Greenland,  settled  by  Northmen,  48. 

Gregory  VII,   Pope,   105-111. 

Gregory  XIII,  354. 

Gregory  the  Great,  Pope,  18. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  347. 

Grotius  (gro'shi-us),  author,  396. 

Guelf  (gwelf)  party,  115,  116,  126. 

Guesclin,  Bertrand  du  (ber-traN'  dii  ge- 
klaN'),  251. 

Guienne  (ge-en'),  English  possession  in 
France,  238. 

Guilds,  175,  179,  182;  oppressive  regu- 
lations in  eighteenth  century,  468, 
480;  abolished  in  France,  492. 

Guillotine  (gfl'o-ten),  501,  506. 

Guiscard  (ges-carO,  Robert,  69. 

Guise  (gii-ez'),  house  of,  361,  362. 

Guizot  (ge-zo'),  579-581. 

Gunpowder,  196,  244,  307. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  404. 

Gusta'vus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
374- 

Gutenberg  (goo'ten-bSric),  John,  316. 

Haakon  (haw'kon)  VII,  of  Norway, 
723- 

Ha'beas  Corpus  Act,  in  England,  421. 

Hague  Peace  Conferences,  732. 

Hals,  Frans,  artist,  313,  315. 

Hamburg,  in  Hanseatic  League,  185; 
in  German  Empire,  631. 

Hampden,  John,  409,  413. 

Han'over,  121,  426;  crown  united  with 
England's,  427 ;  acquires  Swedish  ter- 
ritory, 436;  in  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession,  447;  separated  from  the 
British  crown,  639 ;  added  to  Prussia, 
625. 

Hanove'rian  kings  of  Great  Britain,  427. 

Han-se-at'ic  League,  184;  broken  up, 
378. 

Hapsburg  house,  rise  of,  267-270;  and 
Switzerland,  271 ;  possessions  of 
Charles  V,  327 ;  division  of,  336. 

Har 'greaves,  James,  inventor,  555. 


Harold,  king  of  England,  71-73. 

Harvey,  William,  scientist,  424. 

Hastings,  battle  of,  72. 

Hastings,  Warren,  458. 

Havana,  restored  to  Spain,  458. 

H6bert  (a-bar'),  507. 

Hel-vet'ic  Republic,  520. 

Henry  HI,  Emperor,  103,  104,  106. 

Henry  IV,  Emperor,  106-111;  contest 
with  the  Pope,  108-111. 

Henry  V,  Emperor,  in,  113. 

Henry  VI,  Emperor,  122. 

Henry  I,  of  England,  211,  212. 

Henry  II,  of  England,  212—216,  351. 

Henry  III,  of  England,  219. 

Henry  IV,  of  England,  278. 

Henry  V,  of  England,  251-253. 

Henry  VI,  of  England,  253,  256,  280. 

Henry  VII,  of  England,  280,  343. 

Henry  VIII,  of  England,  280,  343—346. 

Henry  II,  of  France,  361,  334. 

Henry  III,  of  France,  362. 

Henry  IV,  of  Navarre,  king  of  France, 
362-364. 

Henry  the  Lion,  1 20. 

Henry  the  Navigator,  282. 

Her-at',  700. 

Heresy,  defined,  16;  in  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  198. 

Hertz,  scientist,  741. 

Herzegovina  (her-tse-go-ve'na),  ac- 
quired by  Austria,  678. 

Hesse-Cas'sel,  added  to  Prussia,  625. 

Hesse-Darmstadt  (darm'shtat),  626. 

High  Commission,  Court  of,  408,  410. 

Hil'debrand,  105 ;  Pope  Gregory  VII, 
107-111. 

History,  sources  of,  7;  periods  of,  8; 
short  duration  of,  10. 

Hohenstaufen  (ho'en-stou-fen)  Em- 
perors, 113—128;  fall  of,  126. 

Hohenzollern  (ho-en-tsol'ern),  house  of, 
437,  627. 

Hol'bem,  313,  315,  317. 

Holland  (Netherlands  or  Dutch  Nether- 
lands), separate  country,  371-372, 378, 
379 ;  wars  with  Louis  XIV,  388-395 ; 
prosperity  and  colonies  of,  389;  war 
with  England,  389-390;  conquered 
by  France,  509 ;  Louis  Bonaparte,  king 
of,  530;  enlarged  to  Netherlands,  in 
1815,  543;  loss  of  Belgium,  575~576; 
loss  of  Cape  Colony,  666  ;  see 
Netherlands. 


INDEX 


Holy  Alliance,  568. 

Holy  Eucharist,  sacrament  of,  84. 

Holy  Roman  Empire,  102;  weakness, 
of,  260;  dissolved,  532;  see  Emperor, 
Germany. 

Hom'age,  ceremony  of,  55,  60. 

Home  Rule,  Irish,  651,  652,  729. 

Hong'kSng',  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  695, 
697. 

Hos'pitalers,  146,  518. 

Hotel  des  Invalides  (6-tel'  da  zaN-va- 
led'),  386. 

House  of  Commons,  English,  224;  see 
Commons. 

House  of  Lords,  English,  224 ;  see  Lords. 

Hubertsburg  (hoo'berts-boorc),  peace 
of,  450. 

Hugh  Ca-pe/,  41,  227. 

Hu'gwe-nots,  360-365,  395,  396. 

Humanism,  303-307,  317. 

Hum'bert  I,  of  Italy,  617. 

Hundred,  in  England,  73. 

"  Hundred  Days"  of  Napoleon,  540,  543. 

Hundred  Years'  War,  241—256. 

Hunga'rians,  invade  Germany,  99,  101. 

Hun'gary,  kingdom  formed,  101 ;  sub- 
ject to  Empire,  103;  acquired  by 
Hapsburgs,  270;  joined  to  Austria, 
335-336;  after  1867,  606;  Revolu- 
tion of  1848,  604,  605;  reforms  of 
Joseph  II,  475. 

Huns,  invade  Gaul,  15. 

Hus,  John,  292. 

Hutten  (hoof  ten),  Ulrich  von  (ool'riK 
fon),  317. 

Iceland,  settled  by  Northmen,  48. 

Iconoclastic  controversy,  19. 

Impeachment,  278. 

Imperial  Federation,  British,  670. 

Independents,  in  England,  414,  416. 

India,  growth  of  British  power  in,  456- 
458;  war  in  (1741-1748),  447, 
(1755-1763),  454-458,  (1857),  669; 
Napoleon  threatens,  518;  govern- 
ment of,  668,  669 ;  Russia  threatens, 
700. 

Indian  Mutiny  of  1857,  669. 

Indies,  denned,  392. 

Indulgences,  323-324. 

Industrial  Revolution  in  Great  Britain, 
550-565 ;  in  other  countries,  567,  580, 
634 ;  effects  of,  563,  582,  638,  744. 

Initiative.  745,  746. 


Innocent  IH,  Pope,  relations  with  Em- 
pire, 122 ;  calls  Fourth  Crusade,  152 ; 
calls  Albigensian  Crusade,  199 ;  con- 
flict with  King  John  of  England,  217. 

Innsbruck  (ins'brook),  Charles  V  at,  334. 

Inquisition,  200;  in  Spain,  295,  356, 
379;  in  Counter  Reformation,  356; 
in  Netherlands,  368. 

Institutes  of  Justinian,  16. 

Instrument  of  Government,  English,  416. 

Insurance  for  laborers,  633,  725,  748. 

Intend'ants,  French,  366,  385. 

Interdict,  81. 

International  Law,  396,  590,  733. 

Inventions,  550,  553-559,  740-743- 

Investiture  conflict,  in  Germany,  104, 
107-111. 

Ireland,  English  rule  in,  351-352; 
Reformation  in,  351-352;  rebellion 
of  (1641),  411,  413;  conquered  by 
Cromwell,  415  :  conquered  by  William 
HI,  424 ;  famine  in,  647 ;  Church 
disestablished,  649;  Land  Acts,  650- 
653;  union  with  Great  Britain,  651; 
Home  Rule  in,  651—652,  729 ;  progress 
in  the  nineteenth  century,  653—654. 

I-re'ne,  Eastern  Empress,  30. 

Irish  Church,  disestablished,  649. 

Irish  Land  Acts,  650-653. 

Iron-making,  improvements  in,  559. 

"  Ironsides,"  Cromwell's,  413. 

Isabella  of  Castile,  281-284,  295. 

Isabella  of  England,  237. 

Isabella  of  France,  252. 

Italian  literature,  304-307. 

Italian  Republic,  527,  530. 

Italy,  part  of  Roman  Empire,  1 2  ;  Visi- 
goths in,  15;  Ostrogoths  in,  15; 
Lombards  in,  18,  19,  21,  30;  part  of 
Carolingian  Empire,  41 ;  Moham- 
medans in,  6g ;  Norman  conquests  in, 
69;  disorders  in  the  tenth  century, 
101 ;  in  Holy  Roman  Empire,  102 ; 
papal  power  increased,  106;  under 
Frederick  I,  116-120;  rise  of  cities  in, 
116-120,  174,  176;  French  in,  266, 
332;  Spanish  possessions  in,  283,  299; 
in  the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  209- 
302;  Italian  despots  of  Renaissance, 
302;  Renaissance  in,  302-313,  316; 
war  of  Charles  V  and  Francis  I,  332 ; 
Austrian  power  in,  394-395,  530,  570, 
576,  607-608,  610-616;  Napoleon  in, 
516,  521,  527,  530,  607;  Cisalpine 


i8 


INDEX 


Republic,  517,  527;  Italian  Republic, 
527,  53o;  in  1815,  542-543;  revolts 
of  1820,  570;  revolts  of  1830,  608;  dis- 
union after  1815,  607-611 ;  revolution 
of  1848,  610;  unification  of,  611-618; 
since  1870,  617-618;  present  con- 
stitution of,  6.1 7  ;  in  Triple  Alliance, 
676;  in  Concert  of  Great  Powers, 
677 ;  seizes  Tripoli,  681 ;  other  pos- 
sessions in  Africa,  617,  689. 

JacVbin  Club,  495-498,  509. 

Jac'o-bite  risings,  in  England,  427. 

Jacquerie  (zhak-re'),  249. 

James  I,  of  England,  403—406. 

James  II  (duke  of  York),  421-424. 

Jan'izaries,  284,  285. 

Japan,  awakening  of,  695;  war  with 
China,  696;  in  Boxer  War  (China), 
698;  war  with  Russia,  702-704. 

Jeffreys,  Judge,  421. 

Jena  (ya'na),  battle  of,  528. 

Jen'gMz  Khan  (Kan),  694. 

Je-rome'  of  Prague,  292. 

Jerusalem,  taken  by  crusaders,  144; 
crusaders'  state,  145,  149;  taken  by 
Saladin,  149;  taken  by  Frederick 
II,  154;  retaken  by  Turks,  154. 

Jesuits  (jez'u-its),  354-356,  633. 

Jews,  in  France,  597 ;  in  Great  Britain, 
640. 

Joan  of  Arc,  253-256. 

John,  of  England,  216-219. 

John,  of  France,  247-250. 

John  XXIII,  Pope,  291,  292. 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  428. 

Jonson,  Ben,  353. 

Joseph  II,  Emperor,  450;  reforms  of, 
475- 

Josephine  of  France,  535. 

Journeymen,  in  guilds,  182. 

Jura  (joo'ra)  Mountains,  6. 

Jury,  trial  by,  214. 

Justification  by  faith,  Lutheran  doc- 
trine, 323. 

Justin'ian,  Emperor,  16. 

Jutes  (jootz),  invade  Britain,  48. 

Kamerun  (ka-ma-roon'),  688. 
Kant,  Immanuel,  philosopher,  453. 
Keep,  of  a  castle,  160. 
Khartum    (kar-toom'),    taken    by  the 
Mahdi,  68 1. 

',  668,  680,  681. 


Khiva  (Ke'va),  700. 

Kiauchau  (kyou'chou'),  697. 

Kim'berley,  666. 

King,  in  feudal  system,  57-58,  60,  65 ; 
method  of  selection  in  different 
countries,  114;  in  France,  227,  228, 
263,  272,  385;  in  England,  272,  280, 
403-427,  655;  in  Poland,  462;  di- 
vine right  of  kings,  384. 

Kitch'ener,  General,  in  the  Sudan,  68 1. 

Knighthood,  medieval,  163-165. 

Knights  Hos'pitalers  of  Saint  John, 
146,  518. 

Knights  of  the  shire,  in  England,  223. 

Knights  Templars,  146. 

Knights,  Teutonic,  146,  437. 

Knox,  John,  350. 

Kon'go  River,  685-688. 

Kongo  State,  687. 

Koniggratz  (ku-nlK-grets'),  battle  of, 
625. 

Ko-ran',  17. 

Ko-re'a,  696,  702-704. 

K6s-d-us'ko,  Polish  patriot,  464. 

Kossuth  (kosh'oot),  Louis,  604,  605. 

Kulturkampf  (kool-toor'kampf),  633. 

Kunersdorf  (koo'ners-dorf),  battle  of, 
449- 

Kushk  (kooshk),  700. 

Laborers,  in  Middle  Ages,  58,  160-174, 
182,  273-276;  effect  of  factory  sys- 
tem, 564,  565,  646;  in  France,  582; 
in  Germany,  633;  in  Great  Britain, 
646,  725;  war  on  poverty,  748;  so- 
cialist theory  of,  749—750. 

La-fa-yeW,  Marquis  de,  in  French 
Revolution,  481,  490,  494,  498;  in 
Revolution  of  1830,  574,  575. 

La  Hogue  (6g),  battle  of,  391. 

Laissez  faire  (le'sa  far7)  doctrine,  473, 
746,  747. 

Laity,  81. 

Lancastrian  kings  of  England,  278. 

Land  tenure,  feudal,  55-57. 

Landfrieden  (lant'f re-den),  64. 

La  Rochelle  (ro-sheT),  364,  365. 

La  Sal/e',  387. 

Latin  Church,  79 ;  see  Church,  Pope. 

Latin  Empire  of  Constantinople,   153. 

Laud,  William,  406,  408-410. 

Lavoisier   (la-vwa-zya.'),   chemist,   470. 

Law,  development  of,  16,  33,  196—197, 
523;  international,  396,  590,  733. 


INDEX 


Law,  John,  453. 

Lawyers,  rise  of,  197. 

LecA,  battle  of,  101. 

Legion  of  Honor,  523. 

Legislative  Assembly,  in  French  Revo- 
lution, 405,  497. 

Legitimists,  in  France,  594,  595. 

Legnano  (la-nya'no),  battle  of,  119. 

Leipzig  (llp'sik),  medieval  fair  at,  184; 
battle  of,  538. 

Leo  III,  Pope,  31. 

Leo  X,  Pope,  294,  325. 

Leon  (la-on'),  Spanish  state,  281. 

Leonardo  (la-o-nar'do)  da  Vinci  (ven'- 
che),  315- 

Le'opold  II,  of  Belgium,  687. 

Les'sing,  author,  452. 

Lettres  de  cachet   (let'tr'   de  ca-sha'), 
385-386,  477. 

Leuthen  (loi'ten),  battle  of,  449. 

Ley'den,  siege  of,  370. 

Liao-tong  (le-ou'tongO  peninsula,    703. 

Liaoyang   (le-ou'yangO,  battle  of,  703. 

Liberal  arts,  188. 

Liberal  Unionist  party  in  Great  Britain, 
651-652. 

Liberalism,  spread  of,  567-569;  in 
France,  591,  597;  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 603-605  ;  in  Italy,  610-613 ; 
in  Great  Britain,  642-644 ;  fall  of 
absolute  government,  in  2oth  cen- 
tury, 707;  recent  reforms,  744-750. 

Liberals,  in  England,  644,  648;  split, 
651;  recent  reforms,  725-731. 

Lib'erum  Veto,  463. 

Lib'-y-a,  682. 

Life,  French,  under  Louis  XIV,  397-400. 

Life  in  the  Middle  Ages,  160-185  ; 
influenced  by  crusades,  157;  life 
of  the  nobles,  160-168;  life  of  the 
peasants,  167-174;  life  in  towns, 
174—185;  intellectual  life,  188—207, 
303 ;  general  summary,  207-208. 

Ligny  (len-ye'),  battle  of,  540. 

Li  Hung  Chang,  696. 

Lil/e,  manufacturing  town,  367. 

Lisbon  (liz'bon),  recent  revolution  in, 
^724. 

Literature,  in  Charlemagne's  time,  36; 
rise  of  vernacular  literatures,  200-201 ; 
Arabian,  135  ;  English,  353,  427,  428, 
654;  French,  201,  399,598;  German, 
201,  329,  452;  Italian,  304-307; 
Spanish,  380. 


Liv'ing-stone,  Dr.  David,  687, 

L/oyd  George,  726,  727,  730,  747. 

Locke,  John,  philosopher,  470. 

Locomotive  engine,   invented,   561. 

Lo'di,  battle  of,  516. 

Ix)ire  (Iwar)  River,  7. 

Lombard  League,  119,  120. 

Lombards,  occupy  Italy,  18,  19,  21 ;  con- 
quered by  Charlemagne,  30. 

Lom'bardy,  named,  18;  cities  in,  119, 
120;  in  the  tune  of  the  Renaissance, 
299,  301,  302 ;  under  Austria,  607, 
611;  annexed  to  Piedmont,  615. 

London,  fortified  by  Alfred,  50 ;  station 
of  Hanseatic  League,  185 ;  in  Peas- 
ants' Revolt,  274;  plague  and  fire 
in,  421. 

London,  peace  of  (1913),  684. 

Long  Parliament,  400-416,  418—419. 

Longbow,  243,  245. 

Looms,  556. 

Lope  de  Vega  (lo'pa  da  va'ga),  380. 

Lords,  feudal,  55-57,  60,  163-169, 
175-176. 

Lords,  House  of,  English,  224; 
threatened  creation  of  new  peers, 
643;  decrease  of  power,  727,  728. 

Lord's  Supper,  sacrament  of,  84. 

Loren'zo  the  Magnificent,  301. 

Lor-rain',  Claude,  artist,  315. 

Lorraine,  stem  duchy,  99;  added  to 
France,  454 ;  ceded  to  Germany,  630. 

Lor-ris',  charter  of,  177. 

Lo-thair7,  Emperor,  41. 

Lotharin'gia,  stem  duchy,  99. 

Louis  (loo'is  or  loo'i)  VI,  of  France, 
227-228. 

Louis  VII,  227,  149. 

Louis  IX  (Saint  Louis),  232;  in  cru- 
sades, 154. 

Louis  X,  237. 

Louis  XI,  263—265. 

Louis  XII,  360. 

Louis  XIII,  364- 

Louis  XIV,  382-400;  as  king,  384; 
wars  of,  388;  suppression  of  Hugue- 
nots, 395;  death  of,  395;  court  at 
Versailles,  397—400. 

Louis  XV,  453,  449;  misgovernment 
under,  477. 

Louis  XVI,  479,  487-494,  497;  exe- 
cuted, 501. 

Louis  XVIII,  539,  540,  542,  543 ;  Con- 
stitutional Charter  of,  572. 


20 


INDEX 


Louis  Napoleon,  584—592. 

Louis  Phl-\ippe',  575,  578-582. 

Louis  the  German,  40. 

Louis  the  Pious,  Emperor,  40. 

Louisiana,  458,  527. 

Louvre  (loo'vr1),  594- 

Loyo'la,  Ignatius,  354. 

Lii'beck,  in  Hanseatic  League,  185 ; 
in  German  Empire,  631. 

Lu-cern«',  Swiss  city,  272. 

Luneville  (lu-na-veT),  peace  of,  522. 

Luther,  Martin,  322-334;  teachings 
of,  325-326,  330;  excommunicated, 
326;  at  Worms,  327—328;  trans- 
lates the  Bible,  329;  marriage,  331; 
controversy  with  Zwingli,  341. 

Lu'theran  Church,  330. 

Liit'zen,  battle  of,  375. 

Lux'emburg,  house  of,  268-269. 

Ly'ons,  insurrection  at,  580. 

Lyons,  Council  of,  125. 

Macad'amized  roads,  553. 

Macaulay  (ma-caw'ly),  Thomas  Bab- 
ington,  654;  quoted,  348,  642. 

Macedonia,  680,  682. 

Machiavelli  (ma-kya-vel'le),  299",  302. 

MacMa-AoN'/,  Marshal,  629,  595. 

Madagascar,  690. 

Madras',  English  at,  456. 

Magdeburg  (mag'de-boorc),  archbishop- 
ric of,  101 ;  sacked  by  Catholics,  374. 

Ma-gen'ta,  battle  of,  614. 

Mag'na  Car'ta,  218. 

Magyars  (mod'yorz),  99;  see  Hun- 
garians. 

MaA'di,  681. 

MatN-te-noN',  Madame  de,  395. 

Mainz  (mints),  archbishop  of,  88; 
elector,  268. 

Malta  (mawl'ta),  taken  by  Napoleon, 
518;  restored,  522;  British,  543,  669. 

Man  in  the  Iron  Mask,  385. 

Manchuria  (man-choo'ri-a),  697,  701, 
702. 

Manchus  (man-chooz'),  in  China,  de- 
throned, 716-718. 

Manil'a,  restored  to  Spain,  458. 

Manor,  medieval,  173. 

Man'tua,  taken  by  Napoleon,  516. 

Man'uel  II,  king  of  Portugal,  723—724. 

Manufactures,  Mohammedan,  135;  in- 
fluence of  crusades,  156;  medieval 
European,  179;  in  Netherlands,  367; 


in  France,  387,  468,  586;  in  Prussia, 
451;  in  Great  Britain,  553—560,  638; 
in  Germany,  634,  635 ;  Industrial 
Revolution,  553-56o. 

Ma-ra/',  499,  500. 

Marcel',  Stephen,  249. 

Mar-co'm,  inventor,  741. 

Ma-ren'go,  battle  of,  521. 

Maria  Louisa,  Empress  of  France,  535. 

Maria  TAe-re'sa,  of  Austria,  445-450. 

Marie  Antoinette  (aN-twa-net'),  479, 
480,  493;  executed,  506. 

Mariner's  compass,  309. 

Marl'bo-rougA,  duke  of,  393- 

Mar'lowe,  Christopher,  English  drama- 
tist, 353. 

Marquis  (mar'kwis),  rank  in  feudal  sys- 
tem, 58. 

Marseillaise  (mar-sa-yez'),  497- 

Marsiglio  (mar-seTye-o),  of  Padua,  289. 

Marston  Moor,  battle  of,  413. 

Martin  V,  Pope,  292. 

Marx,  Karl,  749. 

Mary  of  Burgundy,  265,  270. 

Mary  (Tudor),  queen  of  England,  347. 

Mary  II,  of  England,  422-426. 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  340-351. 

Mass,  church  service,  84. 

Matilda,  countess  of  Tuscany,  106,  no. 

Matilda,  of  England,  212. 

Matrimony,  sacrament  of,  84,  83. 

Maximilian  of  Austria,  265,  270. 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico,  590. 

Maximum,  Law  of  the,  506,  509. 

May  Field,  Charlemagne's,  35. 

Mayors  of  the  Palace,  19. 

Mazarin  (ma-za-raN'),  Cardinal,  383. 

Mazzini  (mat-se'ne),  608/611. 

Medici  (med'e-che)  family,  301. 

Medici,  Catherine  de',  queen  of  France, 
361. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  1—4. 

Me-lanc&'thon,  Philip,  330,  333. 

Mendicant  orders,  95,  200. 

Merca'tor's  projection,  308. 

Merchants,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  184. 

Merovin'gian  kings,  19,  21. 

Messi'na  earthquake,  617. 

Metternich  (meVter-niK),  Prince,  567- 
573,  601,  603. 

Metz,  629,  630. 

Meuse  (muz)   River,   6. 

Mexico,  French  in,  590. 

Mi-cAel-an'ge-lo,  311,  315. 


INDEX 


21 


Middle  Ages,  defined,  9;  beginning  of 
the,  13;  general  character  of,  207. 

Mi-ka'do,  695. 

Mil'an,  revolts  against  Frederick  1, 116- 
120 ;  despots  of,  302  ;  war  of  Charles  V 
and  Francis  I  in,  33  2 ;  acquired  by 
Austria,  394;  Napoleon  in,  516, 
5i7. 

Milan  decree,  532. 

Military  usages  and  methods,  influence 
of  crusades,  156;  in  battle  of  Crecy, 
243,  244;  in  Thirty  Years'  War,  373- 
375 ;  under  Louis  XIV,  386 ;  modern, 

675. 

Milton,  John,  420;  quoted,  417. 

Min'nesingers,  201. 

Minor'ca,  394. 

Mirabeau  (me-ra-bo'),  Count,  488, 
493,  494. 

Mis'si  domin'ici,  34. 

Mississippi  Bubble,  453. 

Modena  (mo'da-na),  607,  615. 

Moham'med,  17. 

Mohammed  II,  of  Turkey,  285. 

Mohammed  V,  712,  713. 

Moham'medanism,  rise  of,  17;  in 
800,  22;  Mohammedan  world  in 
eleventh  century,  133-136. 

Molda'via,  679. 

Moliere  (mo-lyar'),  author,  399. 

Molt'ke,  General,  625,  627,  628. 

Monasteries,  92-95;  English  monas- 
teries dissolved,  345;  French  mon- 
asteries dissolved,  492. 

Mon'gol  Empire,  694. 

Mongo'lia,  relations  with  China,  719. 

Monk,  George,  419. 

Monks,  92—95;   military  orders,  147. 

M6n 'mouth,  duke  of,  421. 

Monroe  Doctrine,   571. 
BlaNc',  4. 
Ce-niV  Pass,  5. 

Montenegro  (mon-ta-na'gro),  678,  682- 
685. 

MSn-tes-qiuew ',  472. 

Mont'fort,  Simon  de,  219,  223. 

Moors,  in  Spain,  281,  379. 

Mo-ra/',  battle  of,  265. 

Mora/via,  reforms  of  Joseph  TT,  475. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  344,  346. 

Mor-gar'ten,  battle  of,  271. 

Morocco,    689,    690. 

Morse,  Samuel  F.  B.,  inventor,  740. 

Mort'main,  Statute  of,  220. 


MSs'cow,  rise  of,  431 ;  center  of  Russian 
conservatism,  434;  taken  by  Napo- 
leon, 536. 

Mountain,  French  party,  495,  496; 
struggle  with  Girondists,  499,  501- 
503;  broken  up,  509. 

Movable  tower,  151,  161. 

MuM'bero,  battle  of,  334. 

Mukden  (mook-den'),  battle  of,  703. 

•Mu'mc/f, /revolution  of  1848  in,  621. 

Municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities, 
748. 

Mii-rat',  king  of  Naples,  533,  543. 

Muril'lo,  artist,  315.' 

Mus'covy,  431. 

Mutsuhito  (moot'soo-hi'to),  of  Japan, 
696. 

Nan'cy,  battle  of,  265. 

Nanking',  revolutionists  at,  716,  718. 

Nantes,  Terror  at,  506. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  363 ;  revoked,  396. 

Na'ples,  under  the  Pope,  122,  126; 
under  Frederick  II,  125;  under 
Charles  of  Anjou,  126;  taken  by 
France,  266;  taken  by  Aragon,  266; 
under  Spain,  283,  299 ;  under  Austria, 
394,  530 ;  under  Bourbons,  530 ;  Na- 
poleon in,  530,  533;  Murat  king  of, 
533 ;  Bourbons  restored,  543  ;  Liberal 
movement  in  (1820),  570;  Revolution 
of  1848,  6 10,  611 ;  added  to  Piedmont, 
615. 

Napo'leon  Bo'naparte,  early  life,  514; 
defends  Convention,  510;  Italian 
campaign,  5 15;  in  Egypt,  518-520; 
as  First  Consul,  520;  governmental 
reforms,  522-524;  relations  with  the 
Pope,  522,  525,  533;  Emperor,  525, 
527—548;  continental  system,  532; 
Russian  campaign,  535;  abdication, 
539 ;  Waterloo  campaign,  540-541 ; 
death  of,  541 ;  character  of,  541 ;  per- 
manent influence,  547 ;  burial  in 
Paris,  584. 

Napoleon  II,  586. 

Napoleon  III  (Louis  Napoleon),  584— 
592  ;  coup  d'etat,  585  ;  Crimean  War, 
588;  aids  Piedmont,  590,  613,  614; 
Liberal  reforms,  591;  relations  with 
Prussia,  591-592,  626. 

Nar'va,  battle  of,  435. 

Naseby  (naz'by),  battle  of,  414. 

Nas'sau,  added  to  Prussia,  625. 


22 


INDEX 


Na-tal',  666,  667. 

National  Assembly  of  1789,  in  France, 

487-494;  of  1848,  581-583;  of  1871- 

1875,  592-595- 

National  Convention,  French,  498—511. 
National  guard,  of  Paris,  400. 
National  workshops  in  France,  583. 
Nationality,  rise  of,  261 ;  principle  of,  547. 
Na-varre',  281,  362. 
Navigation,  308-309,  563. 
Navigation  Act,  English,  389. 
Necker,  finance  minister,  480,  481. 
Nelson,  Admiral,  519,  527. 
Netherlands,  held  by  duke  of  Burgundy, 

264;    under    Charles  V,    327,    366; 

Reformation  in,  367—369 ;    revolt  of, 

369—372;  divided,  371;    see  Holland; 

also  see  below. 
Netherlands,  Austrian,    acquired    from 

Spain,  394-395;    annexed  to  France, 

500;  granted  to  France,  517;   added 

to  Holland,  543;  see  Belgium. 
Netherlands,  Spanish,  371 ;   aggressions 

of  Louis  XIV,  388 ;  ceded  to  Austria, 

394,  395- 

New  Internationalism,  733. 
New  Zealand,   colony,   462,    665,    671. 
Newfoundland,  394,  664. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  424,  470. 
Ney  (na),  Marshal,  536,  540. 
Nibelungenlied,  201. 
Nl-coe'a,  taken  by  Turks,  140;    taken 

by  crusaders,  142. 
Nicaea,  Council  of,  92. 
Nice,  annexed  to  France,  500 ;  given  up, 

543;   added  to  France,  590,  615. 
Nicholas  of  Pisa,  310,  311. 
Nicholas  I,  of  Russia,  587—589. 
Nicholas  II,  of  Russia,  700,  709. 
Nicholas  V,  Pope,  294,  307. 
Nie'men  River,  529,  535. 
Nightingale,  Miss  Florence,  589. 
Ni'hilist  terrorism,  in  Russia,  699—700. 
Nile,  battle  of  the,  519. 
Nile  valley,  seat  of  early  civilization,  i, 

ii ;  irrigation  dams  in,  668. 
Nobles,  feudal,   58;    life  of,    163-168; 

of  the  eighteenth  century,  463,  468. 
Normandy,  settled  by  Northmen,  46; 

character  of,  68;   under  William,  71 ; 

reunited  with  England  by  Henry  I, 

212;   lost  to  France,  217. 
Normans,  at  home,   68;    in  Italy,   69; 

in  England,  71-76. 


North,  Lord,  460. 

North     German     Confederation,     626, 

630. 

Northern  War,  436. 
Northmen,  at  home,  44;    raids  of,  44- 

46;    settlements  of,  46-51;    discover 

America,  48. 
Norway,    organized,    5 1 ;    joined   with 

Sweden,  543  ;  separation  from  Sweden, 

722. 

No'tre  Dame',  cathedral,  206,  231-232. 
No-va'ra,  battle  of,  611. 
Novgorod,  station  of  Hanseatic  League, 

185. 

Nunneries,  95. 
Nuremberg,    commercial    center,   156, 

183. 

Oath  of  the  Tennis  Court,  487. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  640. 

O'der  River,  7. 

Odes'sa,  revolutionary  disturbance   at, 

709. 

Odo  of  Paris,  Count,  46. 
O-do-a'cer,  king  of  Italy,  15. 
Old  Pretender,  427. 
Old  Regime  (ra-zheem'),  467-469. 
Old  Sa'rum,  641. 
Ol'miitz,  conference  at,  623. 
Opium  War,  694. 
Orange,  House  of,  390. 
Orange  Free  State,  666,  667. 
Ordeal,  trial  by,  61. 
Order  of  Jesus,  354~355- 
Ordination,  sacrament  of,  84,  83. 
Or'leanists  (fifteenth  century),  251,  252. 

(nineteenth  century),  594,  595. 
Or'le-ans,  siege  of,  253,  254. 
Orleans,  duke  of  (Louis  Philippe),  575. 
Orleans,  Maid  of,  253. 
Orleans  Monarchy,  575,  578-581. 
Oscar  II,  of  Sweden,  723. 
Os'trogoths,  in  Italy,  15,  16. 
Otto  I,  of  Germany,  100;  Emperor,  102. 
Otto  IV,  Emperor,  122. 
Ot'toman  Turks,  155;  see  Turkey. 
Oxford,  University  of,  193. 

Palace  School,  Charlemagne's,  36. 
Pa-lat'i-nate,    war  with   Spain    (1618), 

373  ;   war  with  Louis  XIV,  391. 
Para-tine,  count,  268,  372,  391. 
Pale,  in  Ireland,  351. 
Pares-tlne,  see  Crusades. 


INDEX 


Pa-mi'r7  plateau,  700. 

Pan-a-ma',  freed  from  malaria,  740. 

Panama  Canal,  587. 

Papacy,  see  Pope. 

Papal  legates,  defined,  89. 

Papal  States,  90,  122 ;  in  the  time  of  the 
Renaissance,  299,  301-302 ;  in  the 
nineteenth  century,  607,  610-611,  615. 

Parcel  post,  748. 

Paris,  besieged  by  Northmen,  45  ;  under 
Philip  Augustus,  230;  taken  by  King 
Charles  VII,  256,  255;  besieged  by 
Henry  III  and  Henry  IV,  362 ;  im- 
provements under  Louis  XIV,  396; 
in  French  Revolution,  490,  491,  494- 
499,  502,  503,  506,  507,  510;  taken  by 
Allies,  539,  541 ;  insurrections  at 
(1832,  1834),  580;  improvements  of 
Napoleon  III,  587;  taken  by  Ger- 
mans, 592,  629;  Commune  in  1871, 

593- 

Paris,  Declaration  of,  589. 

Paris,  Parlement  of,  234,  480,  481. 

Paris,  peace  of  (1763),  458;  (1782- 
1783),  461;  (1856),  589- 

Paris,  treaty  of  (1815),  543. 

Paris,  University  of,  190,  191,  193. 

Parishes,  church,  85. 

Parlement  (par-le-maN')  of  Paris,  234; 
in  the  Revolution,  480,  481. 

Pallia-men  t,  English,  rise  of,  221-226; 
Model  Parliament,  224;  powers  en- 
larged, 278;  under  the  Tudors,  280; 
contest  with  the  king,  405,  408—412; 
Petition  of  Right,  407 ;  Long  Parlia- 
ment, 409-416,  418-419;  Bill  of 
Rights,  423,  424;  duration  of  one 
Parliament,  425,  728;  power  in- 
creased, 425,  428;  becomes  British 
Parliament  by  addition  of  Scottish 
members,  426;  Reform  Acts,  641- 
645,  729;  Irish  members  admitted, 
651 ;  present  constitution,  655-661  ; 
decrease  of  Lords'  power,  727-729. 

Parliament  of  Australia,  665;  of  Can- 
ada, 664.;  of  Persia,  ,714;  of  South 
Africa,  667;  of  Turkey,  712. 

Parma,  527,  607,  615. 

Parmentier  (par-maN-tya'),  encourages 
potato  culture,  451. 

Par'nell,  Charles  Stuart,  651,  652. 

Patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  615. 

Patriotism,  rise  of,  261. 

Pa-vi'a,  battle  of,  332. 


Peace  Conferences,  at  the  Hague,  732. 

Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Peace  of  Paris, 
etc.,  see  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Paris,  etc. 

Peace  of  God,  63. 

Peasants,  medieval  life  of,  169-174; 
revolts  in  France,  249,  478,  490;  re- 
volt in  England,  273—276;  revolt  in 
Germany,  330-331- 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  640,  647,  648. 

Pe-king',  695,  696,  698. 

Penance,  sacrament  of,  84,  323. 

Peninsular  War,  534. 

Pension  and  Insurance  Acts,  in  Great 
Britain,  725. 

Pensions  for  laborers,  633,  725,  748. 

Pep'in  the  Short,  21. 

Perry,  Commodore,  695. 

Persia,  conquered  by  Mohammedans, 
18;  menaced  by  Russia,  700,  715; 
recent  revolution  in,  714. 

Peter,  Saint,  and  Rome,  88. 

Peter  the  Great,  of  Russia,  431-436. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  141. 

Petition  of  Right,  407. 

Pe'trarcA,  304-306. 

Philip  II,  Augustus,  of  France,  222-232, 
161 ;  in  the  Third  Crusade,  149-151. 

Philip  IV,  the  Fair,  233,  236,  237. 

Philip  V,  of  France,  237. 

Philip  VI,  of  France,  237 ;  in  Hundred 
Years'  War,  241,  243,  244;  death,  247. 

Philip  II,  of  Spain,  335 ;  war  with  Eng- 
land, 352 ;  in  Huguenot  wars,  362 ; 
in  war  with  the  Netherlands,  367- 
372. 

Philip  V,  of  Spain,  392,  394. 

Philip  of  Swabia,  122. 

Philippines  (fil'ip-pmz),  720. 

P^ed'mont,  annexed  (temporarily)  to 
France,  527;  Liberal  movement  in 
(1820),  570;  in  Crimean  War,  587- 
589,  613 ;  war  with  Austria,  610-61 1 ; 
grows  into  kingdom  of  Italy,  611—616. 

Pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land,  137. 

Pi'sa,  trade  with  Palestine,  146;  com- 
mercial center,  156,  182;  cathedral 
of,  202,  290. 

Pisa,  Council  of,  291. 

Pitt,  William  (the  elder),  455,  458,  459  ; 
(the  younger),  501,  546. 

Pi'us  II,  Pope,  294. 

Pius  IX,  Pope,  610,  616. 

Pius  X,  Pope,  618. 

Plague,  246,  421. 


INDEX 


Plan-tag'e-net  kings  of  England,  212- 
221. 

Plas'sey,  battle  of,  457. 

Plev'na,  siege  of,  678. 

Pocket  boroughs,  641. 

Poitiers  (pwa-tya'),  battle  of,  247. 

Poland,  subject  to  Empire,  103 ;  rise  of, 
431;  serfdom  in,  170,  463;  Ref- 
ormation in,  357 ;  war  with  Sweden 
(1700),  434-435 ;  anarchy  and  weak- 
ness of,  462;  partitions  of,  463; 
duchy  of  Warsaw,  529;  in  1815, 
542,  543;  rebellion  of  1830,  576. 

Political  economy,  379,  473. 

Polo,  Marco,  308. 

Pol-ta'va,  siege  of,  436. 

P6m-e-ra'ni-a,  added  to  Prussia,  438, 
441. 

Pompadour  (poN-pa-door'),  Madame  de, 
448,  454. 

Pondicherry  (pon-di-sher'i),  456. 

Pope  (and  papacy),  position  and  powers 
of,  88—90;  rise  of  temporal  power, 
18,  21,  90;  and  the  Franks,  19,  21; 
and  Charlemagne,  30,  3 1 ;  dispute 
with  Greek  Church,  79;  in  tenth 
century,  101 ;  and  Otto  I,  102 ;  in 
eleventh  century,  104;  investiture 
conflict,  104,  107—111;  method  of 
election,  106;  struggle  with  empire, 
107-128;  triumph  of  Gregory  VII  at 
Canossa,  109-110;  and  Frederick  I, 
117-120;  extensive  domains  of  Inno- 
cent III,  122;  and  Frederick  II, 
124—126;  triumph  over  the  Hohen- 
staufens,  126—128;  and  crusades,  140, 
152,  154;  claims  of  Boniface  VIII, 
235-236 ;  at  Avignon,  236,  288-292  ; 
Great  Schism,  290-292;  and  Coun- 
cils, 291—294;  papal  decline,  294, 
378;  and  Luther,  326,  333;  and 
Charles  V,  332,  334 ;  and  Henry  VIII, 
343,  344;  summary  of  Reformation, 
357 ;  end  of  international  influence, 
378;  and  Napoleon,  522,  525,  533; 
and  Italian  unity,  610,  6n,  615,  616; 
loss  of  temporal  power,  615-617; 
infallibility  of  the  Pope,  633. 

Pope,  Alexander,  poet,  400,  428. 

Popish  Plot,  in  England,  421. 

Popular  government,   744. 

Popular  sovereignty,  principle  of,  547, 

744- 
Port  Arthur,  696,  697,  703. 


Ports'mouth,  treaty  of,  704. 

Portugal,  rise  of,  281,  282  ;  independent 
of  Spain,  379 ;  in  East  Indies,  456  ; 
and  Napoleon,  533,  534;  possessions 
in  Africa,  690;  recent  history  of,  723. 

Postal  savings  banks,  748. 

Potato,  in  Europe,  451. 

Poverty,  war  on,  748. 

Power  loom,  invented,  556. 

Praemuni're,  Statute  of,  288. 

Pragmatic  Sanction,  of  Emperor  Charles 
VI,  445- 

Pragwe,  rise  of,  268;  revolt  at  (1618), 
373  ;  in  Revolution  of  1848,  604. 

Prayer  Book,  English,  346,  348. 

Presbyterianism,  342. 

Presbyterians  in  England,  413,  414,  419, 
420. 

Pressburg,  treaty  of,  525. 

Preston,  battle  of,  414. 

Pretender,   Jacobite,   427. 

Pride's  Purge,  414-415. 

Priests,  parish,  85. 

Primate,  denned,  88. 

Prime  minister,  British,  425,  656. 

Primogeniture,  56. 

Prince  of  Wales,  220. 

Printing,  invention  of,  315. 

Printing  press,  steam,  565. 

Priors,  denned,  94. 

Privileged  orders,  in  France.  476. 

Proroguing  of  Parliament,  408. 

Protectorate,  English,  416-418. 

Protestant,  origin  of  name,  333  ;  Prot- 
estants and  Catholics,  see  Reforma- 
tion. 

Provinces,  ecclesiastical,  88. 

Provisors,  Statute  of,  288. 

Prussia,  rise  of,  437-441 ;  acquires 
Swedish  territory,  436;  under  Fred- 
erick the  Great,  444—453 ;  in  Seven 
Years'  War,  448-450;  development 
under  Frederick  the  Great,  450;  an- 
nexes part  of  Poland,  463-464;  war 
with  Napoleon,  528-529,  537-541 ; 
revival  of,  537 ;  in  1848-1890,  620— 
633  ;  Zollverein  of,  621 ;  Revolution 
of  1848  in,  621 ;  war  with  Denmark, 
624 ;  war  with  Austria,  625 ;  war 
with  France,  626-630 ;  see  German 
Empire. 

Ptol'emy,  philosopher,  308. 

Public  Safety,  Committee  of,  in  France, 
504-509. 


INDEX 


Pufendorf  (poo'fen-dorf),  author,  396. 

Pure  Food  Laws,  747. 

Purgatory,  324. 

Puritans,  349,  404,  405,  407,  411,  414. 

Pym,  John,  410-413. 

Pyramids,  battle  of  the,  518. 

Pyrenees  (pyr'e-neez),  6. 

Que-bec',  capture  of  (1759),  456. 
Qui'a  Empto'res,  220. 

Ra-cine',  author,  399. 

Railroads,  561—563  ;  government  owner- 
ship, 748. 

Raph'a-el,  313-315- 

Rat'isbon,  commercial  center,  156,  183. 

Raven'na,  18,  19,  21. 

Raymond  of  Toulouse  (too-looz'),  141. 

Recall  of  elective  officers,  745,  746. 

Red-cross  flag,  589. 

Red  Sunday,  708. 

Referendum,  745,  746. 

Reform  Acts,  British,  642-644,  729. 

Reformation,  321-358;  causes  of,  321; 
teachings  of  Luther,  325—326;  spread 
of  the  Reformation,  330;  the  Ref- 
ormation checked,  330-335 ;  Augs- 
burg Confession,  333 ;  results  of, 
336 ;  the  Reformation  in  Switzer- 
land, 340—343 ;  in  Great  Britain, 
343-353;  in  Scotland,  350;  in  Ire- 
land, 351-352;  the  Reformation  in 
France,  360-365;  the  Counter  Ref- 
ormation, 353—357 ;  in  the  Nether- 
lands, 367-369;  summary  view  of 
the  Reformation,  357. 

Regular  clergy,  92. 

Reichsrath   (riKs'rat),   of  Austria,   606. 

Reichstag  (rlKs'taK),  of  German  Em- 
pire, 632. 

Reign  of  Terror,  in  France,  505—509. 

Relics,  85,  153. 

Relief,  feudal,  60. 

Religious  wars,  360. 

Rem'brandt,  artist,  313,  315,  400. 

Renaissance,  302-319;  influence  of 
crusades  on,  158. 

Restoration,  in  England,  418  420. 

Reuchlin  (roiic'lin),  317. 

Revival  of  art,   309-315. 

Revival  of  learning,  302-309. 

Revolution,  French,  467-511,  547. 

Revolution  of  1688,  in  England,  422- 
424. 


Revolution  of  1830,  574-576. 

Revolution  of  1848,  in  France,  581 ; 
in  other  lands,  601-605,  610-611, 
620-623. 

Revolutionary  Tribunal,  French,  506. 

Rheims  (remz),  archbishop  of,  88. 

Rhine,  count  palatine  of,  268,  372,  391. 

Rhine  River,  6. 

Rhodes  (rodz),  Cecil,  689. 

Richard  I,  the  Lion-hearted,  of  Eng- 
land, 216,  161 ;  in  the  Third  Crusade, 
149-151;  shield  of,  156. 

Richard  II,  275,  277,  278. 

Richard  III,  280. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  author,  428. 

Richelieu  (re-she-lyu'),  ministry  of, 
364-366 ;  in  Thirty  Years'  War,  375 ; 
founds  French  Academy,  399. 

Roads,  551,  552,  553. 

Robber  barons,  64,  126. 

Robert  Guiscard  (ges-car'),  69. 

Robert  of  Normandy,  211,  212;  cru- 
sader, 141. 

Robertians,  41,  42,  46. 

Ro'bes-pierre,  499,   504,   507;    fall  of, 

5°9- 

Roger  of  Sicily,  70. 

Rolf,  "the  Walker, "46,  68. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  79;  see 
Church,  Pope. 

Roman  Empire,  ancient  history,  12; 
fall  of,  13-15  ;  see  Eastern  Empire. 

Roman  law,  16,  197,  523. 

Romanesque  type  of  architecture,  202, 
203. 

Ro-ma'noffs,  in  Russia,  431. 

Rome,  sacked  by  Alaric,  15;  attacked 
by  Lombards,  18,  19;  under  Charle- 
magne, 30;  bishop  of,  1 8,  88  (see 
Pope) ;  map  of,  91 ;  sacked  by  the 
Normans,  no;  plundered  by  soldiers 
of  Charles  V,  332;  and  Napoleon, 
533  ;  added  to  kingdom  of  Italy,  616. 

Rontgen    (runt'ge'n),    scientist,    741. 

Roon,  German  minister  of  war,  625. 

Roosevelt  (roo'ze-velt),  President,  helps 
to  end  Russo-Japanese  War,  704; 
second  Peace  Conference,  733. 

Roses,  Wars  of,  279,  280. 

Rossbach  (ros'baK),  battle  of,  449. 

Rotten  boroughs,  641. 

Rouen  (roo-aN'),  capital  of  Normandy, 
47- 

Roum  (room),  Sultan  of,  140. 


26 


INDEX 


Roumania  (roo-ma'ni-a),  independent, 
679;  attacks  Bulgaria,  684-685. 

Roundheads,  411. 

Rousseau  (roo-s5'),  472. 

Royal  domain,  of  France,  227-228, 
230,  240,  264,  265. 

Rubens  (roo'benz),  artist,  313,  315. 

Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  266-267. 

Rump  Parliament,  415-416,  418-419. 

Rupert,  Prince,  413. 

Rurik  (roo'rik),  of  Russia,  47. 

Russell,  Lord  John,  642,  644,  647. 

Russia,  Northmen  in,  47;  rise  of,  431- 
437;  war  with  Sweden,  434-436; 
in  Seven  Years'  War,  448-450; 
annexes  part  of  Poland,  463-464; 
war  with  Napoleon,  528-529,  535- 
538,  541;  gains  in  1815,  543;  aids 
Greece,  571 ;  Crimean  War,  587- 
589;  suppresses  Hungarian  revo- 
lution, 605;  development  after  Cri- 
mean War,  699;  serfs  freed,  699; 
Russo-TurkishWar,  677-680;  in  Dual 
Alliance,  676;  in  Triple  Entente, 
676;  in  Concert  of  Great  Powers, 
677 ;  in  China,  697 ;  advance  on 
India,  700;  in  Persia,  700,  715; 
in  Siberia,  701 ;  Russo-Japanese 
War,  702—704;  recent  revolution  in, 
707-711. 

Russian  Turkestan,  700. 

Russo-Japanese  War,  702-704. 

Russo-Turkish  War,  677-680. 

Sacraments,  83. 

Sadowa  (sa'do-va),  battle  of,  625. 

St.  An'gelo,  Pope's  fortress,  no. 

St.  Barthol'omew,  massacre  of,  361. 

St.  Bernard'  Pass,  5. 

St.  Gall,  monastery,  93. 

St.  Goth'ard,  Mount,  4. 

St.  He-le'na,  Napoleon  at,  541. 

St.  Peter's  Church,  at  Rome,  311. 

St.  Petersburg,  founding  of,  435 ;  revo- 
lutionary disturbance  at  (1905), 
708. 

St.  Sophl'a,  Church  of,  16,  285. 

St.  Vin'cent,  Cape,  battle  of,  518. 

Saints,  veneration  of,  85. 

Sakhalin  (sa-Ka-lyen'),  704. 

Sal'adin,  149,  151,  152. 

Sa-ler'no,  University  of,  192. 

Sa'lian  Emperors,  102,  IOQ. 

Sal'ic  law,  237, 


Salisbury  (solz'ber-i),  Lord,  652,  725. 

Sa-lo-m'ki,  in  Balkan  War,  682,  685. 

Salt  laws,  of  France,  478—479. 

Salzburg  (zalts'boorK),  Protestants  ex- 
pelled from,  440. 

San  Stefano  (sta'fa-no),  treaty  of,  678, 
679. 

SaN-tos'-Du-moN/',  743- 

Saone  (son)  River,  6. 

Sar'acens,  69 ;  see  Mohammedans. 

Sardinia,  acquired  by  Savoy,  394. 

Sardinia-Piedmont,  see  Piedmont. 

Savagery,  10. 

Sa-vo-na-ro'la,  295. 

Sa-voy',  Waldenses  in,  199;  gains  from 
War  of  Spanish  Succession,  394;  in 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  445 ; 
annexed  to  France,  500;  restored  in 
1815,  543  ;  added  to  France,  590,  615. 

Saxon  Emperors,  102. 

Saxons,  settle  in  Britain,  15,  48;  con- 
quered by  Charlemagne,  27. 

Saxony,  stem  duchy,  99,  1 20,  121;  elec- 
torate, 268;  Reformation  in,  330, 
334 ;  in  Thirty  Years'  War,  374-376 ; 
in  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession, 
445;  in  Seven  Years'  War,  448-450; 
and  Napoleon,  529,  531 ;  in  1815,  542, 
543  ;  in  German  Empire,  63 1 . 

Scandinavia,  in  800,  23. 

Scheldt  (skelt)  River,  Northmen  settle 
at,  45- 

SctoTler,  453. 

Schism  (sizm),  Great,  290-292 ;  Prot- 
estant, see  Reformation. 

Schmal-kal'dic  War,  334. 

ScAo-las'tic  philosophy,  194. 

Schurz  (shoorts),  Carl,  623. 

Schwyz  (shvets),  canton  of,  271. 

Science,  Mohammedan  contributions 
to,  135-136;  achievements  of  Roger 
Bacon,  195-196;  influence  of  Renais- 
sance, 307 ;  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 

.  tury,  424 ;  advance  in  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, 470 ;  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
737-742. 

Scotland,  raided  by  Northmen,  44; 
attacked  by  Edward  I,  220;  Reforma- 
tion in,  350;  crown  united  with  Eng- 
land's, 403  ;  revolt  against  Charles  I, 
409,  412-414;  conquered  by  Crom- 
well, 415;  union  with  England,  4_'0. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  654. 

Scu'tage,  214. 


INDEX 


Scutari  (skoo-ta'n),  siege  of,  682,  683 ; 
capital  of  Albania,  684. 

Sea  of  Japan,  battle  of,  703. 

Sea  power,  459,  546. 

Se-bas'to-pol,  siege  of,  588. 

Second  Coalition  against  France,  520. 

Second  Empire,  French,  586-592. 

Sec'ular  clergy,  92. 

Se-daN',  battle  of,  629. 

Sees,  ecclesiastical,  87. 

Seine  River,  7. 

Self-denying  Ordinance,  413. 

Seljukian  (sel-jook'i-an)  Turks,  136- 
144. 

Sempach  (zem'paK),  battle  of,  271. 

Senate,  French,  539,  596. 

Se'poys,  456,  669. 

September  Massacres,  498. 

Serfdom  (and  serfs),  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
58,  169-174;  in  England,  169,  275- 
276 ;  in  Poland,  463 ;  survivals  of,  in 
eighteenth  century,  467,  463 ;  aboli- 
tion of,  by  Napoleon,  547  ;  in  Prussia, 
537  ;  in  Austrian  Empire,  603,  605  ; 
in  Russia,  699. 

Ser-ve'tus,  heretic,  343. 

Servia,  independent,  679;  war  with 
Turkey  (1912-1913),  682-685. 

Service,  in  feudal  system,  60. 

Settlement,  Act  of,  English,  426. 

Seven  Weeks'  War  (1866),  625. 

Seven  Years'  War,  448-450 ;  in  America, 
455 ;  in  India,  457 ;  results  of,  458. 

Shah,  714. 

Shakespeare,  William,  353. 

Shang-ha'i,  opened,  695. 

Ship  money,  in  England,  409. 

Shire,  in  England,  73. 

Shogun  (sho'goon),  in  Japan,  695,  696. 

Siam',  695. 

Siberia,  acquired  by  Russia,  431 ;  exile 
to,  700;  colonization  of,  701. 

Sicily,  in  Eastern  Empire,  23  ;  Moham- 
medans in,  69 ;  Normans  in,  70 ;  king- 
dom of,  70;  under  the  Pope,  122, 126; 
under  Hohenstaufens,  122—126;  re- 
forms of  Frederick  II,  124;  under 
Charles  of  Anjou,  126;  held  by 
Aragon,  266;  under  Spain,  283,  299; 
acquired  by  Austria,  394;  under 
Bourbons,  530;  Revolution  of  1848, 
610,  611;  added  to  Piedmont,  615. 

Siena  (sy€'na),  picture  of,  176. 

Sieyes  (sya-yes'),  a  political  writer,  485. 


Sig'ismund,  Emperor,  269,  291,  292. 

Silesia  (sl-le'shi-a),  Prussian,  445,  446. 

Sim'eon  Sty-ll'tes,  93. 

Sim'ony,  104,  105. 

Sim'plon  Pass,  5. 

Slavery,  abolished  in  British  Empire, 
645. 

Slavs,  in  800,  23;  Christianized,  101, 
437 ;  in  Austria,  602-605 ;  see 
Russia,  Poland. 

SleVwick-Hol'steln,  624,  625. 

Sluys  (slois),  battle  of,  242. 

Smith,  Adam,  economist,  473. 

Smolensk',  battle  of,  536. 

Social  Contract,  Rousseau's,  473. 

Social  justice,  744. 

Socialism,  spread  of,  582,  749. 

Socialists,  in  France,  582,  583,  597,  750; 
in  Germany,  633,  635,  636,  750;  in 
other  countries,  750. 

Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  412. 

Sol-fe-ri'no,  battle  of,  614. 

"Sources"  of  history,  7. 

South  Africa,  665-668,  689. 

South  African  Republic,  666. 

South  Sea  Bubble,  454- 

Sovereignty,  in  the  feudal  system,  57, 
60 ;  of  the  people,  744. 

Spain,  Visigoths  in,  15;  conquered  by 
Mohammedans,  18;  in  800.  23; 
raided  by  Northmen,  44;  rise  of,  281— 
284 ;  consolidation  of,  281 ;  posses- 
sions in  Italy,  283,  299;  Mohamme- 
dans conquered,  281 ;  Spanish  awaken- 
ingj  29S;  war  with  England  (1588), 
352;  revolt  of  the  Netherlands,  367- 
372;  in  Thirty  Years'  War,  376; 
position  after  the  religious  waft,  379; 
under  Bourbons,  392;  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  392-395  ;  in  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession,  445 ;  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  458;  war 
with  Great  Britain  (1779-1782),  461; 
Napoleon  in,  533,  534;  Joseph  Bona- 
parte king  of,  533;  Bourbon  king 
restored,  539;  in  1814-1823,  569-570; 
loses  American  colonies,  570;  Revo- 
lution of  1869,  627;  after  1870,  719- 
721  ;  war  with  United  States,  720. 

Spanish  Awakening,  295. 

Spanish  colonies,  in  America,  282,  379  ; 
Florida,  458,  461  ;  Louisiana,  458, 
527  ;  Mexico  and  South  America,  570 ; 
in  Africa,  689,  690, 


28 


INDEX 


Spanish  literature,  380. 

Spanish  Succession,  War  of,  391-395. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  poet,  353. 

Spinning,  changes  in,  553-55  6,  5°°- 

Spires  (spirz),  Diet  at,  332. 

Squire,  in  feudal  life,  163. 

StadTiolder,  of  Netherlands,  390. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  687. 

Star  Chamber,  Court  of,  408,  410. 

State,  rise  of  the  modern,  260. 

States-General,  of  the  Netherlands,  366. 

Steam  engine,  invented,  557-559. 

Steam  navigation,  563. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard,  author,  428. 

Stein  (shtin),  Baron,  537. 

"Stem"  duchies,  99,  121. 

Stephen  of  Blois  (blwa),  crusader,  142. 

Stephen  of  Blois,  king  of  England,  212. 

Stephenson,  George,  inventor,  561. 

SteMIn',  acquired  by  Prussia,  441. 

Stor'tMng,  of  Norway,  723. 

Strafford,  earl  of,  408,  410. 

Straits  Settlements,  669. 

Strassburg  (shtras'boorK),  seized  by 
France,  390,  391 ;  ceded  to  German 
Empire,  630. 

Strelt's'i,  old  Russian  army,  434. 

Strike,  general,  709. 

Stuart  kings  of  England,  403—427. 

Styr'ia,  acquired  by  Hapsburgs,  267. 

Subinfeudation,  57. 

Submarine  cable,  741. 

Sudan  (soo-dan'),  Anglo-Egyptian,  681. 

Su-ez'  Canal,  586,  680. 

Suffragettes,  in  Great  Britain,  730, 

Sully,  duke  of,  364. 

Sun  Yat  Sen,  Dr.,  716,  718. 

Supremacy,  Statute  of,  345,  349. 

Suspects,  Law  of  the,  505-506. 

Swa'bia,  stem  duchy,  99. 

Sweden,  organized,  51;  Reformation 
in,  358;  in  Thirty  Years'  War,  374- 
376;  war  with  Louis  XIV,  388;  war 
with  Russia,  434-436 ;  decline  of,  434- 
436;  and  Napoleon,  533:  and  Nor- 
way, 543,  722. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  author,  428. 

Switzerland,  growth  of,  270-272;  war 
with  Burgundy,  265 ;  independence 
gained,  272;  Reformation  in,  340- 
343,  357,  358;  independent,  378; 
under  the  Directorate,  520;  in  1815, 
543 ;  Initiative  and  Referendum 
in,  745- 


Syl-ves'ter  II,  Pope,  103. 

Syria,  conquered  by^  Mohammedans,  18; 
Turkish  conquests  in,  138;  cru- 
saders' states  in,  146;  Napoleon  in, 
519- 

Talleyrand,  539,  543. 

Tariff,  in   France,   387;    in   Germany, 

621,  635;   proposed  in  Great  Britain, 

73i. 

Tasmania  (taz-ma'ni-a),  665. 
Taxes,  262 ;  farmed  out  in  France,  387. 
Te-he-ran',  revolutionists  in,  715. 
Telegraph,  740. 
Telephone,  741. 
Telescope,  308. 
Tell,  William,  270. 
Templars,  Knights,  146. 
Tennis  Court,  oath  of  the,  487. 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  654,  734. 
Terror,  in  France,  505-509. 
Test  Act,  English,  420. 
Tet'zel,  323,  324. 
Teutonic  Knights,  146,  437. 
Theod'oric  the  Great,  of  Italy,  15. 
Thes'sa-ly,  added  to  Greece,  680. 
Thiers  (tyar),  580,  592-595. 
Third  Coalition  against  France,  528. 
Third  Estate,  rise  of,  174;    in  France, 

474,  485-488. 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  348. 
Thirty  Years'  War,  372. 
Thomas  Becket,  215-216. 
Ti-bet',  relations  with  China,  719. 
Til'sit,  peace  of,  529. 
Tithe,  church,  87. 
Titian  (tish'an),  313,  315- 
To-go',  Admiral,  703. 
To'goland,  688. 
Toleration,  336. 

Toleration  Act,  in  England,  424. 
Tonnage  and  poundage,  408. 
Tonsure,  ceremony  of,  82,  81. 
Tories,   origin  of  party,   421 ;    oppose 

Hanoverians,     427 ;      regain     power 

under    George    III,    460;     and    the 

French    Revolution,    547;     renamed 

Conservatives,  644. 
Toulon  (too-loN'),  siege  of,  514. 
Toulouse  (too-looz'),  Albigenses  in,  199. 
Toulouse,  count  of,  230. 
Tournaments,  62,  165. 
Tours  (toor),  battle  of,  20. 
Towns,  see  Cities. 


INDEX 


Township,  in  England,  73. 

Traf-al-gar',  battle  of,  527,  546. 

Trans-Siberian  railway,  701. 

Transubstantiatjon,  84. 

Trans- vaal',  666,  667. 

Trent,  Council  of,  334.  353- 

Treves  (trevz),  archbishop  of,  elector, 
268. 

Trev'ithick,  Richard,  561. 

Trials,  feudal  system,  61 ;  by  jury,  214. 

Triennial  Acts,  English,  425. 

Trin-i-dad',   522,   543. 

Triple  Alliance,  676. 

Triple  Entente  (aN-taNt'),  676. 

Tripoli  (Africa),  taken  by  Italy,  681,  713. 

Tripoli  (Asia),  crusaders'  state,  145,  149. 

Troubadour  (troo'ba-door)  songs,  200. 

Trouveres  (troo-varO,  201. 

Troyes  (trwa),  fair  at,  184. 

Troyes,  treaty  of,  252. 

Truce  of  God,  63. 

Tsar,  title,  433. . 

Tudor  sovereigns,  of  England,  280,  343- 
353- 

Tuileries  (twel-re'),  palace,  491,  497; 
partly  burned,  593,  594. 

Tu'nis,  attacked  by  crusaders,  154; 
French  protectorate,  681. 

Tii-renwe',  general,  390. 

Tiir-goJ',  minister  of  finance,  479—480. 

Turkey,  war  against  Russia,  436;  war 
with  Napoleon,  519;  Crimean  War, 
587-589;  Russo-Turkish  War,  677- 
680;  war  with  Greece  (1897),  680; 
war  with  Italy,  68 1 ;  Balkan  War, 
682-685;  recent  revolution  in,  711- 
714. 

Turks,  Ottoman,  284;  wars  with 
Charles  V  of  Germany,  333;  see 
Turkey. 

Turks,  Seljukian,  conquests  of,  136,  138, 
140;  in  crusades,  142—144. 

Tus'cany,  in  the  time  of  the  Renais- 
sance, 299-301 ;  annexed  (tempo- 
rarily) to  France,  533 ;  joined  to 
Piedmont,  610,  615. 

Two  Sicilies,  kingdom  of,  299;  see 
Sicily  and  Naples. 

Tyler,  Wat,  274,  275. 

Tyr'ol,  acquired  by  Hapsburgs,  267. 

U-kase',  in  Russia,  434,  700. 
Ulm   (oolm),  commercial    center,   183; 
taken  by  Napoleon,  528. 


Ulster,  threatened  revolt,  730. 

U'nam  Sane' tarn,  bull,  235. 

Uniformity,  Statute  of,  in  England,  349. 

Union  of  South  Africa,  667. 

United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  651. 

United  Netherlands,  378,  379;  see 
Holland. 

United  States,  in  X,  Y,  Z  affair,  520;  ' 
purchases  Louisiana,  527 ;  Monroe 
Doctrine,  571 ;  demands  evacuation 
of  Mexico,  590 ;  awakening  of  Japan, 
695;  in  Boxer  War  (China),  698; 
war  with  Spain,  720;  in  Hague 
Peace  Conferences,  732— 733;  govern- 
ment compared  with  the  British, 
658;  Initiative  and  Referendum  in, 

745- 

Universities,   medieval,    188-194. 
Unterwalden   (oon-ter-val'den),   canton 

of,  271. 

UrT>an  II,  Pope,  140. 
Urban  VI,  Pope,  200,  292. 
Uri  (oo're),  canton  of,  271. 
U'trgcAt,  peace  of,  394. 
Utrecht,  Union  of,  371. 

Vaccination,  740. 

Va'lens,  Emperor,  15. 

Val'la,  Lorenzo,  307. 

Valmy  (val-me'),  battle  of,  498. 

Valois  (val-wa')  kings,  237,  360,  363. 

Vandals,  15,  1 6. 

Van  Dyck',  315. 

Vassalage,  55-57,  60;    see  Serfdom. 

Vat'ican,  home  of  the  Pope,  616. 

Vatican,  Council  of,  633. 

Vauban  (vo-baN'),  engineer,  386,  300. 

Vega,  Lope  de  (va'ga,  lo'pa  da),  380. 

Velasquez  (va-las'kath),  315. 

Vendee  (vaN-da'),  insurrection  in,  502. 

Vendome  (vaN-dom')  Column,  529,  593. 

Venetia  (ven-e'shi-a),  under  Austria, 
607,  610-611;  added  to  kingdom  of 
Italy,  6 1 6,  625  ;  see  Venice. 

Ven'ice,  in  Lombard  League,  119; 
commercial  center,  156,  182;  trade 
with  Palestine,  146;  in  Fourth 
Crusade,  152;  possessions  in  the 
East,  153;  Renaissance  in,  313; 
conquered  by  Napoleon,  and  ceded 
to  Austria,  517;  again  under  Na- 
poleon, 530;  Venetia  ceded  to 
Austria,  544,  607;  revolt  of  1848, 


INDEX 


610-611;     Venetia    ceded    to    Italy, 

616,  625. 

Ver-duN',  partition  of,  40. . 
Versailles  (ver-sa'y'),  palace,  397—400. 
Versailles,  peace  of  (1871),  630. 
Vic' tor  Emman'uel  II,  611,  612,  615. 
Victor  Emmanuel  III,  617. 
Victoria,   of   England,    639,    653,    654; 

Empress  of  India,  669. 
Vienna,     besieged     by     Turks,     333 ; 

taken  by  Napoleon,  528,  534;    Revo- 
lution of  1848,  603-605. 
Vienna,  Congress  of  (1814-1815),  539, 

542. 

Vienna,  treaties  of  (1815),  543. 
Vl'kings,  44. 

Vil'la-fran'ca,  peace  of,  614. 
Vil'leins,  58,  169-174;   see  Serfdom. 
Vinci  (ven'che),  Leonar'do  da,  313. 
Vinland,  Northmen  in,  48. 
Virginia,  founded,  405. 
Vls'count,  rank  in  feudal  system,  58. 
Visigoths  ( viz'i-goths) ,  invade   Roman 

Empire,  13. 
Vis'tula  River,  7. 

Vladivostok  (vla-dve-vas-tok').  i&i. 
Vol'ga  River,  T— - — — "" 
Vol-taire',  471,  474,  480. 
Vosges  (voah)  Mountains,  6. 
"Votes  for  Women,"  in  Great  Britain, 

730. 

Wagram  (va'gram),  battle  of,  534. 
Waldenses  (wal-den'sez),  198. 
Waldo,  Peter,  of  Lyons,  198. 
Wales,  annexed  to  England,   219-220; 

disestablishment     of     the     Anglican 

Church  in,  729. 
Wallachia  (wa-la'ki-a),  679. 
Wal'len-stein,  373,  375. 
Wal'pole,  Sir  Robert,  427. 
Walter  the  Penniless,  crusader,  141. 
Warsaw,    in    rebellion    of    1830,    576; 

duchy  of,  529,  542. 

Wartburg  (vart'boorK),  Luther  at,  328. 
Washington,  George,  455. 
Waterloo',  battle  of,  541. 
Watt,  James,  inventor,  558. 
Weaving,  changes  in,  553-557,  560. 
Wed'more,  treaty  of,  49. 
Weihaiwei  (wa'hl-wa'),  696,  697. 
Welf  family,  115,  116,  120. 
Wellesley    (welz'ley),  Sir  Arthur,   534; 

see  Wellington. 


Wellington,  duke  of,  in  Peninsular 
War,  534;  in  Waterloo  campaign, 
540-541;  quoted,  573;  Catholic 
emancipation,  640. 

Went  worth,  Sir  Thomas,  408. 

Wes'ley,  John  and  Charles,  427. 

Wessex,  48-50. 

West  Indies,  France  and  England  in, 
45". 

Western  Empire,  15,  31-33;  see  Em- 
peror. 

Westminster  Confession,  414. 

Westpha'lia,  kingdom  of,  530. 

Westphalia,  peace  of,  376. 

Whigs,  rise  of,  421,  427  ;  and  the  French 
Revolution,  547  ;  favor  reform,  642  ; 
renamed  Liberals,  644. 

Whitney,  Eli,  557. 

Wil'berforce,  William,  645. 

William  I,  the  Conqueror,  of  England 
and  Normandy,  71—75. 

William  II,  Rufus,  of  England  and 
Normandy,  211. 

William  III,  of  England  (William  HI 
of  Orange),  423-426. 

William  IV,  of  England,  639. 

William  I,  of  Orange,  368-371. 

William  III,  of  Orange,  390,  422—426. 

William  I,  of  Prussia  and  the  German 
Empire,  623,  625,  627. 

William  II,  of  Prussia  and  the  German 
Empire,  634,  635. 

Wilson,  President  Woodrow,  quoted, 
746,  747. 

Wisby  (vls'bu)  in  Hanseatic  League, 
185. 

Wit'e-na-ge-mot,  221. 

Wittenberg  (vit'en-beric),  University 
of,  323- 

Wolsey  (wool'zy),  Cardinal,  343,  346. 

Woman  suffrage,  730,  744. 

Worcester  (woos'ter),  battle  of,  415. 

Wordsworth,  William,  654. 

World  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, 22. 

World  State,  677,  733. 

World's  Fairs,  587. 

Worms  (vorms),  Concordat  of,  in. 

Worms,  Diet  at,  327. 

Worth  (vurt),  battle  of,  629. 

Wright,  Orville  and  Wilbur,  743- 

Wurttemberg  (vurt'em-berK),  kingdom, 
530,  53i,  626,  630. 

Wyc'lif,  John,  276,  292. 


INDEX 


Xavier  (zav'i-er),  Francis,  355. 
Ximenes  (zif-me'nez),  Archbishop,  295. 
X-rays,  741. 
X,  Y,  Z  Affair,  520. 

Yalu  (ya-looO  valley,  702,  703. 
Yokoha'ma,  opened  to  trade,  695. 
Yorck,  Prussian  general,  537. 
York,  literary  center,  36. 
York,  house  of,  279,  280. 
York,  James,  duke  of.  420,  421. 
York  town,  battle  of,  461. 


Young,  Arthur,  traveler,  479. 
Young  Italy,  608. 
Young  Pretender,  427. 
Young  Turks,  711,  712,  713, 
'Yuan  (yoo-an')  ShiA  Kai,  717,  719. 

Zeppelin  (tsSp-e-len')  airship,  742. 

Zollverein  (tsorfer-In),  621. 

Zu'ricA,  Swiss  city,  272;    Reformation 

at,  340. 

Zurich,  treaty  of,  615. 
Zwingli  (tsvmg'le),  Ulrich,  340-341. 


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